FOLKLORE NOTES
VOL. II KONKAN
FOLK LORE NOTES.
Vol. II—KONKAN.
COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED BY
the late A. M. T. JACKSON, indian civil service.
R. E. ENTHOVEN, c.i.e., i.c.s.
BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.
1915
REPRINTED FROM THE “INDIAN ANTIQUARY”
BY B. MILLER, SUPERINTENDENT, BRITISH INDIA PRESS, BOMBAY
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
[Nature Powers.] PAGE.
Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. The Swastika. Circumambulation round images and other sacred objects. Moon-worship. Days of special importance. Eclipses. Worship of planets and stars. The milky way. The rainbow. Worship of the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes. Worship of sacred rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins. Ceremonies at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred Lakes. Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who control the weather. Methods of causing or averting rain and of checking storms. Vratas or religious vows practised only by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in which the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors 1
CHAPTER II.
Village deities. Local deities. Installation of deities in new settlements. Ghostly godlings. Deities responsible for crops and cattle 21
CHAPTER III.
Causes of epidemic diseases and the remedies adopted to stop them. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised by the village people in connection with them. The methods for the exorcism of disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the body. The village sorcerer. Offerings of rags, coins, etc., at sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease from one person to another. Scapegoats 29
CHAPTER IV.
[The worship of Ancestors and Saints.]
Shráddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious sects, of saints, etc. Ghosts. Rebirth of ancestors in the same family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted by Hindus. Rural methods for the cure of barrenness 40
CHAPTER V.
[The Worship of the malevolent dead.]
Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious dreams. Temporary abandonment of the body by the soul. Character and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul. The state of the soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The souls of persons dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts enter and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the body. Reliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. Rákshasa or the malevolent demon. Other malignant spirits. Evil spirits which go about headless. The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in childbed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of children. Beliefs in connection with bats and owls. Spirits which haunt ruins, guard buried treasure and occupy valleys 49
CHAPTER VI.
[The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.]
Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by the evil eye. Precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye Opprobrious names. Change of sex. Protection against evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens. Numbers. Lucky and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the other world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the hair. Offerings of food to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits in form. The practice of breaking earthen vessels at death. Kites connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits. Spirits which haunt trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits invoked to frighten children 60
CHAPTER VII.
Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions connected with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms to trees. Snake worship. Shrines of snake deities. Deified snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment of snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Guardian snakes 71
CHAPTER VIII.
Devaks. Names derived from animals and plants. Sacred animals. Deities associated with animal worship. Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of human sacrifice. Disease-curing stones. Respect shown to corn sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough. Fire worship 78
CHAPTER IX.
Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected with them 83
CHAPTER X.
Chetaks and Chetakins. 85
CHAPTER XI.
Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites performed for the protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring noxious animals and insects. Rites performed for ensuring sunshine and favourable weather. Rites performed for the protection of crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when boys and girls attain puberty. Vows. The black art 87
APPENDIX
[Glossary of vernacular terms, occurring in Volumes I and II] i to xxxvii
FOLKLORE OF THE KONKAN.
CHAPTER I.
NATURE POWERS.
The worship of minor local deities is connected with such low castes as Guravas, Bhopis, Marátha Kunbis, Dhangars, Wághes, Murlis, Mahárs and Mángs in the District of Kolhápur. It is believed by the Bráhmans that once an image is consecrated and worshipped, it should be worshipped uninterruptedly every day, and he who neglects to worship such an image daily incurs the sin of Brahma-hatya or Bráhman-murder. For this reason Bráhmans generally do not worship minor local deities. In former times Bráhmans who worshipped these deities were excommunicated by their caste-men. Such Pujáris were compelled to wear a folded dhotur or waist cloth, and were forbidden to put on the gandh or sandal paste mark in straight or cross lines. They were allowed to put on the tila or circular mark of sandal paste. Another reason why Bráhmans are not the Pujáris or worshippers of such deities is that Bráhmans cannot accept or partake of the Naivedya offering of cooked food, fowls, etc., made to them. Lower class people can partake of such offerings, and are therefore generally the worshippers or ministrants of minor local deities.
At Palshet in the Ratnágiri District, there are two grámdevis, viz., Jholái and Mhárjái, and the pujáris of these deities are respectively a Gurav and a Mahár.[1] The pujáris of goddesses are generally men of the lower castes. The guardian goddesses of the villages of Pule, Varavade, Nandivade, and Rila have Kunbis as their pujáris; while the pujáris of the goddesses Mahálakshmi, Bhagvati, Mahákáli, and Jogái are generally chosen from the Gurav caste.[2] In the Konkan the Ráuls (Shudras) are the pujáris of the deities Vithoba, Ravalnáth and Bhaváni; the Ghádis are the pujáris of the deities Sáteri and Khavaneshwar; while the deities Mahádev and Máruti are worshipped by pujáris belonging to the Gurav caste.[3] The goddesses Makhajan and Jakhmáta at Sangameshwar in the Ratnágiri District are worshipped by pujáris who belong to the Gurav and Bhoi castes respectively. The god Ganpati at Makhnele has for his pujári a Wáni. The pujáris of the temple of Shiva at Lánje in the Ratnágiri District are Wánis.[4] It is said that the pujári of Pundárik at Pandharpur is a Kiráta (fisherman) by caste.[5]
The pujári of the goddess Narmáta at Sidgad in the Thána District is a Koli; whilst the pujáris of Kánoba, Khandoba, and Vetál are of the lower castes.[6] The goddesses Mahálakshmi of Kolvan and Vajreshvari have their pujáris chosen from the lower castes.[7] The pujáris of Jari-Mari, Mhasoba, Bahiroba, Cheda and other deities which are said to prevent contagious diseases, are always men of the lower castes.[8]
The pujáris of the guardian goddesses of the villages Petsai, Dasgaum and Nizámpur are a Mahár, a Kumbhár or potter, and a Marátha, respectively.[9] The pujári of the guardian goddesses of Chaul in the Kolába District belongs to the lower castes.[10] The goddess Mángái has always a Mahár as her pujári.[11] Everyday the god Shiva is required to be worshipped first by a pujári of the Gurav caste. The pujári of Bahiri, a corruption of the word Bhairav, one of the manifestations of Shiva, is a man belonging to the lower castes. Similarly the pujáris of Bhagavati, Bhaváni, Ambika, Kálika, Jákhái, Jholái, Janni, Kolhái, Vadyájái, Shitaládevi, Chandika, etc., are persons belonging to lower castes.[12]
It is considered by the Hindus very meritorious and holy to worship the Sun; and by Bráhmans the Sun is considered to be their chief deity. The Gáyatri Mantra of the Bráhmans is a prayer to the Sun-god or the Savita Dev, and the Bráhmans offer arghya or oblations of water to the Sun thrice a day. Those who want health, wealth and prosperity propitiate the Sun-god by prayers and ceremonies. The Ratha Saptami is considered to be the principal day for special worship and festivities in honour of the Sun-god. On this day, on a low wooden stool, is drawn, in red sandal paste, a figure of the Sun in human shape seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, or by a horse with seven faces. This figure is then placed in the sun-shine, and it is then worshipped by offering it arghya or spoonfuls of water, red powder, red flowers mixed with red sandal paste, camphor, incense and fruits. Some people kneel down while offering the arghyas to the Sun. These arghyas are either three or twelve in number. Some persons make a vow not to eat anything unless they have worshipped the Sun and performed the twelve Namaskaras by falling prostrate and bowing with folded hands twelve times, and at each time repeating one of the twelve names of the Sun.[13]
In the Ratnágiri District some people worship the Sun on the Sundays of the month of Shrávan. A ceremony held on the Rathasaptami day, i.e., the 7th day of the bright half of Mágh, is deemed a special festival in honour of the Sun-god. On that day people draw, on a small wooden stool, an image of the Sun, seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, and worship it with great reverence. Milk is then boiled on a fire made of cow-dung cakes in front of the household Tulsi plant. If the milk overflows to the east, it is believed that there will be abundance of crops, but if it flows to the west it is taken as a sign of the near approach of famine.[14] The Sun-god is also worshipped on the following occasions, e.g., Trikal, Gajaccháya, Ardhodaya, Mahodaya, Vyatipát, Makar-Sankránt, Kark-Sankránt and the Solar eclipse.[15] Though there are few temples dedicated to the Sun, the village of Parule has the honour of having one called “the temple of Adi-Náráyan.” Non-Bráhmanical classes are not seen worshipping the Sun in this district, despite the fact that the Sun is said to be the embodiment of the three principal deities of the Hindus.[16]
The people of the Thána District believe that the Swastika is the central point of the helmet of the Sun, and a vow called the Swastika Vrata is held in its honor. A woman who observes this vow, draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the Cháturmás (four months of the rainy season), at the expiration of which she gives a Bráhman a golden or silver plate with the sign of the Swastika upon it.[17] Another vow named Dhanurmás, common to all districts in the Konkan, requires a person to complete his daily rites before sun-rise, and to offer a preparation of food called Khichadi to the Sun-god. The observer of this vow then partakes of the food, regarding it as a gift from that god. This is either done for one day or repeated for a month till the Dhanu-Sankránt.[18] On the Somavati-Amávásya day (the 15th day of the dark half of a month falling on Monday), and the Kapiláshasthi day, the Sun is held in especial reverence.[19] A curious story is narrated regarding the offering of Arghya to the Sun. It is said that the Sun rejoices at the birth of a Bráhman, and gives 1,000,000 cows in charity, believing that the Arghya which the Bráhman will offer later on will devour his foes, one drop of the Arghya killing 1,000 of them[20]. The repetition of the Gáyatri-mantra 108 times a day is supposed to release a Bráhman from the debt of 1,000,000 cows owed in this way to the Sun.[21] The Yoga-Sutras of Pátanjali however prohibit a man from looking at the setting Sun, though the sin thus incurred is made amends for by the offering of Arghya to that god.[22] It is interesting to note that women do not grind corn on the Ratha-Saptami day.[23]
Women bow down to the Sun on the 11th, 12th, 30th or 40th day after their delivery; but Kunbi women generally worship that god on the 7th day.[24] On this occasion some women show a churning handle[25] to the Sun-god and offer him some grains of rice.[26]
The Swastika is considered so holy in the Konkan that it is always drawn on the Antarpat; and at the time of the Punyáha Wachan ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, a Swastika drawn in rice is worshipped.[27] The principal deities of the Hindus, whenever they are invoked on special occasions, are seated on the Swastika.[28] The people of the Ratnágiri District worship the Swastika, regarding it as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.[29]
By some the Swastika is regarded as the foundation-stone of the universe[30] and is held to be the symbol of the god Shiva, and not of the Sun.[31]
The conception of Kunbi is said to have taken place by the influence of the rays of the Sun.[32]
The Swastika is considered as an emblem of peace and prosperity, and for this reason Bráhman women draw a figure of the Swastika in front of their houses.[33] The custom of moving round such sacred objects as the Banyan, the Pipal, the Tulsi or sweet basil plant, the Umbar, the Avala (Phylanthus emblica), etc., is prevalent in the district of Kolhápur. There are no cases recorded in which women after child-birth are exposed to the Sun. But on the 12th day after her delivery, the mother puts on new bangles and new clothes; cocoanuts, betelnuts and leaves, grains of rice, plantains and grains of wheat are placed in her lap. She then comes out and bows to the Sun. Wealthy persons on this occasion perform a homa sacrifice in their houses by kindling the holy fire and feeding Bráhmans. No one in this district believes that conception is caused, or is likely to be caused, by exposure to the rays of the Sun.
