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MILITARY ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

Frontispiece
ROCHESTER: GREAT TOWER.

MILITARY ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

BY

A. HAMILTON THOMPSON
M.A., F.S.A.

Illustrated by 200 Photographs, Drawings, and Plans

HENRY FROWDE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO, AND MELBOURNE
1912

Printed at
The Darien Press
Edinburgh

PREFACE

Apart from the late Mr G. T. Clark’s Mediæval Military Architecture, published in 1884, the greater portion of which is a series of monographs dealing with individual castles, there has been no attempt, until within the last few years, to apply systematic treatment to this branch of science. Recently, however, more than one book has been published upon the general subject of the castles of England. Mr Alfred Harvey has lately given a lucid account of the growth of the castle, with a valuable essay upon English walled towns; and the present year has seen the appearance of a book in which Mrs Armitage has embodied the result of labours of the utmost importance, extending over many years. In addition to works of a general character, a number of separate monographs, indispensable to students, have been published during the last twenty years, in the transactions of various archæological societies. The contributions of Mr W. H. St John Hope to the study of castle architecture take a foremost place among these, with papers such as those by Mr J. Bilson on Gilling castle and by Mr Harold Sands on Bodiam and the Tower of London; and the late Mr Cadwallader Bates’ unfinished Border Holds of Northumberland contains accounts of Warkworth and Bamburgh, as well as of smaller castles and peles, which must take rank among the classics of the subject.

In the present volume an attempt is made to trace the growth of the general principles of medieval fortification, with special reference to castles, in which, within their limited area, the most complete illustration of those principles is given. In order to give greater clearness to the account of their evolution, a prefatory chapter deals generally with earlier types of fortification in Britain, and the critical period of Saxon and Danish warfare is treated in the second chapter with some detail. This leads us to the early Norman castle of earthwork and timber; and the stone fortifications to which this gave place are introduced by a brief account of the progress of siegecraft and siege-engines. The Norman castle and its keep or great tower are then described. The developments of the later part of the twelfth century and the arrangements of the thirteenth-century castle, with those of the dwelling-house within its enceinte, follow and prepare the way for the castles of the reign of Edward I. which represent the highest effort of military planning. In the last two chapters is related the progress of the transition from the castle to the fortified manor-house, which followed the introduction of fire-arms into warfare and preceded the Renaissance period. It will be seen that the castle is taken as the unit of military architecture throughout; but illustrations are constantly drawn from walled towns, which are, in fact, the castles of communities, and in the eleventh chapter extended allusion is made to the chief features of their plan and defences.

In speaking of the walled town, however, as the castle of the community, it must not be forgotten that the castle is, in its origin, the stronghold of a single owner. That origin is still to some extent a vexed question; for the well-known theory of Mr G. T. Clark, that the castle of Norman times was identical with the burh of the Saxon Chronicle, was accepted as a dogma by the antiquaries of twenty-five to fifty years ago, and a theory thus established, however precipitately, is not easily shaken. The patient and thorough work of Mrs Armitage, which deserves the admiration of every scholar, has done much to disturb the foundations on which Mr Clark built his hypothesis; and Mr Neilson, Dr Round, Mr St John Hope, and others, have contributed their share to the discovery of the real character of the evidence, and the formulation of a sounder theory. The present writer has devoted much time to the study of the original authorities for Saxon and Norman military history, and it is his conviction that the weight of documentary evidence is entirely upon the side of the views upheld with so much ability and originality by these recent investigators. At the same time, the earthworks of early castles still present several difficult problems; and the discredit into which Mr Clark’s theory has fallen is a warning against the too confident acceptation of the conclusions of a more critical age, and against the danger of forcing exceptions into the service of the rule.

In the earlier part of this book, some allusion is made to methods of Roman warfare; and the main points of two of the sieges conducted by Cæsar and his lieutenants are summarily described. It need hardly be said, in view of what follows, that the methods of military architecture in the middle ages have, for the most part, their exact prototypes in Roman and Byzantine history. The student of the siege-campaigns of Philip Augustus will be constantly reminded, for example, of the relation by Ammianus of the exploits of Julian the Apostate. Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the importance, first, of the contact of the Northmen who overran England and France with the traditional expedients of Roman siegecraft, as they existed in the eastern empire, and secondly, of the influence of the Crusades upon the development of medieval fortification. The conditions of our military architecture in the middle ages were naturally governed by the methods of attack employed by a besieging force. As these had been brought to a high state of perfection in the east, an advance upon which was hardly possible, the history of English fortification, from the Norman conquest to the general adoption of fire-arms in warfare, is that of a progress towards a system of defence in which western Europe lagged far behind the older centres of civilisation.