The Hindu women of the Konkan walk round Pipal, Tulsi, and Umbar trees every Saturday and on the Somavati-amávásya day, i.e., the 15th day of the dark half of a month when it falls on Monday.[34] Sometimes, however, women make a vow to walk round a temple or a sacred tree one-hundred thousand times; and for the fulfilment of this vow they walk round the temple or tree for about seven or eight hours every day. If they find it difficult to make up the number of rounds themselves, they ask their near relations to assist them in their undertaking.[35]
The Moon is worshipped by the Hindus on the 2nd of the bright half of every month. On this day it is considered very lucky to see the moon, and many people, particularly the lower classes, pull out threads from the clothes they wear, and offer them to the moon, saying “O! God, accept these old clothes of ours and be pleased to give us new ones in their stead.” Some people worship the moon on the Sankasti Chaturthi, 4th day of the dark half of every month; and such people will not eat anything until they have seen and worshipped the moon on that day. The moon is not worshipped on the Ganesh Chaturthi day that is, the 4th of the bright half of the month of Bhádrapad, as it is considered very unlucky to see the moon on that night. It is firmly believed that any one who sees the moon on the Ganesh Chaturthi day even by accident will be falsely accused of theft or some other crime. In order to avoid this, people who have accidently seen the moon, throw stones at the houses of their neighbours, and if the neighbours abuse them in return, the mischief makers consider themselves freed by the abuse from the sin of having looked at the moon on a forbidden night.
The spots on the surface of the moon are believed by some to be the rath or chariot of the god. Others think that they are lunar mountains; but many believe that the spots are the visible signs of the stain on the character of the moon-god due to his having outraged the modesty of the wife of his guru, the god Brahaspati or Jupiter. In the Puráns it is stated that on one occasion, a dispute arose between the moon and Brahaspati or Jupiter about the wife of Brahaspati, each of them claiming to be the cause of her conception. Subsequently a son was born who was named Budha (Mercury). Brahaspati’s wife, on being asked who was the father of the child, named the moon. Thereupon Brahaspati cursed the moon for his adultery. The spots on the surface of the moon are said to be the effect of this curse.
The moon-god is believed to distribute nectar through his rays, and therefore this deity is said to have the power of removing diseases and restoring human beings to health. The moon is the king of herbs, and all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon. Sometimes people place at night, figs, plantains, sugarcane and other eatables in the moon-light and eat them early in the morning; and it is said that those who do so improve in health. The practice of drinking the moon’s rays does not prevail in the Kolhápur district. But people occasionally dine in the moon light.[36]
On a full moon day people perform the special worship of their chosen deity. On the full moon of the month of Kártika temples are illuminated, and on the full moon day of Mágha, raw corn such as wheat, bájri, etc., is cooked and offered to the household and other deities.[37] On this day are also performed the special rites and ceremonies that are required in connection with the Kula-devatás or family gods or goddesses. On the full moon day of Fálguna the Holi fire is kindled and worshipped. In certain families the full moon of Chaitra is considered auspicious for making offerings to family deities. On the full moon day of Shrávan is observed the feast of Cocoanut day, and on this day Bráhmans put on new sacred threads. The full moon is considered by the Sanyásis or ascetics an auspicious day for shaving their heads.
On the new moon day the Pitras or Manes are worshipped. Lighted lamps are worshipped on the new moon day, of Ashádha. In the Kolhápur State this is called Tadali new moon day, and in the Konkan it is called Divali new moon day. On the new moon day of Ashvin, Lakshmi the goddess of wealth is worshipped. All special ceremonies for the propitiation of the Bhutas or evil spirits are usually performed on the new moon day. The Dwitiya or 2nd day of every month is considered sacred to the moon, and on this day the moon is worshipped; while the Chaturthi is considered sacred to the god Ganapati, and on the Chaturthi of Bhádrapada a special festival is held in honour of the god Ganpati.[38]
On the 15th day of the bright half of the month of Ashvin people put milk in the rays of the moon for some time, and then, after offering it to the moon, they drink it. Drinking milk in this way is called drinking the rays of the moon.[39] On the Sankránt Chaturthi day and on that Chaturthi which immediately follows the Dasara holiday, people draw an image of the moon and worship it.[40] In the Ratnágiri District several conflicting theories are held regarding the spots on the surface of the moon. Some believe that the spot observed on the moon is a tamarind tree in which that god has stationed himself; others hold that the spot is the reflection of a deer which is yoked to the chariot of the moon[41]; while many more believe that it has been occasioned by the hoof of the horse of King Nala. Some say that the spot on the surface of the moon represents a Pipal tree and a cow fastened to the roots of the tree; others on the authority of Hindu mythology suppose that God created Madan (cupid) from the essence taken from the body of the moon and hence the moon-god has spots on his body.[42] In the Mahábhárat it is stated that on the surface of the moon is reflected the island of Sudarshan on this earth, together with some trees and a great hare, the bright part being nothing but water.[43] The spot on the surface of the moon is considered by some a deer which the god has taken on his lap.[44] Some believe that Yashoda, the mother of Krishna, after waving an earthen dish round the face of Krishna, threw it at the sky. It struck the moon and thereby the spots on the surface of the moon were caused. Nectar is supposed to have been derived from the rays of the moon; and in some sacred books it is stated that the Chakora bird (Bartavelle Partridge) drinks the rays of the moon.[45]
The people of the Thána District hold similar notions regarding the spots on the surface of the moon. It has been said by some that the portion in question represents mud, while others say that the moon has been disfigured owing to a curse from a sage.[46] Some people say that the spots are due to the moon being cursed by his preceptor Brahaspati with whose wife the moon-god had connection. Being unable to bear the pain of the spots, the moon, it is said, propitiated his preceptor, who directed him to bathe in the Bhima river to alleviate the agony. Accordingly the pain was assuaged, and the part of the river where the Moon-god bathed thus came to be called Chandra bhága.[47] Some persons suggest that the spots are a Pipal tree with two deer feeding upon it from two sides.[48] Others hold that the spots on the surface of the moon are due to its having been kicked by a deer which, when pursued by a hunter, was refused shelter.[49] The people of the Thána District believe that the rays of the moon influence conception.[50]
In the Kolába District, to sit in an open place on a moon-light night, is regarded as drinking the rays of the moon.[51] The elongated part of the orb of the moon pointing towards the north or the south is supposed to forebode scarcity or abundance, respectively.[52]
It is a common belief that the moon should not be seen on the Ganesh Chaturthi day, i.e., the 4th day of the bright half of Bhádrapad.
Looking at the moon continuously for a short time on every moon-light night is said to keep one’s sight in good order.[53]
If the Amávásya falls on Monday, Bráhman women of the Thána District walk round a Tulsi plant or a Pipal tree and make a vow to a Bráhman.[54]
In the Kolába District a special ceremony is held in honour of minor goddesses on the 8th day of a month. The following things are avoided one on each of the fifteen tithis respectively:—
Kohala (pumpkin), dorli (Solanum indicum), salt, sesamum, sour things, oil, ávale (Emblic myrobalan), cocoanuts, bhopala (gourd), padval (snake-gourd), pávte (Dolichos Lablah), masur (Lens esculenta), brinjal, honey, gambling.[55]
The people observe a fast on the 13th (Pradosha) and the 14th day (Shivarátra) of the dark half of every month.[56] On the 15th day of the bright half of Chaitra, a fair is held in honour of the guardian deity of a village, and hens, goats, etc., are offered as a sacrifice.[57]
The following are days of special importance.
Gudhi-pádva, i.e., the first day of the bright half of Chaitra:—This being the first day of the year, gudhis and toranas are hoisted in front of every house and are worshipped.[58]
Bháu-bij:—On the 2nd day of the bright half of Kártik every sister waves round the face of her brother a lamp, and makes him a present.[59]
The ceremony on the Bháu-bij day has come into vogue on account of Subhadra having given a very pleasant bath to her brother Krishna on that day. The Court of Yama is also said to be closed on that day, since he goes to his sister; and consequently persons who die on that day, however sinful they may be, are not supposed to go to Yamaloka, i.e., hell.[60]
Akshya Tritiya:—On the third day of the bright half of Vaishákh cold water and winnowing fans are distributed as tokens for appeasing the Manes of ancestors. On this day is also celebrated the birth of the god Parashurám.[61]
Ganesh Chaturthi:—On the 4th day of the bright half of Bhádrapad, an earthen image of Ganpati is worshipped and a great ceremony is held in his honour.[62] The fourth day of the bright half of every month is called Vináyaka-Chaturthi; while that of the dark half is called Sankasti-Chaturthi. On the Vináyaka-Chaturthi day, people fast the whole day and dine the next day; while on the Sankasti Chaturthi day, they fast during the day time and dine after moon-rise.[63] That Sankasti Chaturthi which falls on Tuesday is considered the best.[64]
Nágpanchami:—On the 5th day of the bright half of Shrávan, pictures of serpents and snake holes are worshipped.[65]
Champá-Shashti:—On the 6th day of the bright half of Márgashirsha, some ceremony relating to the family-deity is performed.[66]
Ratha-Saptami:—On the 7th day of the bright half of Mágh, the sun is worshipped and milk is boiled until it overflows.[67]
Gokul-Ashtami:—On the 8th day of the dark half of Shrávan the birth of the god Krishna is celebrated.[68]
Ráma-Navami:—On the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra the birth of the god Ráma is celebrated.[69]
Vijayádashami:—On the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin people cross the boundary of their village and distribute sone (leaves of the Shami and Apta trees). It is a popular belief that a work commenced on this day is sure to end well. Weapons are also worshipped on this day.[70]
Ekádashi:—On the 11th day of Ashádh and Kártik a special fast is observed. People also fast on the 11th day of each month. A man who dies on this auspicious day is supposed to go to heaven.[71] Sometimes the Ekádashi falls on two consecutive days; in which case the Smártas observe the first, while the Bhágvats observe the second.[72]
Wáman-dwádashi:—On the 12th day of the bright half of Bhádrapad Wáman is worshipped and one or twelve boys are adored, being held to represent Wáman. The marriage of the Tulsi plant is sometimes celebrated on this day.[73]
Dhana-Trayodashi:—On the 13th day of the dark half of Ashvin, Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth is worshipped.[74]
Narak-Chaturdashi:—On the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin, the demon Narakásur was killed. In consequence, on this day people take their bath before sun-rise, break Karinta (a fruit), regarding it as a demon, and apply its seeds to their heads.[75]
Nárali Paurnima:—On the 15th day of the bright half of Shrávan, people worship the sea and throw into it a cocoanut.[76]
Wata-Paurnima:—On the 15th day of the bright half of Jyeshtha, women whose husbands are alive fast the whole day, and worship the Wata-tree.[77]
On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin, people keep themselves awake the whole night and amuse themselves in a variety of ways. On the 15th day of the bright half of Kártika houses are illuminated. This day is called Tripuri-Paurnima. On this night people illuminate with earthen lamps all temples in the village, but particularly the temple of Shiva. This is done in commemoration of the triumph of the god Shiva over the demon Tripurásura. The full-moon day of the month of Mágha is called Chudi Paurṇima. On this night people light chudies torches and with them slightly burn certain flowers, trees and plants. The full-moon day of the month of Fálguna is called the Holi or Holi-Paurnima and is the biggest holiday of the lower class Hindus. On this night the Hindus kindle the Holi-fire and worship it.[78] On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin people eat grain of the new harvest. On the full-moon day of Shrávan they perform the Shrávani ceremony and give a lamp in charity. On the full-moon day of the month of Chaitra, Vaishakha and Márgashirsha, the births of Máruti, Narasimha and Dattátraya respectively are celebrated.[79] The Kunbis of the Ratnágiri District believe that on the 15th or full-moon day of Pausha, the Hindu gods go out hunting and that they return from their hunting expedition on the full-moon day of the month of Mágha. During this period the Kunbis abstain from worshipping their gods.[80]
Amávásya:—On the 15th day of the dark half of every month, oblations are given to the Manes of the dead.[81] The commencement of a good deed, journey to a distant place, and the ploughing of land are postponed on the no-moon day of a month.[82] Sanyásis are enjoined to get their beard shaved on the Paurnima and Amávásya days only.[83]
People do not set out on a journey on the following tithis, regarding them as rikta (unfruitful or inauspicious):—
Chaturthi, Navami and Chaturdashi.[84]
The Chándráyana Vrata:—Widows fast on the no-moon day of a month. They are required to regulate their diet in such an increasing proportion that on the next full moon day they should have a full meal. The reverse process follows for a fortnight after, so that they observe an absolute fast on the following no-moon day.[85]
People have various ideas about the cause of the eclipses of the sun and the moon. Some say that the sun and the moon are superior deities, and that the demons Ráhu and Ketu who belong to the caste of Mángs attempt to touch them and to devour them. Others believe that the planets Ráhu and Ketu stand in the path of the Sun and the Moon and thereby darkness is caused on the earth. It is believed that about 5 hours before the commencement of the obscuration, in the case of the Sun and about 4 hours in the case of the Moon, the Vedha or malign influence of the monsters begins and during the period till the whole eclipse is over a strict fast is observed. At the commencement of the eclipse, as well as at its close, people bathe. Some sit on a low wooden stool with a rosary in their hands repeating the names of the gods, or the gáyatri or some of the mantras. But those who want to acquire the art of magic or witch-craft or the power of removing the evil effects of snake-poison, or scorpion sting, go to a lonely place on the riverside, and there standing in water repeat the mantras taught to them by their guru or teacher. People give alms to Mahárs and Mángs on this occasion, and therefore persons of this class go about the streets saying loudly “Give us alms and the eclipse will be over.” De dán suté girán.