It is to be noted that, although the architecture of the castle and the fortifications of towns naturally took its share in the formal progress of Gothic art, the laws under which it was evolved bear no resemblance to the principles of construction, in obedience to which the medieval cathedral assumed its characteristic form. Ribbed vaults, Gothic mouldings, and traceried windows afford a clue to the dates of the various parts of a medieval castle, as they do to those of a church; but they are merely incidental to a type of construction to which the solid and impregnable wall is all-important. The cases are rare in which the builders of castles paid much attention to elaborate detail in the minor parts of their building: their decorative work is used with the economy and simplicity appropriate to the massive construction which their fortresses demanded.

A vast amount of work still remains to be done in the exploration of our military buildings and the reconstruction of their history; and, until that is accomplished, no thoroughly satisfactory general hand-book can be written. Nevertheless, it is hoped that there is room for books which may serve as general indicators to what has been done, up to the present time, in this direction. The bibliography which will be found preceding the text of this volume includes a selected list of monographs or articles upon individual castles, many of which have appeared in the transactions of various archaeological societies. These vary considerably in value; but, taken as a whole, they serve to enlarge our knowledge of the history and architecture of the buildings with which they are concerned.

The author desires to express his thanks, first to his wife, without whose constant help in the preparation of the book and in the provision of drawings and plans to illustrate its pages, it could hardly have been written. Mr Francis Bond, the editor of this series, has aided the author with unfailing kindness, by reading through the proofs, making suggestions as to the general form of the book, and arranging for its adequate illustration. To the following, who have kindly allowed the use of photographs, special thanks should be returned: Mrs Jessie Lloyd, the Revs. J. Bailey and G. W. Saunders, and Messrs Harold Baker, F. Bond, J. P. Gibson, F.S.A., G. J. Gillham, G. Hepworth, P. M. Johnston, F.S.A., R. Keene, W. Maitland, E. A. and G. R. Reeve, F. R. Taylor, and G. H. Widdows. The editors of the Archaeological Journal have sanctioned the use of various plans from the annual programmes of the Archaeological Institute. Mr A. Hadrian Allcroft and Messrs Macmillan have given consent to the reproduction of three illustrations from Mr Allcroft’s Earthwork of England. Permission to found the plan of Chepstow castle on one in the official Guide to that building was kindly given by his Grace the Duke of Beaufort, through Mr Noel H. P. Somerset. MM. Camille Enlart and Auguste Picard have permitted the insertion of a plan of Château-Gaillard, founded on that in M. Enlart’s Manuel. Mr R. Blair, F.S.A., has authorised a similar use of illustrations founded on those of Dr Bruce’s Roman Wall. Thanks are also due to the editor of the Yorkshire Archæological Journal for the plan of Sandal castle, and to Mr W. G. Watkins, jun., for his plan of Lincoln castle. Special acknowledgments are due to Mr Godfrey L. Clark for his liberality in putting at the disposal of the writer valuable plans and drawings from his father’s work. The author much regrets that questions of space and cost have prevented him from taking advantage of more than a limited number of the generous offers of illustration which reached him during the preparation of the book for the press.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Chief Original Authorities cited.

Abbo, De Bello Parisiaco libri tres (Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Completus, vol. 131 (1853), pp. 722-62).

Amiens, Guy of. Carmen de Hastingae proelio (Chroniques Anglo-Normands). Rouen, 1836-40.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. C. Plummer. 2 vols. Oxford, 1892-9.

Anna Comnena. Alexias, ed. A. Reifferscheid. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1884.

Annales Bertiniani (Annales Francorum, vulgo Bertiniani dicti), ed. Dom. M. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France, vols. vi. (1749), 192-204; vii. (1749), 59-124; viii. (1752), 26-37.

Ardres, Lambert of. Extracts in Bouquet, Recueil des historiens, vols. xi. (1767), 295-307; xiii. (1786), 423-53; xviii. (1822), 583-8.

Bede. Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. C. Plummer. Oxford, 1896.

Breton (le), Guillaume. Philippidos libri xii., ed. Bouquet, Recueil des historiens, vol. xvii. (1818), 117-287.

Caesar. Commentaries, ed. B. Kübler. 3 vols. Leipzig, 1893-6.

Colmieu, Jean de, canon of St Martin, Ypres. Vita beati Joannis Morinorum episcopi (Acta Sanctorum, January, vol. iii. 409-17).

Diceto, Ralph de. Historical Works (Ymagines Historiarum and Abbreviationes Chronicorum), ed. W. Stubbs, 2 vols. (Rolls Series, No. 68).

Domesday Book (Record Commission). 4 vols. Lond., 1816.

Henry VIII., Letters and Papers, ed. Brewer and Gairdner, vol. iv.

Hoveden, Roger of. Chronicle, ed. W. Stubbs. 4 vols. (Rolls Series, No. 51).

Joinville, Jean, seigneur de. Histoire de Saint Louis, ed. N. de Wailly. Paris, 1874 (translation of Chronicle by Sir Frank Marzials, London, 1908).

Monte, Robert de (Robert de Torigny, abbot of Mont-Saint-Michel). Cronica (continuation of Sigebert of Gemblours), ed. Migne, Patrologiae Cursus, vol. clx., 423-546.

Ordericus Vitalis. Historia Ecclesiastica, ed. A. le Prévost. 5 vols. Paris, 1838-55.

Patent Rolls, Calendars of, 1216-66, 1271-1364, 1377-1485. 47 vols. (in progress).

Peterborough, Benedict of. Chronicle, ed. W. Stubbs. 2 vols. (Rolls Series, No. 49).

Pipe Rolls. Pipe Roll Society Publications. 27 vols. (in progress). London, 1884, etc.

Rymer, Thomas. Foedera. 20 vols. London, 1704-35.

Stubbs, William, D.D. Select Charters and other Illustrations of English Constitutional History, 8th edit. Oxford, 1905.

Suger. Gesta Ludovici Grossi, ed. A. Molinier. Paris, 1887.

Vegetius. Epitoma Rei Militaris, ed. C. Lang. Leipzig, 1885.

Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi. (Bayeux Tapestry). London, 1842.

Villehardouin, Geoffroi de. De la Conqueste de Constantinople par les Barons François associez aux Venitiens, ed. N. de Wailly. Paris, 1872-4 (trans. Sir Frank Marzials, London, 1908).

Vitruvius. De Architectura, ed. V. Rose. Leipzig, 1899.

Wendover, Roger of. Chronica sive Flores Historiarum, ed. H. G. Hewlett, 3 vols. (Rolls Series, No. 84).

2. General.

Allcroft, A. Hadrian. Earthwork of England. London, 1908.

Armitage, Ella S. Anglo-Saxon burhs and early Norman castles (Proc. Soc. Antiq. Scotland, xxxiv. 260-88).

—— The Early Norman Castles of England (English Historical Review, xix. 209-45 and 417-55).

—— The Early Norman Castles of the British Isles. London, 1912.

Bruce, J. C., LL.D., F.S.A. Hand-book to the Roman Wall, ed. Robert Blair, F.S.A., 5th edition. London and Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1907.

Christison, David, M.D. Early Fortification in Scotland: Motes, camps, and forts. Edinburgh and London, 1898.

Clark, G. T., F.S.A. Mediæval Military Architecture in England. 2 vols. London, 1884.

Clephan, R. Coltman, F.S.A. An Outline of the History of Gunpowder and that of the Hand-Gun, from the epoch of the earliest records to the end of the fifteenth century (Archaeol. Journal, lxvi. 145-70).

—— The Military Handgun of the sixteenth century (Archaeol. Journal, lxvii. 109-50).

—— The Ordnance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Archaeol. Journal, lxviii. 49-138).

Codrington, Thomas. Roman Roads in Britain. London, 1903.

D’Auvergne, Edmund B. The Castles of England. London, 1907.

—— The English Castles, London, 1908.

Dieulafoy, M. Le Château-Gaillard et l’architecture militaire au XIIIᵐᵉ siècle (Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxxvi., part. 1). Paris, 1898.