A strict fast is observed on an eclipse day, but children and pregnant women who cannot bear the privation are given something to eat under a sike. The eclipse time is so inauspicious that children and animals born at that time are considered unlucky.[86] Sometimes an eclipse cannot be observed owing to the intervention of clouds. On that occasion the people of the Konkan resort to the following expedient in order to ascertain whether the luminary is eclipsed or not. They take a potful of water and hold in it a musal. If it stands in the pot unsupported it is regarded as indicative of the existence of an eclipse. Mángs, Mahárs, etc., are supposed to be the descendants of Ráhu and Ketu; and for this reason gifts are made to them in charity on an eclipse day.[87]
The people of the Thána District believe that corn grows abundantly in a year that witnesses many eclipses.[88]
The popular cause of an eclipse in the Kolába District, is the Girha, a minor deity which is said to wander through the sky and swallow the Sun and the Moon when they cross his path.[89] Besides the mythological story regarding the cause of an eclipse, the people of the Ratnágiri District also believe that the Girha throws his shadow on the sun and the moon, when he comes to demand his dues from them.[90] The Konkan villagers, on an eclipse day, strike barren trees with a pestle,[91] in order that they may bear fruits and flowers. A barren woman is also beaten with the same motive. Similarly many other superstitious beliefs are connected with an eclipse. Pregnant women are not allowed to see the eclipse of the sun or the moon, nor are they to engage in cutting, sewing, etc. as this is believed to be injurious to the child in the womb.[92] The eclipse time is supposed to be the most suitable to learn mantras or incantations.[93] The mantris also mutter incantations during an eclipse in a naked condition.[94] The people who believe that the eclipses are caused by the influence of the planets Ráhu and Ketu offer prayers to Ráhu on the lunar eclipse day and to Ketu on the solar eclipse day.[95]
The planets and stars are worshipped by the Hindus. It is believed that a person who is to die within six months cannot see the polar star. From the movements of the planets past and future events of one’s career are foretold by Bráhman and other astrologers. And as it is believed that man’s good and bad luck are dependant upon the influence of the planets, offerings of various kinds are made and sacrifices performed for securing the favour of the Navagrahas or the nine planets. In order to avert the effect of the evil influence of certain planets people sometimes wear rings of those precious stones which are supposed to be the favourites of the planets.
The rain-bow is called Indra dhanushya or the Indra’s bow, and it is believed that if the rain-bow appears in the east, it indicates the coming of more rain, and if it appears in the west it is a sure sign of the close of the monsoon.
The milky way is believed to be the heavenly Ganges. Well known tradition relates how Wáman (the 5th incarnation of Vishnu) went to Bali the king of the lower regions and asked him to give him land measuring three feet only. The king consented, whereupon the god Wáman enlarged his body to such an extent that by his one footstep he occupied the whole earth and by the second he occupied heaven. Upon this the god Brahma worshipped the foot of the god Vishnu which was in heaven, and from that foot sprang the heavenly Ganges which flows in heaven and is called Dudha Ganga or the milky Ganges.
The worship of stars and planets is in vogue among Konkan Hindu families of the higher castes. The polar star in particular is seen and worshipped by the bride and the bridegroom after the ceremony at the marriage altar is over.[96] A very interesting story is connected with the polar star. By the great power of his penance the sage Vishvámitra despatched king Trishanku to Heaven, but the gods hurled him down. Thereupon Vishvámitra became enraged and began to create a new heaven. Hindu mythological books say that he thus created the sages Vashista, Angiras, Pulah, Pulastya, Rutu, Atri, and Marichi, and stationed Trishanku in the sky. The Nava-grahas or the nine planets are worshipped before the commencement of all important ceremonies.[97] A cluster of seven stars called the Sapta-rishis are worshipped by men at the time of the Shrávani ceremony, while women worship them on the 5th day of the bright half of Bhádrapada.[98] These Sapta-rishis are said to have been created by the God Brahma from his own body; and teaching them the four Vedas, he handed them over to them and asked them to regulate the affairs of the world.[99]
Some people of the Ratnágiri District believe that the rain-bow is the bow used by Ráma, the hero of the Rámáyana. Its appearance on the east is regarded by them as symptomatic of the approach of rain, while its appearance on the west is equivalent to the departure of rain.[100]
The short duration of the rain-bow is held to indicate an excessive fall of rain while its long duration forbodes a scarcity of rain.[101] The appearance of the rain-bow on a river is supposed to indicate the approach of rain, while its appearance on a mountain means the departure of rain.[102] Of the two bows of which the rain-bow seems to be composed, the larger is believed to belong to Ráma, and the smaller to Lakshman.[103] Since the God Indra is supposed to send rain, the Indradhanushya (the rain-bow) is regarded as a sign of the advent of rain.[104]
By some Hindus it is believed that the milky way is a heavenly river which is a favourite bathing place of the gods.[105] Others suppose it to be a branch of the celestial Ganges which is said to have been brought down upon this earth by king Bhagiratha.[106] Some persons, however, believe that since the great sage Agastya is said to reside at Rámeshwar in the southern direction, the Ganges (the milky way) runs through the sky to the south in order to bathe him. Sometimes the milky way is believed to be a white cloud.[107]
On the authority of the Mahákála Nirván Tantra, some people of the Thána District believe that a person who cannot get a view of the polar star will die within six months; while others substitute the Arundhati star for the polar star and determine the duration of life of a diseased person by the same process.[108]
The people of the Thána District believe that the rain-bow is caused by the accumulation of moisture in the air.[109] The rain-bow is said to consecrate the region over which it appears.[110] The appearance of the rain-bow in the morning is supposed to forbode the approach of rain.[111]
Some people of the Kolába District believe that the holy persons such as Káshyapa, Arundhati and other sages, who lived on this earth in ancient times are seen shining in the sky by the sacred lustre of their powers.[112] Hindu women worship the planets Budha and Guru (Mercury and Jupiter) in the month of Shravan.[113]
The Sapta-rishis are somewhere called Khatale and Bájale (cot).[114] The rain-bow is held by some to be the symbol of Ráma and Lakshman, who visit the world in that form with the view of watching its proceedings. Others, however, believe that it represents God Indra who assumes that form to see how his orders are executed by his subordinates.[115] The rain-bow is said to foretell good if it appears either at the beginning or end of the rainy season, while its appearance at any other time is supposed to forbode evil.[116]
Hindus regard the earth as one of their important deities and worship it on various occasions. It is enjoined upon Bráhmans to worship it daily at the time of their Sandhya rite, as well as while performing the Shrávani ceremony.[117] The people of the Ratnágiri District pray to the earth as soon as they leave their bed in the morning.[118] The earth is required to be worshipped at the time of laying the foundation-stone of a house, as well as at the time of bringing into use a newly built house.[119] Since it is held unholy to sleep on the bare ground, those whose parents die, sleep on a woollen cloth on the ground till their parents’ anniversary is over.[120] Wanprastas, Sanyásis, and Bráhmans are required to sleep on the ground.[121] Some pious men sleep on the bare ground during the Cháturmás (the four months of the rainy season), at the expiry of which they present a bed to a Bráhman.[122] It is enjoined upon a prince to sleep on the bare ground on the eve of the coronation day.[123]
Widows and women are required to sleep on the ground during their monthly courses. Women whose husbands are away are also to do the same.[124] In the Ratnágiri District Katkaris, on the day on which they wish to be possessed by a particular deity or spirit, are required to sleep on the earth.[125] When people are on the point of death, they are made to lie on blades of darbha grass placed on the earth.[126] The performer of a sacrifice as well as one who has observed a vow are to sleep on the ground.[127] The following articles should not be allowed to touch the earth, viz. pearls, the Sháligram stone, an image of the god Vishnu, the linga of Shiva, a conch shell, the sacred thread of a Bráhman, flowers intended for worship, basil leaves, and Govardhan.[128]
The following lines are repeated in the morning before setting foot to the ground[129]:—
O Goddess! who is clothed (surrounded) by the sea, whose breasts are mountains, and who is the wife of Vishnu, I bow down to thee; please forgive the touch of my feet. O Goddess Earth! who art born by the power of Vishnu, whose surface is of the colour of a conch shell and who art the store house of innumerable jewels, I bow down to thee.