Enlart, Camille. Manuel d’Archéologie française, vol. ii. Paris, 1904.

Harvey, Alfred. The Castles and Walled Towns of England. London, 1911.

Haverfield, Prof. F. J., LL.D., D.Litt., V.P.S.A. The Romanization of Roman Britain. London, 1905.

—— Roman Britain (Cambridge Medieval History, i. 367-81: see ibid. 666-7 for bibliography of various articles by the same writer).

Hochfelden, G. H. Krieg von. Geschichte der Militar-Architektur in Deutschland. Stuttgart, 1859.

Hope, W. H. St John. English fortresses and castles of the tenth and eleventh centuries (Archaeol. Journal, lx. 72-90).

Mackenzie, Sir J. D. The Castles of England, their Story and Structure. 2 vols. London, 1897.

Neilson, George. The motes in Norman Scotland (Scottish Review xiv. 209-38).

Oman, Prof. C. W. C., F.S.A. A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages. London, 1898.

Orpen, G. H. Motes and Norman castles in Ireland (Proc. Royal Soc. Antiq. Ireland, xxxvii. 123-52).

Parker, J. H., and Turner, T. Hudson. Some account of domestic architecture in England. 3 vols, in 4. Oxford, 1851-9.

Round, J. Horace, LL.D. The Castles of the Conquest. (Archaeologia, lviii. 313-40).

—— Feudal England, Historical Studies on the XIth and XIIth Centuries (new edition). London, 1909.

Saint-Paul, Anthyme. Histoire Monumentale de la France, 6th edition. Paris, 1903.

Turner, T. Hudson; see [Parker], J. H.

Van Millingen, A. Byzantine Constantinople. London, 1899.

Viollet-le-Duc, E. Dictionnaire Raisonné de l’Architecture française du XIᵉ au XVIᵉ Siècle. 10 vols. Paris, 1854, etc.

—— Essai sur l’architecture militaire au moyen âge. Paris, 1854 (translated by M. Macdermott, Oxford and London, 1860).

—— Histoire d’une forteresse. Paris, n.d.

Ward, W. H. French Châteaux and Gardens in the XVIth Century (drawings reproduced from Androuet-du-Cerceau). London, 1909.

Westropp, T. J. Irish motes and alleged Norman castles (Proc. Royal Soc. Antiq. Ireland, xiv. 313-45, and xv. 402-6).

3. Special Monographs, etc.

Acton Burnell. Hartshorne, C. H., F.S.A. (Archaeol. Journal, ii. 325-38).

Alnwick. Clark, Mediæval Mil. Architecture, i. 175-85.

—— Knowles, W. H., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. The Gatehouse and Barbican of Alnwick Castle (Archaeologia Æliana, 3rd ser., v. 286-303).

Amberley. Clarkson, G. A. (Sussex Arch. Coll., xvii. 185-339).

Arundel. Clark, i. 195-203.

Auckland. Rev. J. F. Hodgson (Archaeologia Æliana, xix. 89-92).

Aydon. Knowles, W. H. (Archaeologia, lvi. 78-88). See also [Bates], Border Holds.

Bamburgh. [Bates], Border Holds; Clark, G. T. (Archaeol. Journal, xlvi. 93-113).

Barnard Castle. Clark, i. 204-13.

Beaumaris. Clark, i. 213-17.

Belsay. Bates, Border Holds.

—— Middleton, Sir Arthur E., Bart. An account of Belsay castle (privately printed). Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1910.

Berkeley. Clark, i. 228-39.

Berkhampstead. Clark, i. 223-38.

Berwick-on-Tweed. Norman, F. M. (Commander R.N.): Official Guide to the Fortifications. Berwick, 1907.

Bodiam. Clark, i. 239-47.

—— Sands, Harold, F.S.A., in Sussex Archaeol. Collections, xlvi. 114-33.

Bothal. Bates, Border Holds.

Bowes. Clark, i. 259-64.

Bridgnorth. Clark, i. 273-81.

Bristol. Harvey, Alfred, M.B. Bristol, a historical and topographical account of the city. London, 1906.

—— (castle). Pritchard, J. E., F.S.A. (Proceedings of Clifton Antiquarian Club, iv. 17-19).

Bronllys. Clark, i. 283-6; Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3rd ser., viii. 81-92.

Broughton. Lord Saye and Sele (Berks, Bucks, and Oxon. Archaeol. Journal, new ser., vii. 23-5).

Builth. Clark, i. 304-8.

Caerphilly. Clark, i. 315-35.

Caldicot. Bellows, J. (Cotteswold Field Club, vi. 263-7).

Caldicot. Cobb, J. R. (Clifton Antiq. Club, iii. 35-40).

Cambridge. Hope, W. H. St John (Camb. Antiq. Soc., xi. 324-46).

—— Hughes, Prof. T. M‘Kenny, F.S.A. (ibid., ix. 348).

Carcassonne. Viollet-le-Duc, E. La Cité de Carcassonne. Paris, 1858.

Cardiff. Clark, i. 336-50; Ward, J., F.S.A. Cardiff castle, its Roman origin (Archaeologia, lvii. 335-52).

Carew. Cobb, J. R. (Archaeologia Cambrensis, 5th ser., iii. 27-41).

Carisbrooke. Beattie, W. (Journal Archaeol. Assoc., xi. 193-205).

—— Stone, P. G., F.S.A. (Proc. Soc. Antiq., 2nd ser., xvi. 409-11).

Carlisle. Clark, i. 350-8

Carnarvon. Clark, i. 309-15.

—— Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journal, vii. 237-65: Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3rd ser., i. 242-6).

Château-Gaillard. Clark, i. 378-85; Dieulafoy, M., see [General Bibliography].

Chepstow. Clark, G. T. (Bristol and Glouc. Archaeol. Soc., vi. 51-74).

—— Wood, J. G., F.S.A. The Lordship, Castle, and Town of Chepstow. Newport, 1910.

Chester. Cox, E. W. (Archit., etc., Soc. Chester and North Wales, v. 239-76).

Chillingham. Bates, Border Holds.

Chipchase. Bates, Border Holds.

—— Knowles, W. H. (Archaeologia Æliana, 3rd ser., i. 32-4).

Christchurch. Clark, i. 385-92.

Cilurnum. An Account of the Roman Antiquities preserved in the Museum at Chesters, 1903.

Clun. Clark, i. 402-9.

Colchester. Clark, i. 418-31.

—— The History and Antiquities of Colchester castle. Colchester, 1882. See also Archaeol. Journal, lxiv. 188-191.

Conisbrough. Clark, i. 431-53.

Conway. Clark, i. 453-60.

—— Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeologia Cambrensis, new ser., v. 1-12).

Corfe. Blashill, T. (Journal Archaeol. Assoc., xxviii. 258-71).

—— Bond, T. History and Description of Corfe Castle. London and Bournemouth, 1883.

—— Clark, i. 461-75.

Coucy. Clark, i. 476-87.

—— Lefèvre-Pontalis, E. Le Château de Coucy (with special bibliography). Paris, n.d.

—— Viollet-le-Duc, E. Description du Château de Coucy. Paris, n.d.

Denbigh. Ayrton, W. (Chester Archit., etc., Soc., ii. 49-60).

Dolwyddelan. Barnwell, E. L. (Archaeologia Cambrensis, 4th ser., xiv. 174-5).

Domfront. Blanchetière, L. Le Donjon ou Château féodal de Domfront (Orne). Domfront, 1893.

Dover. Blashill, T. (Journal Archaeol. Assoc., xl. 373-8).

—— Clark, ii. 4-24.

Duffield. Cox, J. C., LL.D., F.S.A. (Derbyshire Archaeol. Soc., ix. 118-78).

Dunstanburgh. Bates, Border Holds.

—— Compton, C. H. (Journal British Archaeol. Assoc., new ser., ix. 111-16).

Durham. Clark, ii. 32-5, and Archaeol. Journal, xxxix. 1-22.

—— Gee, H., D.D., F.S.A. (Proc. Soc. Antiq., 2nd ser., xx. 17-18, and Trans. Durham and Northumb. Archaeol. Soc.).

Exeter. Clark, ii. 44-7.

Falaise. Ruprich-Robert, V. Paris, 1864.

Gilling. Bilson, J. (Yorks Archæol. Journal, xix. 105-92).

Guildford. Clark, ii. 53-71.

—— Malden, H. E. (Surrey Archaeol. Soc., xvi. 28-34).