Some women of the Thána District worship the earth daily during the Cháturmás (four months of the rainy season), at the end of which they give a Bráhman a piece of land or the money equivalent of it.[130] Persons who perform a particular rite, e.g., the Solásomavár-vrata (a vow observed on sixteen successive Mondays) are required to sleep on the bare ground.[131] At the sowing and harvest time, farmers appease the earth by offering it cocoanuts, fowls, rice mixed with curd, etc.[132] The blood of a king and the balls of rice given to the manes of the dead are not allowed to touch the ground. People convey to a distant place the water of the Ganges, without placing it on the ground.[133]
The earth is required to be worshipped before taking a portion of it for sacrificial purposes.[134] A vessel containing water over which incantations have been repeated is not allowed to touch the ground.[135] On the 15th day of the bright half of Ashvin every farmer prepares some sweetmeats in his house, and takes them to his farm. There he gathers five stones, worships them, and offers the sweetmeats to the earth. Afterwards he takes a portion of the food and scatters it over the farm. His family then gather there and take a hearty meal. In the evening the person who carried the food to the farm, picks up some grains of barley and puts them into a basket. On return home the grains are thrown over the house.[136]
Various conflicting notions are entertained regarding thunder and lightning. The people of the Ratnágiri District believe that the clouds are animals that roar. When these animals emit water it bursts forth on account of the circular motion of the winds called Chanda and Munda. This bursting is supposed to produce thunder and lightning.[137] Somewhere thunder and lightning are said to be the signals given by the god Indra, to birds, beasts, etc., of the setting in of the rainy season.[138] Some people believe that the god Indra sends rain through his elephants who, being excited, make a noise like thunder.[139]
Others regard the thunder as the roaring of the elephant of the gods, while sucking sea-water. The thunder is also believed to be the roaring of the god Varuna, the king of the clouds.[140] The boys of the Ratnágiri District believe that thunder is a sign of the wedding ceremonies performed in the heavenly houses of the gods.[141] Some Mahomedans believe that an angel called Mekail has control over the rain. To cause a fall of rain Mekail strikes the clouds with a whip of lightning. The clouds then utter a cry, and this is the cause of thunder.[142] Some people of the Thána District believe that there are big stones in the sky which strike against each other owing to the force of the wind, and produce thunder. The dashing of these stones against each other also generates lightning.[143]
In the Kolába District it is believed that thunder is the military band of the king of clouds and lightning is his banner.[144] Lightning is said to be produced by the fighting of celestial elephants; while thunder is heard when they pour out water.[145] Some people think that thunder is the noise of the feet of the elephants (clouds) that give rain; lightning is also said to be generated from their foot fall.[146] The clouds are supposed to be the messengers of gods, lightning being the manifestation of Divine power. The gods are said to confine these messengers from the nakshatra of Ardra to the nakshatra of Hasti, in which latter nakshatra they again begin to roar.[147]
Thunder is supposed to take place when the god Indra draws his bow; while lightning is said to be produced when the same god strikes his adamant against a mountain.[148]
In the Ratnágiri District it is believed that earthquake occurs whenever the thousand headed Shesha shakes its head.[149] It is said that at one time a demon named Gayásur became very troublesome, and all the gods held him down by standing on his body. Thereupon the demon requested all the gods to remain on his body for ever. Occasionally this Gayásur shakes his body and this causes the earthquake.[150] Some people believe that the earth trembles of its own accord when sins accumulate upon it.[151] Others hold that the earthquake takes place in the hollow parts of the earth.[152] Some people, however, believe that since the earth floats upon water, it naturally quakes at times.[153]
The Hindus being element worshippers naturally hold in reverence certain rivers, ponds, etc. In the Ratnágiri District the spring at Rájápur, called the Rájápurchi Ganga is considered very sacred. It flows from the roots of a Banyan tree. There are fifteen Kundas or ponds, and the principal Kunda always remains filled with water. On occasions a big játra fair is held and people from distant places come to bathe and worship at the spring.[154] Some people believe that many of the lakes, springs, etc., situated in the Kolhápur State are sacred.[155] A spring or rivulet that flows to the east is considered specially sacred. It is called a Surya-Vansi spring, and it is considered meritorious to bathe in it.[156] In the village of Kunkauli in the Ratnágiri District if a person is bitten by a snake or other poisonous reptile, no medicine is administered to him, but holy water brought from the temple of the village goddess is given to him to drink, and it is said that the patient is thus cured.[157] The water fall at Maral near Devarkuha, where the river Bán takes its rise, is held sacred.[158] At Shivam in the Ratnágiri District the people use the tirtha of a deity as medicine for diseases due to poison. They say that it is the sole remedy they apply in such cases.[159] There are ponds at Manora in the Goa State, and Vetore in the Sávantwádi State, the water of which is used as medicine for the cure of persons suffering from the poison of snakes, mice, spiders, and scorpions.[160] When a well is dug, the people call a Bráhman priest to consecrate it. The Bráhman takes cow’s urine, milk, curds, ghi, sandal paste, flowers, basil leaves, and rice, and mixes them with water, and after repeating sacred mantras over the water, throws the mixture into the well. After this ceremony, the people are at liberty to drink water from the well.[161]
Before a well is dug, an expert is consulted to ascertain the place where a spring flows. A well is then dug, after offering a sacrifice to the spirits and deities that happen to dwell at that spot. A dinner is given to Bráhmans after the well is built.[162] A golden cow is often thrown into a newly built well as an offering to the water deities.[163] There is a well at Mandangad, the water of which serves as medicine to cure the poison of snakes and other reptiles.[164]
It is believed that there is a class of wicked water nymphs called Asará who generally dwell in wells, ponds, or rivers, far from the habitation of men. Whenever these nymphs come across a lonely man or woman entering a well, pond, etc., they carry that person under water. The village of Mithbáv in the Ratnágiri District is a well-known resort of these Asarás, and many instances are given by the villagers of persons being drowned and carried off in the river by these wicked nymphs. A tank in the village of Hindalem in the same district has a similar reputation.[165] The people of the Konkan believe that water nymphs are sometimes seen in the form of women near wells, rivers, and ponds.[166] Some say that the water nymphs and water spirits confer objects desired by worshippers if they are propitiated by prayers.[167]
There are seven kundas, ponds, at Nirmal in the Thána District, forming a large lake. This lake is said to have been formed from the blood of the demon Vimalásur. At Sháhápur there is a holy spring of hot water under a Pipal tree. It is called Ganga.[168] There are kundas, pools, of hot water in the Vaitarna river in the Thána District, in which people bathe on the 13th day of the dark half of Chaitra.[169] There are also springs of hot water on the bank of the Surya river at Vajreshvari and at Koknere, in the Thána District.[170] A handful of corn, if thrown into the hot water kundas at Tungar, is said to be boiled at once.[171] It is held holy to bathe in the kundas of hot water that are situated in the rivers Tánsa and Bánganga in the Thána District.[172] The water of a well which is drawn without touching the earth or without being placed upon the ground is given as medicine for indigestion. Similarly the water of seven tanks, or at least of one pond, in which lotuses grow is said to check the virulence of measles, small-pox, etc.[173] A bath in a certain tank in the Mahim taluka is said to cure persons suffering from the itch, and water purified by repeating incantations over it is also said to be a good remedy for the same disease.[174]
The water of a tank or a well is supposed to be wholesome to a person of indifferent health, if given to him to drink without placing it upon the ground.[175] Some people believe that the water of the Ganges is so holy and powerful that if bows are thrown into it they are instantly reduced to powder.[176] The repair of lakes, caravanserais, temples, etc., is held more meritorious than their actual erection.[177] It is enjoined upon a man to perform a certain rite if he wishes to relinquish his right of ownership over a well or tank, and after this rite is performed, it can be utilized for public purposes. But no ceremony is required to be performed if a well is dug for the benefit of the public.[178]
The people of the Thána District believe that water nymphs reside in every reservoir of water.[179] Some people, however, believe that the water nymphs dwell in those lakes in which lotuses grow. These nymphs are said to do harm to children and young women, especially when they set out for a walk accompanied by their brother Gavala. They are unusually dangerous.[180] The people worship the images of the following seven water nymphs or apsaras, viz., Machhi, Kurmi, Karkati, Darduri, Jatupi, Somapa and Makari.[181]
The following places are said to be inhabited by water spirits:—the channel of Kalamba, the tanks of Sopara and Utaratal and the lake called Tambra-tirtha at Bassein[182]. Water nymphs are supposed to drown a person who tries to save another fallen into water.[183] A species of small men named Uda, otherwise called water-spirits, are said to dwell in water and subsist on fishes.[184] The spirits called Khais and Mhashya are supposed to reside in water.[185]
The river Sávitri in the Kolába District takes its rise near Mahábaleshwar and is considered very sacred. The following traditionary account is given of its origin. The god Brahma had two wives, Sávitri and Gáyatri. A dispute having arisen between them, they both jumped over a precipice. Sávitri assumed the form of a river and fell into the sea near Bánkot. Gáyatri, on the other hand, concealed herself in the river Sávitri and manifested herself as a spring near Harihareshwar in the Janjira State.[186] A man is said to be released from re-birth if he takes a bath in the kund (pond) named Katkale-tirtha near Násik.[187] Bows are said to be reduced to powder if thrown into a certain kund at Uddhar-Rámeshwar in the Sudhagad taluka.[188] Kupotsarga is defined to be the digging of a well for the benefit of the public and abandoning one’s right of ownership over it.[189]
A pond near Khopoli in the Kolába District is held very sacred. The following story is related in connection with it. The villagers say that the water nymphs in the pond used to provide pots for marriage festivities if a written application were made to them a day previous to the wedding. The pots were, however, required to be returned within a limited time. But one man having failed to comply with this condition, they have ceased to lend pots. Another interesting story is associated with the same pond. It is as follows. A man had fallen into the pond and was taken to the abode of the nymphs. He was, however, returned by them after a few days on the understanding that he would be recalled if he spoke of what he had seen there. One day he communicated to the people the good things that he enjoyed there, and to the surprise of all he was found dead immediately after.[190] Water nymphs are said to reside in a pond at Varsai in the Kolába District. Consequently persons that are held unclean, e.g., women in their monthly course, etc., are not allowed to touch it. The nymphs of the same lake were once said to lend pots on festive occasions.[191] It is said that the water nymphs used to provide ornaments for marriage and other ceremonies, if returned within a prescribed period. But some people having failed to return them, they ceased to lend them.[192]