Haddon. Cheetham, F. H. Haddon Hall. London and Manchester, 1904.

Hallaton. Dibbin, H. A. (Proc. Soc. Antiq., 2nd ser., vii. 316-21).

Harlech. Chapman, F. G. W. (Journal British Archaeol. Assoc. xxxiv. 159-67).

—— Clark, ii. 72-81.

Hastings. Clark, ii. 82-88.

—— Dawson, C., F.S.A. History of Hastings Castle. 2 vols. London, 1909.

Hawarden. Clark, ii. 88-99.

Helmsley. Clark, ii. 100-8.

Kenilworth. Clark, ii. 130-53.

—— Knowles, E. H. The Castle of Kenilworth. Warwick, 1872.

Kentish Castles. Sands, Harold. Some Kentish Castles (Memorials of Old Kent, 1907).

Kidwelly. Clark, ii. 153-62.

Knaresborough. Clark, ii. 168-76.

Lancashire Castles. Fishwick, H. Lancashire castles (Lancs. and Chesh. Antiq. Soc., xix. 45-76).

Lancaster. Cox, E. W. (Hist. Soc. Lancs. and Cheshire, new ser., xii. 95-122).

Langley. Bates, C. J. (Archaeologia Æliana, x. 38-56).

Leeds. Clark, ii. 176-8.

—— James, F. V. (Archaeologia Cantiana, xxv. pp. xlix-liii).

Leicester. Clark, ii. 182-8.

—— Thompson, James. Leicester Castle. Leicester, 1859.

Lewes. Clark (Sussex Archaeol. Collections, xxxiv. 57-70).

Lincoln. Clark, ii. 189-201.

—— Sympson, E. Mansel, M.D. Lincoln, a historical and topographical account of the city. London, 1906.

Llanstephan. Williams, Sir John (Archaeologia Cambrensis, 6th ser., vii. 108-18).

London, Tower of. Clark, ii. 203-72.

—— Sands, H., F.S.A. (Memorials of Old London, London, 1908, vol. i. 27-65).

Ludlow. Clark, ii. 273-90.

—— Hope, W. H. St John (Archæologia, lxi. 258-328).

Lumley. Dodd, J. (Journal British Archaeol. Assoc., xxii. 45, 46).

Manorbier. Duckett, Sir J. (Archaeologia Cambrensis, 4th ser., xi. 134-145, 286-91, xiii. 166-73).

Middleham. Clark, ii. 293-300.

Mitford. Clark, ii. 300-3.

Montgomery. Clark, ii. 303-12.

Mont-St-Michel. Corroyer, E. Description de l’abbaye du Mont-Saint-Michel et de ses abords. Paris, 1877.

—— Massé, H. J. L. J. A short history and description ... of Mont S. Michel. London, 1902.

Newark-on-Trent. Blagg, T. M., F.S.A. A Guide to Newark, 2nd ed., 1911.

Newcastle-on-Tyne. Bates, C. J. (Archaeologia Æliana, ix. 120-9).

—— Heslop, R. O., F.S.A. (ibid., xxv. 91-105; Journal of British Archaeol. Assoc., new ser., xii. 137-8, 214-5).

—— The Castle of Newcastle, a short descriptive guide. Newcastle, 1906 (4th ed.).

Norham. Bates, C. J. (Archaeologia Æliana, v. 52-5).

—— Clark, ii. 322-35.

—— Jerningham, Sir H. E. H. Norham Castle. Edinburgh, 1883.

Northampton. Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journal, iii. 309-32).

Northumbrian Castles. Bates, Cadwallader J. The Border Holds of Northumberland (Archaeologia Æliana [Newcastle-on-Tyne], xv. 1-465).

—— Hartshorne, C. H. Feudal and military antiquities of Northumberland and the Scottish Borders (Memoirs of Brit. Archaeol. Inst., Newcastle, vol. 2, 1858).

Norwich. Hartshorne, A., F.S.A. (Archaeol. Journal, xlvi. 260-8).

—— The Walls of Norwich (report of corporation). Norwich, 1910.

Nottingham. Green, Emanuel, F.S.A. (Archaeol. Journal, lviii. 365-97).

Oakham. Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journal, v. 124-42).

—— Thompson, A. Hamilton, F.S.A. (Rutland Magazine, v. 80-88).