A spirit called Girha is supposed to reside in water. It is said to make mischief with man in a variety of ways by enticing him into deep water.[193] The Jakrin is said to be a deity residing in water.[194] Persons drowned in water are believed to become water-spirits, and to trouble innocent passers-by.[195]
A mountain near the village Pule, in the district of Ratnágiri is held sacred on account of the residence of the god Ganpati at that place. For this reason people walk round the mountain and worship it. Tradition says that Ganpati was at first at Gule in the Ratnágiri District, but on account of the sanctity of the place being violated by some wicked persons the god transferred his residence to Pule. At Gule there is still a very beautiful temple of Ganpati, though it is now in a dilapidated condition.[196] The cave of the sage Much-kund near Machal on the Sahyádri mountain is considered sacred. In the Konkan it is not held sinful to ascend a mountain or a hill, though to sit upon its summit is considered sinful.[197] The hill of Mirya near Ratnágiri is considered sacred. This hill is believed to be a particle (miri) of the mythological mountain Dronagiri.[198]
A hill near Dhárávi in the Thána District is consecrated by the temple of a goddess upon the top. This goddess is said to preserve ships at sea, and people are occasionally possessed by her. It is said that a Roman Catholic priest met instantaneous death on having insulted her.[199]
The hill of Mahálakshmi in the Dahánu táluka is held sacred. The villagers consider it dangerous to ascend this hill.[200] On the hill of the same name is a temple of the goddess Jivadhani, who is said to preserve children from small-pox. The following story is told in connection with the goddess. A person in need of money used to place before her image as large a heap of flowers as he wanted gold, stating that he would return the gold when he had done with it. He used then to go home and return on an appointed day for the gold, which was sure to be found where he had placed the heap of flowers. Once a man failed to return the gold, and thenceforth the goddess withheld her bounty. There is no door to the temple of this goddess. It is only through a hole in a big stone that one can have a view of her image. Sweet scent is said to be continually emitted from this hole. The goddess is said to have fastened the door of her temple for the following reason. One day the goddess was walking at the foot of the hill at night. A cowherd who happened to be there was bewitched by her matchless beauty and fell a prey to evil desire. He pursued her to the top of the hill, when the goddess, divining his motive, fastened the door of her temple with a prodigious stone. On the same hill is a cattle shed in which fresh cow-dung is said to be always found. This place being inaccessible to cows and other quadrupeds, the people believe that the goddess keeps a cow of her own.[201]
The hill of Tungar is consecrated by the temple of a certain goddess upon it. There is also a very famous hill near Arnála, called the hill of Buddha. This hill was once the seat of a king belonging to the weaver caste. Recently a pond was discovered upon it, in which was found a stone-box containing a begging-pot and a diamond. A great fair is held annually on the hill of Motmávali near Bandra in the Thána district. The devotees of the deity are Hindus, Parsis, and Christians. It is said this goddess was once worshipped by Hindus only. A Bráhman is the pujári of the Pir on the hill of Bába Malang near Kalyán. It is said that the Pir has declared that no Moslem pujári should worship him. The Hindus and Moslems worship him alike.[202]
Bráhmans do not cross the top of a mountain without stopping for a short time before ascending the summit.[203]
At a short distance from Chaul in the Kolába District is a hill dedicated to the god Dattatraya, in whose honour a great fair is held annually. The following story is told in connection with this hill. In ancient times a Bráhman used to practise austerities on this hill near a Tulsi plant (the place on which the present temple stands). He used to spend the whole day there, but returned home at nightfall. On his way home fearful scenes were often presented to him, and in his dreams he was asked not to go there any more. But the Bráhman was obdurate. He persisted in his resolution to practise austerities for a number of years, and at last succeeded in obtaining a personal interview with the god Dattatraya, who commanded him to bow down to his feet (páduka). From that time pious men live on this hill and offer their prayers to the god Dattatraya. Nearly four hundred steps have been constructed for the ascent of this hill, and additional steps are being built every year. Here also are some springs of pure water. It is worth while to note that the pujári of this god is a Shudra by caste.[204] On the north-east side of the hill dedicated to the god Dattatraya stands the temple of the goddess Hingláj. To the north of this temple are four caves, while to the west is a deep den resembling a well, through which a lane appears to have been dug. This is said to be the road excavated by the Pándavas to enable them to go to Kási.[205] At a distance of two miles from Akóla in the Kolába District is a hill called Mallikárjun. This is said to be a small stone fallen from the mythological mountain Dronagiri. This hill is said to contain many medical herbs.[206] The hill at Kankeshwar near Alibág is held sacred, and tradition says that in ancient times it had golden dust upon it.[207] A cave at Ambivali near Karjat in the Kolába District consists of seven rooms, one of which is spacious enough to accommodate five hundred persons. In the same taluka there is another cave at Kondhavane.[208]
The gods Indra and Varuna are supposed to send rain; but it is believed that the god Shiva in chief has the power of causing the fall of rain, and for this reason whenever there is a scarcity of rain people pour water over the linga of Shiva until the whole linga is submerged.[209] In order that there should be a fall of rain, some people besmear the linga of the god Shiva with cooked rice and curds.[210] In the Ratnágiri District, whenever there is a scarcity of rain, people go to the place known as Parashurám Kshetra, and there pray to the god Parashurám to send rain.[211] Sacrifices are also offered to Indra, the god of rain, in order that there should be plenty of rain. Some believe that there are certain mantris or enchanters who by the power of their mantras are able to prevent the fall of rain.[212]
In the Ratnágiri District the following ceremony is performed by the lower castes such as Kunbis, etc., to avert drought. All the male villagers assemble together at an appointed place, and there they select one of them as their Gowala-deva. All of them then go about in the village from house to house. The owner of every house sprinkles water over the assembly, and curds and butter-milk over the body of the Gowala-deva. They are also given some shidha consisting of rice, pulse, vegetables, etc. After visiting most of the houses in the village, the assembly headed by the Gowala-deva go to the bank of a river. Here they cook the food, offer it first to the Gowala-deva and then partake of the remainder as a prasád from the Gowala-deva.[213] Some people make an image of the sage Shringarishi for the purpose of causing the fall of rain.[214] Others make an image of Dhondal-deva in order that there should be plenty of rain.[215] Sometimes people repeat mantras addressed to Parjanya (rain) so that rain should fall.[216] The goddess Navachandika is worshipped in order that there should be rain. The Kunbis perform a peculiar rite for checking the fall of rain. They ask a person born in the months of Jyeshtha, Ashádh, Shrávan or Bhádrapad to fetch some rain-water in an alu leaf, and this is fastened to the eaves of thatched houses by means of a string. Note that, if this rite is to be performed in the month of Jyeshtha, a person born in that month only is required and no other; and so forth.[217] In order to check an excessive fall of rain the villagers sometimes ask a boy to take off his clothes and then to catch rainwater in the leaves of the alu plant. The leaves containing the water are then tied to the eaves of the house.[218] The people say that during the rule of the Peshwás there was a class of mantris who had the power of causing a failure of rain.[219] To check the fall of rain, some people ask naked boys to throw burning coals into the rain water.[220] Irale (a protection against rain, made of the leaves of trees) is kept in the rain upside down, the goddess Holika is worshipped, the boughs of the Avali tree are conveyed to a place where four roads meet and stones are heaped over it, and eaves of thatched houses are beaten by boys who do not wear clothes, all these being done by the villagers with a view to preventing an excessive fall of rain.[221]
The people of the Thána District believe that distinct deities preside over distinct seasons, e.g., Mars presides over the spring (Vasant), Venus over summer (Grishma), the moon over autumn (Varsha), Mercury over sharat, Saturn over winter (Hemant and Shishir).[222] When the people are in need of rain they say to the god of rain “Let us have plenty of rain to-morrow and we will give thee, Oh! God of rain! rice mixed with curd.” The same offer is made to the god of rain even when they do not want it. In order that there should be no scarcity of rain, some people perform the rites of Laghu-rudra and Mahá-rudra.[223] The following measure if adopted is said to cause rain. The villagers go from house to house with boughs of the Limb tree on their heads, and water is then poured upon them by the inmates.[224] The fall of rain is supposed to cease if a person born in the month of Fálgun extinguishes burning coals in rainwater when his garments have been removed.[225]
Some stones are supposed to have influence over rain fall. There is a big stone at Varasai in the Kolába District on which are drawn certain images. The people believe that it rains hard if this stone is held straight, and then swung to and fro.[226] Some people perform the following rite known as the Dhondilgajya. They ask a person of the Kaikádi or Vadar caste to remain naked and break the string round his waist. A small image of black earth is made and placed upon his head. The boy then conveys the image from house to house in the village. A woman in each house sprinkles water over the image while the boy dances saying “Dhondil gajya, Páus gajya.” It is believed that it rains in the direction in which the water sprinkled falls. A person who accompanies the boy gathers corn at every house. A dinner is then prepared, and the people of the caste to which the boy belongs, partake of it heartily. It is also said that making water in a standing posture causes the fall of rain.[227] The god Rámeshwar at Chaul in the Kolába District is said to have control over rain. In the temple of this god there is a parjanya-kund (pond) which is opened after performing a sacred rite, if there be a scarcity of rain. There are also other kundas in the temple, viz., Váyu-kund and Agni-kund, but no occasion has yet arisen to open them.[228] Some people believe that the god Agni regulates the seasons[229].
Eaves of thatched houses are cleansed with a brush made from the leaves of cocoanut trees in order that a fall of rain should be prevented.[230]
The ceremonies of Haritálika, Rishi-Panchami, Vata-Sávitri, Vaná-Shasthi, Mangalá-Gouri, Shital-Saptami are to be performed by women alone.[231] Similarly, the ceremonies of Mahálakshmi, Vasubáras, Shiva-mutha, and a rite on the Makar Sankrant day are performed by women exclusively.[232]
The rite of Rishi-Panchami is performed on the 5th day of the bright-half of Bhádrapad to make amends for sins committed without knowledge. On this day women go to a river, a well, or some other sacred place, cleanse their teeth with the leaves of the Agháda plant, and take baths with something on the head. They then take some stones from that place and worship them as Rishis. On the conclusion of the worship, they partake of fruits. On the Vrata-Sávitri day women worship a banyan tree or its boughs. The ceremony falls on the 15th day of the bright half of Jyeshtha.[233] On the Haritálika day, i.e., the 3rd day of the bright half of Bhádrapad, women make images of earth of Párvati and her two friends and worship them and fast the whole day. The observance of this rite contributes to their good fortune. Even girls of tender years observe this fast. The worship of Mangalá-Gauri is a ceremony performed by married girls for five successive years on every Tuesday of the month of Shrávan. Similarly, the goddess Mahálakshmi is worshipped on the 8th day of the bright half of Ashvin. On the Makar Sankránt day women worship a sugad[234] and present it to a Bráhman.[235] The Shiva-mutha consists of a handful of corn offered to the god Shiva by married girls on every Monday in the month of Shrávan.[236]
The worship of Shadananda and the Holika Devi and the ceremonies of Shrávani, Shráddha and Antyesti are performed by men alone.[237]
In some families of non-Bráhmans on a particular day, especially on the full-moon day of Ashvin, the host and the hostess put off their clothes and perform certain family rites.[238]
The women of the Thána District fast the whole day on the 12th day of the dark half of Ashvin. At night they worship a cow, give in charity a calf, and then take their meal. It is to be noted that this ceremony called the Vasu-dwádasi is performed by women who have children. On the Haritálika day some women live on the leaves of a Rui tree.[239]
On the Somavati-Amávásya day women worship a Pipal tree and offer it a hundred and eight things of one kind.[240] Women desirous of having a son perform a certain rite at midnight, without clothing.[241] If one wishes to have a son, one has to go through a ceremony called the Hanumán in a naked state.[242]
The god Kálbhairav is worshipped by a naked person on the Narka-Chathurdasi day (14th day of the dark half of Ashvin). Those learning the dark lore, e.g., muth márane, are also required to remain naked while studying it. They learn this lore on an eclipse day on the bank of a river.[243] The rite called Somaya is performed by the host when his clothes are off his body. On a certain Monday in the month of Shrávan a lamp of wheat flour is prepared and burned by adding ghi. This lamp is regarded as a deity, and is worshipped solemnly. During the performance of this ceremony as well as the preparation of the requisite food, the host and the hostess are required to remain naked.[244]
The Swayambhu (unartificial) linga of the god Shiva is supposed to have influence over the fall of rain.[245]
The people of the Thána District believe that the following ceremony causes a fall of rain. Stones are taken out of a pool and worshipped. They are then carried to every house in the village, and water is poured upon them by the inmates.[246] There is a temple of the god of clouds at Viranáth in the Thána District.[247]
The appearance of a comet is regarded by the Hindus as symptomatic of a coming evil, e.g., a big war, a great famine, or a terrible contagious disease spreading itself throughout the length and breadth of a country.[248] Some persons think that comets and shooting stars bode evil to the king.[249]
Whenever a great person or a very holy man is about to be born, it is believed that he alights on the earth in the shape of a shooting star. Sometimes a big star falls on the earth, and thereby a noise like that of thunder is produced. When this happens, people believe that a great Rája or a holy saint whose merit has been exhausted is going to be born on earth.[250] The following verse from the Mrichhakatika Nátak supports the view in accordance with which orthodox people in the Konkan avoid looking at shooting stars:—
इंद्रधनुष्य आणि गोप्रसूति । नक्षत्रांची अधोगति सत्पुरुषांची प्राणविपत्ति ॥ पाहूं नये साचार ॥ i.e.,
The following four things, viz., the rainbow, the fall of shooting stars, the delivery of a cow, and the death-struggle of saints or holy men should not be looked at.[251] It is generally believed by Hindus that a child will immediately be born in the house towards which shooting stars are directed.[252]
[1] School Master, Palshet, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[2] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[3] School Master, Parule, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[4] School Master, Makhnele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[5] School Master, Rájápur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[6] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[7] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[8] School Master, Shahápur, Thána. [↑]
[9] School Master, Dasgaum, Kolába. [↑]
[10] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[11] School Master, Akola, Kolába. [↑]
[12] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[13] These twelve names are:—1 Mitra, 2 Ravi, 3 Surya, 4 Bhanu, 5 Khaga, 6 Pushne, 7 Hiranyagarbha, 8 Marichi, 9 Aditya, 10 Savita, 11 Arka, 12 Bhasker. [↑]
[14] School Master, Phonde. [↑]
[15] School Master, Devarukh. [↑]
[16] School Master, Parule. [↑]
[17] School Master, Anjur. [↑]
[18] School Master, Vasind. [↑]
[19] School Master, Málád. [↑]
[20] 33,000,0000 demons are said to be born every day to impede the journey of the Sun. [↑]
[21] School Master, Málád. [↑]
[22] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála. [↑]
[23] School Master, Padaghe. [↑]
[24] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[25] The churning handle or rod is called in Maráthi Ravi, which is one of the names of the Sun. [↑]
[26] School Master, Nevare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[27] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[28] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[29] School Master, Pendhur, Málvan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[30] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála. [↑]
[31] School Masters, Chauk, Karjat, Kolába. [↑]
[32] School Masters, Chauk, Karjat, Kolába. [↑]
[34] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[35] School Master, Phonde, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[37] In the Konkan the Navánna Purnima or full moon day of new food is observed in the month of Ashvina. This is, no doubt, due to the difference in the season of the harvest. [↑]
[39] School Master, Ibrámpur. [↑]
[40] School Master, Gaumkhadi, Rájápur. [↑]
[41] School Master, Adivare, Rájápur. [↑]
[42] School Master, Dábhol, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[43] School Master, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[44] School Master, Ubhádánda, Vengurla. [↑]
[45] School Master, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[46] School Master, Murbád. [↑]
[47] School Master, Vásind, Sáhápur. [↑]
[49] School Master, Edwan, Máhim. [↑]
[50] School Master, Kalyán, No. 1 and School Master, Padaghe, Bhiwandi. [↑]
[51] School Master, Chidhran, Kolába. [↑]
[52] School Master, Poládpur. [↑]
[53] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[54] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[55] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[56] School Master, Poládpur. [↑]
[57] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[58] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[59] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[60] School Master, Pendur, Málvan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[61] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[62] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[63] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[64] School Master, Ubhádánda, Vengurla. [↑]
[65] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[66] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[67] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[68] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[69] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[70] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[71] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[72] School Master, Málgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[73] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[74] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[75] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[76] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[77] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[78] School Master, Bándivade, Budruk, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[79] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[80] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[81] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[82] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[83] School Master, Rájápur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[84] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[85] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[86] School Master, Khetwadi, A.V. School, Bombay. [↑]
[87] School Master, Khetwadi, A.V. School, Bombay. [↑]
[88] School Master, Padaghe, Thána. [↑]
[89] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[90] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[91] School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[92] School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[93] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[94] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[95] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[96] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[97] School Master, Devarukh, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[98] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[99] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[100] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[101] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[102] School Master, Navare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[103] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[104] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[105] School Master, Kankavli, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[106] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[107] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[108] School Master, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[109] School Master, Rai, Thána. [↑]
[110] School Master, Badlapur, Thána. [↑]
[111] School Master, Mokhada, Thána. [↑]
[112] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[113] School Master, Kasu, Kolába. [↑]
[114] School Master, Vavasi, Kolába. [↑]
[115] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[116] School Master, Vavanje, Kolába. [↑]
[117] School Master, Nevare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[118] School Master, Kasba, Sangameshwar, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[119] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[120] School Master, Pendhur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[121] School Master, Devarukh, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[122] School Master, Málgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[123] School Master, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[124] School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[125] School Master, Chiplun, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[126] School Master, Kankava, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[127] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[128] School Master, Chiplun, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[129] School Master, Khetwadi, A.V.S., Bombay. [↑]
[130] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[131] School Master, Rai, Thána. [↑]
[132] School Master, Shahápur, Thána. [↑]
[133] School Master, Bhuvan, Thána. [↑]
[134] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[135] School Master, Vavanje, Kolába. [↑]
[136] School Master, Akol, Kolába. [↑]
[137] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[138] School Master, Kasba, Sangameshwar, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[139] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[140] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[141] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[142] School Master, Chiplun, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[143] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[144] School Master, Varsai, Kolába. [↑]
[145] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[146] School Master, Varsai, Kolába. [↑]
[147] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[148] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[149] School Master, Chiplun, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[150] School Master, Palspot, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[151] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[152] School Master, Murbád, Thána. [↑]
[153] School Master, Bhuvan, Thána. [↑]
[154] School Master, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[155] School Master, Phonde, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[156] School Master, Wanhavli, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[157] School Master, Bándivade, Budruk, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[158] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[159] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[160] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[161] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[162] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[163] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[164] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[165] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[166] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[167] School Master, Devarukh, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[168] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[169] School Master, Murbád, Thána. [↑]
[170] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[171] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[172] School Master, Wáda, Thána. [↑]
[173] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[174] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[175] School Master, Saloli, Thána. [↑]
[176] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[177] School Master, Kinhavali, Thána. [↑]
[178] School Master, Rái, Thána. [↑]
[179] School Master, Khativali, Thána. [↑]
[180] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[181] School Master, Murbád, Thána. [↑]
[182] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[183] School Master, Bhuvan, Thána. [↑]
[184] School Masters, Wáda, Thána. [↑]
[185] School Master, Sháhápur, Thána. [↑]
[186] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[187] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[188] School Master, Wavasi, Kolába. [↑]
[189] School Master, Varsai, Kolába. [↑]
[190] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[191] School Master, Wavasi, Kolába. [↑]
[192] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[193] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[194] School Master, Akol, Kolába. [↑]
[195] School Master, Vavasi, Kolába. [↑]
[196] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[197] School Master, Bándivade, Budruk, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[198] School Master, Málgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[199] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[200] School Master, Dahánu, Thána. [↑]
[201] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[202] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[203] School Master, Umbargaum, Thána. [↑]
[204] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[205] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[206] School Master, Akol, Kolába. [↑]
[207] School Master, Sasawane, Kolába. [↑]
[208] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[209] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[210] School Master, Málvan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[211] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[212] School Master, Kankavli, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[213] School Master, Phonde, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[214] School Master, Chiplun, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[215] School Master, Nevare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[216] School Master, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[217] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[218] School Master, Bándivade, Budruk, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[219] School Master, Málvan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[220] School Master, Dábhol, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[221] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[222] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[223] School Master, Murbád, Thána. [↑]
[224] School Master, Dahánu, Thána. [↑]
[225] School Master, Padaghe, Thána. [↑]
[226] School Master, Nágothane, Kolába. [↑]
[227] School Master, Akol, Kolába. [↑]
[228] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[229] School Master, Apte, Kolába. [↑]
[230] School Master, Khetwadi, A.V.S., Bombay. [↑]
[231] School Master, Málvan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[232] School Master, Málgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[233] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[234] Two earthen pots tied face to face, one of which containing some corn and red and yellow powders. [↑]
[235] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[236] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[237] School Master, Málvan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[238] School Master, Makhanele, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[239] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[240] School Master, Badlapur, Kalyán. [↑]
[241] School Master, Bhuvan, Thána. [↑]
[242] School Master, Bhuvan, Thána. [↑]
[243] School Master, Tale, School No. I, Kolába. [↑]
[244] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[245] School Master, Devarukh, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[246] School Master, Badlapur, Thána. [↑]
[247] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[248] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[249] School Master, Nevare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[250] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[251] School Master, Thána. [↑]
[252] School Master, Kolába. [↑]
CHAPTER II.
THE HEROIC GODLINGS.
In the Konkan the deities of the Hindus are divided into the following five classes, viz.:—
(1) The Grámadevatás or Village deities,
(2) The Sthánadevatás or Local deities,
(3) The Kuladevatás or Family deities,
(4) The Ishtadevatás or Chosen deities, and
(5) The Wástudevatás or Grihadevatás, that is, the class of deity which presides over the house and is established at the time of the housewarming or Wástu ceremony.
The principal Gráma-devatás are Hanumán or Máruti, Kálika, Amba, Wághoba, Chedoba, Mhasoba, Bahiroba or Bhairav, Ganesh, Vira, Mhálsa or Maha Lakshmi, Chámunda, Vetál, Khandoba Malhári Jogái, Bhawáni, and Wágeshwari and Shiva. In most villages the chief village god is Máruti or Hanumán, whose temple is situated at the entrance of the village. Máruti is considered to be an avatár or incarnation of Shiva, and is held in great reverence by all classes. A festival or jatra is held in honour of Hanumán on the bright half of the month of Chaitra. On this occasion the temple is decorated with ever-greens, and flowers, the stone image of the god is newly painted or covered with red lead and oil, and garlands of the Rui (Gigantic snake wort) flowers are placed round the neck of the image, cocoanuts, plantains, betelnuts and leaves are offered to the god, camphor is lighted and waved round the image, incense is burnt, cooked food and sweets are offered, and money presents are made. Every worshipper brings with him some oil, red-lead or Cendur, a cocoanut, a vidá-supári, i.e., two betel leaves, one betelnut and a copper coin, and a garland of Rui flowers. These are given to the temple ministrant, who offers a part of the oil and red lead to the deity, places the garland round the deity’s neck, and, breaking the cocoanut into pieces, gives a piece or two to the devotee as the prasád or favoured gift of the deity. Saturday is the sacred day of the monkey god Máruti. Every Saturday fresh oil and red lead are offered to the god by the devotees. The Pujáris in most of the temples of Máruti are Guravs, Ghádis, Maráthás or Gosávis.