Odiham. Clark, ii. 336-45.

Old Sarum. Clark, ii. 447-458.

—— Hope, W. H. St John, and Hawley, Lt.-Col. W., in Proc. Soc. Antiq., 2nd ser., xxiii. 190-200 and 501-17.

Orford. Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeologia, xxix. 60-9).

—— Redstone, V. B. (Trans. Suffolk Archaeol. Inst., x. 205-30).

Oxford. Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journal, viii. 354-65).

—— Hope, W. H. St John (ibid., lxvii. 363-6).

—— Lynam, Charles. The Crypts of the Churches of St Peter in the East, and of St George within the Castle, Oxford (ibid., lxviii. 203-17).

Peak Castle. Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journ., v. 207-16).

—— Hope, W. H. St John (Derbyshire Archaeol. Soc., xi. 120-6).

—— Kirke, Henry (Derbyshire Archaeol. and Nat. Hist. Soc., xxviii. 134-46).

Pembroke. Clark (Archaeologia Cambrensis, 3rd series, v. 1-13, etc.; vi. 1-11, etc.; vii. 185-204).

—— Cobb, J. R. (ibid., 4th series, xiv. 196-220, 264-73).

Pevensey. Clark, ii. 359-67.

—— Salzmann, L. F. (Sussex Archaeol. Collections, xlix. 1-30, etc.).

Pickering. Clark, ii. 368-75.

Pontefract. Clark, ii. 375-88.

—— Hartshorne, C. H., Journal British Archaeol. Assoc., xx. 136-55).

Porchester. Clark, ii. 388-400.

Prudhoe. Bates, Border Holds.

Raby. Scott, O. S., Raby, its Castle and its Lords. Barnard Castle, 1908.

Raglan. Beattie, W. (Jour. Archaeol. Assoc., ix. 215-30).

—— Bradney, J. A. (Bristol and Glouc. Archaeol. Soc., xx. 76-87).

Richmond. Clark (Yorkshire Archæol. Journal, ix. 33-54).

—— Curwen, J. F., (Cumberland and Westmorland Antiq. and Archaeol. Soc., vi. 326-32).

—— Yorks Archæol. Journal, xx. 132-3.

Rising. Beloe, E. M., F.S.A. (Norfolk Archaeology, xii. 164-89).

—— Clark, i. 364-77.

Rochester. Beattie, W. (Journal Archaeol. Assoc., ix. 215-30).

—— Clark, ii. 405-23.

Rochester. Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journal, xx. 205-23).

—— Payne, G. (Archaeologia Cantiana, xxvii. 177-92).

Rockingham. Bigge, H. J. (Assoc. Archit. Soc. Reports, xi. 109-18).

—— Clark, ii. 423-46.

—— Hartshorne, C. H. (Archaeol. Journal, i. 356-78); and privately printed, Oxford, 1852.

—— Wise, C. Rockingham Castle and the Watsons. London, 1891.

Sandal. Walker, J. W., F.S.A. (Yorks Archæol. Journal, xiii. 154-88).

Scarborough. Clark, ii. 458-67.

—— Stevenson, W. H. (East Riding Antiq. Soc., xiv. 13-17).

Skenfrith. Bagnall-Oakeley, E. (Bristol and Glouc. Archaeol. Soc., xx. 93-6).

—— Clark, ii. 467-72.

Southampton (town walls). Clark, ii. 472-81.

—— Hope, W. H. St John (Proc. Soc. Antiq., 2nd series, xvii. 221-4).

Stokesay. De la Touche, G. (Journal British Archaeol. Assoc., xxiv. 238-40).

—— J. G. D. (Archaeologia Cambrensis, xvi. 299-304).

Suffolk Castles. Redstone, V. B. Suffolk Castles (Suffolk Archaeol. Inst., xi. 301-19).

Sussex Castles. Blaauw, W. H. Royal licences to fortify towns and houses in Sussex (Sussex Archaeol. Collections, xiii. 104-17).

Swansea. Capper, C. (Archaeologia Cambrensis, 5th series, iii. 302-7).

Tamworth. Clark, ii. 481-8.

Tattershall. Sympson, E. Mansel (Memorials of Old Lincolnshire, 1911, pp. 179-97).

Tickhill. Clark, ii. 494-9.

Tretower. Clark, ii. 499-503.