Every Saturday in the month of Shrávan (August), called the Sampat Shaniwár or the wealth-giving Saturday a special puja or worship is performed in the temples of Máruti in Bombay as well as in the Konkan. On this day people fast the whole day and dine in the evening, after offering the god Hanumán or Máruti a preparation of rice and pulse called khichadi and cakes made of udid flour called vade.[1]
There is no village in the Konkan which has not the honour of having a temple of the god Máruti. Máruti is supposed to guard the village against evils of all kinds. Care is therefore taken to build the temple of Máruti at the outskirts of the village.[2] There is a tradition that at the time of leaving the Dandaka forest (the present Maháráshtra), Ráma asked Máruti to reside therein. It is for this reason, the people say, that every village in the Konkan and on the Gháts has a temple of Máruti.[3] The god Máruti is worshipped in the village of Wásind on Tuesdays and Saturdays.[4] In former days it was customary to establish an image of the god Máruti in a newly built castle or fort.[5] Hanumán, the son of Anjani and the wind or Márut, is known for his loyalty to his master and for his bravery. In days gone by he utilized his strength for the protection of Saints, Rishis, Bráhmans and cows, and for this merit he was elevated to the rank of a Hindu god. Every Hindu village or locality is supposed to possess at least one temple of the god Máruti, and in Maháráshtra Máruti is the guardian of every village. He is a Brahmachári, or bachelor and is one of the seven heroes who are believed to be chiranjívis or immortals.[6] Máruti is supposed to be the originator of the Mantra-Shástra, by the study and repetition of which one obtains strength and superhuman power. Women desirous of getting children go to the temple of Máruti, and there burn before his image lamps made of wheat flour and filled with ghi. The image of Hanumán is represented in temples in two ways, that is (1) Víra Hanumán or Warrior Hanumán, (2) Dása-Hanumán or servant Hanumán. The former is found in a temple consecrated to the worship of the god Hanumán alone, whereas the latter is found in a temple dedicated to the worship of the god Ráma.[7] Since Máruti is the god of strength, gymnasts tie an image of Máruti to their wrists, and they also consecrate an image of Máruti in their gymnasiums. The number eleven is said to be dear and sacred to him because he is believed to be an incarnation of the eleven Rudras. The birth day of the god Máruti which falls on the 15th of the bright half of Chaitra, called the Hanumán Jayanti day, is celebrated in the Kolhápur District with great reverence. Those who wish to have a son draw the figure of Máruti on a wall in red-lead, and worship it daily with sandal paste, flowers and garlands of Rui. Others burn lamps made of wheat flour before the image of the god. Persons who are under the evil influence of the planets, and especially of the planet Saturn, worship the god Hanumán on Saturdays in order to propitiate the planets. On this day they make wreaths of the leaves and flowers of the Rui plant and adorn his neck with them. They also offer him udid (Phaseolus radiatus) and salt. The story told of Máruti is that Anjani his mother pleased the god Shiva with her penance, and when the god asked her to claim a boon, she requested that Shiva himself should be born as her son. Shiva therefore took birth in her womb and manifested himself as Hanumán or Máruti[8].
The Local deities are generally found in special localities or sacred places called Kshetras or Punya sthánas. Thus the god Ráma at Násik, Vithoba at Pandharpur, Krishna at Dwárka, Mahálakshmi at Kolwan, Wájreshwari at Nirmal (Thána), Mharloba in the Ratnágiri, Shitala devi at Kelwa Máhim, and Khandoba or Khanderái at Jejuri.
Khanderái is said to be an incarnation of the god Shiva. Khanderái killed the demon Mani-Malla who was devastating the earth, and he is therefore called Mallári or Malhári. Kunbis and lower class Hindus in the Konkan as well as in the Deccan occasionally make a vow to the god Khandoba that if their desire is fulfilled they will offer their first born male or female child to the service of the god. The male child thus dedicated to Khandoba is called Wághya and the female is called Murali. The Wághya and Murali do not engage in any business, but maintain themselves by begging in the streets in the name of the god Khanderái. Though they are not actually married, the Wághyas and Muralis live as husband and wife, and their progeny are also called Wághyas and Muralis. They repeat the sacred cry jai khanderáyácha Elkot, and give to people bel-bhandár of Khanderái consisting of the sacred Bel leaves and turmeric powder. The god Khanderái is the family deity of some Deshasth Bráhmans, who perform a family rite called Tali bharane तळी भरणे on every purnima or full moon day. The rite is as follows:—
A tali or plate is filled with cocoanuts, fruits, betel nuts, saffron, turmeric or bel-bhandár, etc. Then a pot is filled with water, and on its mouth a cocoanut is placed. This cocoanut, with the pot, is then worshipped with flowers, sandal paste, etc., a lighted lamp filled with ghi is put in the same place, and the tali is waved thrice round the pot, which is supposed to contain the god Khandoba. Five persons then lift up the cocoanut with the tali and place it three times on the pot, repeating each time the words Elkot or Khande ráyácha Elkot. The cocoanut is then broken into pieces, mixed with sugar or jágri, and is distributed among friends and relations as prasád. On this occasion, as well as on the occasions of all Kuladharmas, that is, the days fixed for performing the special worship of the family goddess or family god of each family, the ceremony called the Gondhal dance is performed. On the same occasion another ceremony called Bodan is performed by the Deshasths and by the Chitpávans. It is as follows:— An image of the family deity is placed in a pot or plate called támhan, and it is then bathed in the panchámrit, that is, the five holy things, viz., milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar. Sandalpaste is offered to it as well as flowers, lighted lamps and some sweets and incense. Five women whose husbands are alive then prepare five lamps of wheat flour called Kuranandi and wave them thrice round the face of the goddess or god, as the case may be. All the limps are then placed in the plate or támhan in which the deity is kept, and the panchámrita and other materials of worship and food and sweet cakes are mixed together. Occasionally one of the five women becomes possessed with the spirit of the kula-devi or family deity, and confers blessings on the members of the family for their devotion. It is believed that those families which fail to perform periodically the Bodan, Tali and Gondhal ceremonies in honour of their tutelary deity are sure to suffer, from some misfortune or calamity during the year.[9] The local deities chiefly worshipped at Chaul, Kolába District, are Hingláj, Jakhmáta, Bhagawati, Champáwati, Mahikáwati, and Golamba-devi. At the sowing and reaping times, people of the lower castes offer fowls and goats to these deities, and Bráhmans offer cocoanuts.[10] The local deity of the village Wávashi near Pen in the Kolába District is said to possess the power of averting evil, and is accordingly held in great respect by the people of many villages in the District. Every third year a great fair is held, and a buffalo is sacrificed to the goddess on the full moon day of the month of Chaitra. The Pujári of this goddess is a Gurav.[11] Another celebrated Sthána-deva in the Kolába District is Bahiri-Somajai of Khopoli. It is believed that a person suffering from snake-bite is cured without any medicine if he simply resides for one night in the temple of this goddess. Sacrifices of goats, fowls and cocoanuts are made to this goddess at the time of sowing and reaping. The Pujáris of this deity are known as Shingade Guravs.[12] The worship of the local deity Bápdev is much in favour among the villages of Apta and the surrounding places. At the times of sowing and reaping, offerings of fowls, goats and cocoanuts are made to Bápdev through the Pujári.[13] The worship of the local deities Kolambái, Bhawáni, and Giroba is prevalent in the Chauk villages.[14] To the Gráma-devi of the village of Tale every third year a buffalo is sacrificed, and at an interval of two years goats are offered.[15] The deities Shiva and Kálkái are worshipped with great reverence at Bakavali in the Ratnágiri District.[16] In many villages of the Ratnágiri District the goddess Pandhar is considered to be the Gaon-devi or the chief goddess of the village. The Pujári is generally a Gurav or Marátha Kunbi. On every full moon day cocoanuts are offered, and on the occasions of sowing and reaping, goats and fowls are sacrificed to this deity.[17] At Devgad there is a temple of the goddess Gajábái on the sea shore. The Pujári of this goddess is a man of the Ghádi caste. On the first day of the bright half of the month of Márgashirsh (December) special offerings of goats, fowls and cocoanuts are made by the villagers.[18] The deities Ravalnáth, Máuli, Vetál, Rámeshwar and Hanumán are usually worshipped in most villages in Ratnágiri. The villagers in the Ratnágiri District have great faith in their local deities, and before undertaking any important business they obtain the consent or take the omen of the deity. This ceremony is known as kaul ghálne and it is performed as follows:—Two betel nuts or flowers are taken and one of them is placed on the right side of the deity and the other on the left side. The worshipper then bows before the deity and requests her to let the nut on the right side fall first if the deity is pleased to consent, if not, to let the nut on the left side fall first. Naturally one of the two nuts falls first, and they interpret this as either consent or dissent as the case may be. The villagers have so much faith in this kaul that they make use of this method of divination to ascertain whether sick or diseased persons will recover or die. Special sacrifices are offered to these local deities whenever an epidemic like cholera occurs.[19] In the Ratnágiri District, at many places, there are Swayambhu or natural lingas of the god Shiva, and over these places temples are built. The Pujáris of these temples are generally Jangams or Lingayat Guravs. No animal sacrifices are made at these shrines.[20] At a short distance from the village of Makhamle there is a temple of the god Shiva called Amnáyeshwar. The following legend is narrated in connection with this temple:—The place where the present temple stands once abounded with Amani trees and formed a pasture for cattle. The cow of a certain man of the village daily used to go to graze at this place. The cow used to give milk twice, but one day she gave milk only once, and thereafter she continued to give milk only once a day. The owner therefore asked the Gavali or cowherd to ascertain the cause of this sudden change. One day the cowherd noticed that the cow allowed her milk to drop upon a stone. At this the cowherd was so enraged that he struck the stone with his scythe so hard that it was cloven in two and blood gushed forth. He hurriedly repaired to the village and related this wonderful phenomenon to the people. The villagers came to the spot, and decided to build a temple to the god Shiva over the stone. One part of the stone is in this temple and the other part was taken to the village of Kalamburi, where another temple was built over it.[21] In the Sangameshwar village the Bráhmans also worship the images of the local goddesses Chandukái, Jholái and Sunkái. In the Konkan the deities Náráyan, Rawalnáth, Manli, Datta, Vetál and Shiva are worshipped everywhere.[22] The following legend is told about the deity Vetál, the leader of the ghosts:—In the Sávantwádi State there is a temple of Vetál in the village of Ajgaon.[23] As part of his worship it is considered necessary to offer to this deity a pair of shoes every month. The people believe that after a few days the shoes become worn out. The inference drawn from this by the people is that at night the god Vetál goes out walking in the new shoes.[24] In the village of Khed in the Ratnágiri District, a buffalo is offered to the goddess Redjái on the full moon day of Chaitra every third year.[25] At Náringre offerings of cocoanuts, etc. are made to the deities Bhávakái, Chala, etc. on the 1st of the month of Márgashirsha.[26] The Schoolmaster of Ibrámpur states that one of the following deities is the grámadevata of every village in the Ratnágiri District viz.: Chandkái, Varadhan, Khem, Bahiri, Kedár, Vággaya, Antaral, Manaya, Salbaya and Vághámbari. A procession in their honour takes place in the months of Chaitra and Fálgun. The Pujáris are generally either Guravs or Marátha Kunbis. A ceremony called Palejatra is performed in the sowing season, while the Dhal-jatra is performed at the harvest time. At these fairs fowls, cocoanuts, goats, fruits, etc. are offered to these deities.[27] At Málwan on the no-moon day of Shrávan (August) local deities and ghosts are propitiated by offering to them goats, fowls, etc.[28] At Pálset in the Ratnágiri District, the god Parashurám is the most important deity especially for Chitpávans. He exterminated the Kshatriyas twenty-one times, and having no space for himself and his Bráhmans, he asked the sea to provide him with new land. On meeting with a refusal, Parashurám became enraged and was about to push the sea back with his arrow, when, at the instigation of the sea, a black-bee (bhunga) cut the string of his bow, and the arrow only went a short distance. The people say that the space thus recovered from the sea came to be called Konkan.[29] At Anjarle there are two local goddesses Sawanekarin and Bahiri. Offerings of goats and fowls are made to them in the months of Márgashirsha (December) and Fálgun (March). Sometimes liquor and eggs are also offered. Offerings can be made on any day except Monday and Ekádashi, Tuesdays and Sundays being considered most suitable.[30] At Ubhádánda in the Ratnágiri District, Ravalnáth and Bhutanáth are held in great reverence. They are believed to be incarnations of the god Shiva. The Pujáris are generally Guravs, Ghádis, Ráuls and Sutárs.[31] The following goddesses which are popular in the Ratnágiri District are believed to be incarnations of the goddess Durga, viz. Navala-devi, Vághur-devi, Jakha-devi and Kálkái.[32] At Maral in the Ratnágiri District there is a swayambhu or natural linga of the god Shiva. It is called Maheshwar, and in its honour a fair is held on the Sankránt day.[33] The chief local deity of the Dahánu taluka, Thána District, is Mahálakshmi. She has seven sisters and one brother, two of the sisters being the Pangala-devi at Tárápur and the Delavadi-devi at Ghivali. Goats and fowls are offered to the Pangala-devi on the Dasara day. Her Pujári is a Gurav. It is said that the goddess Delwadi used to receive her garments from the sea, but now this is no longer the case though it is still believed that the incense which is burnt before her comes floating from Dwárka.[34] In the village of Edwan there is a goddess called Ashápuri, who used to supply her devotees with whatever they wanted. The devotee was required to besmear with cow-dung a plot of ground in the temple, and to pray for the things wanted by him. The next day, when he came to the temple, he found the desired things on the spot besmeared with cow-dung.[35] At Mángaon the Pujári of the local goddess is either the Pátil or the Madhavi of the village.[36] In the village of Dahigaon cocoanuts are offered annually to the village Máruti, and fowls and goats to the other local deities, in order that the village may be protected against danger and disease.[37] It is believed that any Bráhman who acts as the Pujári of the god Shiva will find his family exterminated, and for this reason Bráhmans do not act as Pujáris in the temples of Shiva.