Tutbury. Clark, ii. 505-8.

Wark. Bates, Border Holds.

Warkworth. Bates, Border Holds.

Wells (bishop’s palace). Davis, C. E. (Journal British Archaeol. Assoc., xiii. 177-86).

Wingfield. Cox, J. C. (Derbyshire Archaeol. Soc., viii. 65-78).

—— Edmunds, W. H. Guide to Wingfield Manor.

York. Clark, ii. 534-48 (The Defences of York).

—— Cooper, T. P. York, The Story of its Walls and Castles. London, 1904.

—— —— The Castle of York. London, 1912.

Yorkshire Castles. Thompson, A. Hamilton. The Castles of Yorkshire (Memorials of Old Yorkshire, 1909, pp. 236-64).

MILITARY ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

CHAPTER I
EARLY EARTHWORKS AND ROMAN STATIONS

The history of military fortification in England begins with those strongholds which, at vast expense of labour, the early inhabitants of Britain hewed out of the soil, surrounding defensible positions with ramparts of earth, divided by deep fosses. The approximate date of these earthworks can be determined only by excavation, and a vast amount of work remains to be done in this direction. The number, however, of those which can be proved to be earlier than the Roman occupation is very large; and, of this number, a considerable portion, including some of the most stupendous examples of fortified hill-camps, may have been the work of neolithic man some two thousand years before the Christian era. Relative dates in this connection concern us less than principles of fortification. The hill-camps of pre-Roman Britain may be divided roughly into two classes. In the first place, there are those which occupy the summit of a promontory of high land, which slopes so steeply on all sides but one that artificial defence is necessary on that side alone. The second class is that of the so-called “contour forts,” in which the summit of a hill is utilised for the camp, and encircled by trenches following the contour of the ground.

Maiden Castle

In each case the defences provided by the inhabitants consist of earthen banks, the materials of which have been dug from the fosses or ditches which surround their outer face. An earthen bank and fosse, thrown across the neck of land between the promontory and the plateau beyond, convert the extremity of the promontory into a fortified enclosure. Well-known examples of such fortresses are the three camps, one on the east and two on the west side of the river, which guarded the valley of the Avon at Clifton. The labour necessary for the construction of these was naturally far less than that which went to the making of the great contour fortresses, of which so many splendid examples remain in Somerset, Wiltshire, Dorset, and in the chalk districts generally. In these cases, the whole area, or at any rate the greater part of it, stood in need of entrenchment. There are points at which the slope is so precipitous that the bank and ditch were dispensed with, or, as in part of Cissbury camp near Worthing, only a single bank or ditch was necessary.[1] Also, the steeper the ground, the less was the labour required in constructing the entrenchments. But these positions often took the form of enclosures surrounded by double or triple lines of defence, often of stupendous size. For the greater part of its extent, the vallum or bank of the oval camp of Cissbury is double, and along the outer edge of the encircling fosse is a formidable counterscarp or parapet. Poundbury, which lies on the high ground west of Dorchester, has a single bank and ditch on its east and south sides. On the west side the bank is doubled; but the north side, where the hill falls almost perpendicularly to the Frome, was left without artificial defence. The superb fortress of Maiden Castle ([2]), which crowns an isolated hill, 432 feet high, south of Dorchester, shows a bewildering complication of plan. The oval central space is ringed by a number of banks and ditches, which varies from three on the north side to as many as eight about the western entrance.

Maiden Castle; plan

These early camps form merely the preface to our subject, and attention need be called only to some general features. Their character, like that of the medieval town or castle, was strictly defensive. They were the strongholds of races whose weapons were of a very primitive description, and could carry to no great range. What their inhabitants needed was an impregnable fortress, within which they and their herds could be well sheltered from attack. They belong to a day before siege operations were possible. To carry them, a determined onset and a hand-to-hand fight were necessary. Their strength therefore depended on the complexity of their defences. No enemy could hope to scale the flanking banks of Maiden Castle, one by one. The entrances to the camp, at its eastern and western ends ([3]), were so elaborately concealed by the overlapping ramparts, that even on a ground-plan they are far from obvious; and it was almost inevitable that an attacking force, without a guide acquainted with the ground, would be decoyed into a cul-de-sac and overwhelmed by the missiles of the defenders on the ramparts.