In a few temples of goddesses like Jakhái etc. the Pujári is of the Mahár caste.[38] A great fair is held in honour of the goddess Vajrá-bái or Vajreshwari near Nirmal in the month of Kártika (November). The Pujári of the goddess is a Gosávi of the Giri sect. The worship of Bhimasena is not prevalent in the Konkan, but the hero Bhima, like Máruti, is held in reverence by the gymnasts. Bhima is not worshipped, but a work called the Bhima-stavaráj is read at the bed of a dying man in order that he may obtain salvation. At Ashirgad there is a gumpha or cave of Ashwattháma, a hero of the Mahábhárata, and it is said that a noise is heard coming from the cave on the full moon day.[39]
Wherever a village is founded, it is customary to establish a village deity as the guardian of the village. The deities chosen are Máruti, Káli, Chandkái, Varadani, etc. In the Konkan, goddesses are preferred, and on the Ghats generally Máruti is preferred. Certain ceremonies are performed for consecrating the place to the deity, and sometimes the deity is called after the village as Marleshwar[40] etc. By many lower class people the goddess Pondhar is often selected as the guardian of a new village. At Shahpur, if the newly founded village is to be inhabited by high class Hindus, the deities Máruti and Durga are selected as gráma-devatas, but if it is to be inhabited by lower class people, then such deities as Mhasoba, Chedoba, Jákhái, etc. are chosen.[41] In the Bassein and Sálsette tálukas the following deities viz. Máruti, Chedá, Chandkái, and Shiva, are chosen as village deities. Cheda is represented by a long piece of wood or stone besmeared with red-powder, and is placed on the outskirts of the village. No Bráhman is necessary for establishing a Cheda. The Pujári is generally a Kunbi or Máli, and he establishes the deity by offering it a goat or fowls and cocoanuts.[42] Sometimes the guardian deity of a new settlement is decided upon by a Kaul. Two or three names of deities are selected, betelnuts or flowers are placed on the sides of the guardian deity of the neighbouring village and that deity in whose name the betelnut falls first is chosen as the deity of the new village.[43] At Chaul, the deity called Bápdev is very popular among the lower classes. It is represented by a big stone fixed on mortar and besmeared with red-powder. When it is established for the first time in a village, a Bráhman is required to make the first púja or worship, but after this it is worshipped by a Pujári of a lower caste.[44] The Mahars in the Kolába District select the ghost-deity called Jhaloba as the guardian deity of a new settlement.[45] In many cases the deity of their former village or of the neighbouring village[46] is named by a Bhagat or exorcist, who becomes possessed.[47]
In the Konkan every village farm is supposed to be under the guardianship of the minor godlings, the majority of which are called Bhuta-Devatás or ghostly godlings. In some cases the field guardians are also the Bráhmanic godlings like Máruti and Shiva.[48] To the Bráhmanic guardians of the field, cocoanuts and flowers are offered at the sowing and reaping seasons, and to the rest, fowls, cocoanuts, and sometimes goats, are offered. The higher classes feed one or two Bráhmans in order to propitiate the deities of the fields; and for the propitiation of the minor deities of the field the lower classes perform a rite called Dalap. This rite is performed by a man of the Gurav, Ghádi, or Rául, caste by sacrificing to the field deity a goat or fowls and cocoanuts. The pujári repeats prayers for a good harvest, and then distributes portions of the offerings among the people assembled there for witnessing the rite.[49] In the Ratnágiri District on the no-moon day of Jeshta people assemble in the temple of the village deity and perform a rite called Gárháne in order that they should have a good crop, that their village may be free from diseases, and that their cattle may be protected. A similar rite is performed on the first day of the bright half of the month of Márgashirsha (December), and on this occasion sometimes a goat or sheep is sacrificed at the boundary of the village.[50] In order that there should be a good harvest, the villagers of Kankaoli worship on certain days from the month of Kártika (November) to the month of Shimga (March) the minor deities of the field by offering them fowls, cocoanuts, etc.[51] At Achare (Ratnágiri) some people worship the god of the clouds on the day on which the Mrigashirsha constellation begins, and they believe that thereby plenty of rain is ensured for the season.[52] For good harvests and for the protection of their cattle, the villagers of Achare pray to the Gráma-devata in the month of Jeshta (June), and then go in procession from the temple of the village deity to the boundary of the village, where they sacrifice a cock and offer some cooked rice with a burning wick upon it, to the deity that presides over the fields and harvests.[53] In the village of Palset of the Ratnágiri District the goddess Khema is worshipped by the villagers to obtain good crops, and for the protection of their cattle. The Púja or special worship takes place on the full-moon day of Márgashirsha and on this occasion the sacred Gondhal dance is also performed.[54] In certain villages of the Ratnágiri District, for obtaining good harvest, people worship the godling Mahápurush at the beginning of the sowing and reaping operations, and offer the deity fowls, cocoanuts and cooked rice.[55] In the village of Málwan, at the sowing and reaping seasons, the villagers usually make offerings of fowls and cocoanuts and goats to the guardians of the fields, but Bráhmans and such Kunbi farmers as do not eat flesh make offerings of cooked rice mixed with curds.[56] At Ubhádánda village, in order to secure a good harvest and for the protection of the cattle, the villagers worship the spirit godlings called Sambandhas and perform the rite called Devachár.[57] At Kochare, annual prayers are offered to the godling called Gavatdev for the protection of the village cattle.[58] In the Devgad taluka people believe that some deity resides in every farm or in every collection of fields, and that good or bad harvests are caused as the deity is pleased or displeased.[59] In order that there should be plenty of rain and that the cattle should be protected, the villagers of Málgund assemble in the temple of the village deity and offer prayers on the full moon day of Fálgun (March) and on the 1st day of the bright half of Márgashirsh.[60] In the Kolába District, for the protection of cattle and for good crops, prayers are offered to the god Bahiri and the ghosts Khavis and Sambandh.[61]
At Chauk in the Kolába District the villagers perform a special púja or worship of the god Krishna in order that the village cattle may be protected.[62] At Sasawane a fair called pále jatra is held in the month of Bhádrapad (September) in order that the villagers may have a good harvest, and that their cattle may be protected against tigers and disease.[63] At Akol, on the day which follows the Ganesh-Chaturthi, people throw parched rice over their fields and houses so that the rats may not run over them.[64] At Málád in the Thána District, for the protection of cattle, the god Wághoba is worshipped at night on the 12th of Ashvin which is called the Wágh-báras.[65] In some villages of the Thána District the deity Wághoba or Wághya is worshipped on the 12th day of the dark half of Kártik. On that day the cowherds collect a quantity of milk and prepare a kind of food known as Khir by mixing jágri and cooked rice. They then proceed to the stone image of the deity in the jungle, and besmear it with new red-lead or shendur. They pour a portion of the sweet milk over the stone, and offer prayers for the protection of their cattle. They then partake of the remaining milk.[66] At Agáshi and other neighbouring villages, before the fields are ploughed, the villagers assemble and collect a certain sum of money, with which they buy goats, fowls, red-powder, cocoanuts and parched grain. A goat and some cocks are then sacrificed to the spirits residing in the cemeteries and at the boundary of the village. Cocoanuts besmeared with gulál red powder are also offered to these ghost godlings. A goat decorated with garlands and red powder is then made to walk round the village three times at night, accompanied by the villagers, who throw láhya parched rice while passing. This rite is called Siwa Bándhane or binding the boundary, and is supposed to protect the village crops and cattle. No farmer dares to sow his seed unless this rite has been performed. After this rite has been performed, every farmer appeases his family deity, i.e. Khandoba, Bahiroba, Kankoba, etc., by performing a ceremony at home called Deopan or Devaśki, which relates to the worship of ancestors. Most of the farmers regard one of their dead ancestors as their chief deity, and represent him in their house by a cocoanut. They do not enter on any new business without first offering prayers to this cocoanut, and they also believe that they can bring evil upon their enemies by simply cursing them before the deified cocoanut. The only materials generally required for the worship of this cocoanut are red powder, incense and flowers. On rare occasions, goats and fowls are sacrificed. It is believed that the ancestor in the cocoanut likes to be worshipped by the wife or husband (as the case may be) of the person represented by the cocoanut. Some farmers, in addition to the cocoanut, worship a stick or cap of their ancestor along with the cocoanut, and offer prayers for the protection of their cattle, for good rain and harvest, and also for the destruction of their enemies.[67]
[1] School Master, Khetwadi, Bombay. [↑]
[2] School Master, Devgad, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[3] School Master, Kamathipura, Bombay. [↑]
[4] School Master, Wásind, Thána. [↑]
[5] School Master, Umela, Thána. [↑]
[6] The Hindus believe that there are seven heroes who can never die, i.e., 1 Ashwattháma, 2 Bali, 3 Vyása, 4 Hanumán, 5 Bibhíshana, 6 Kripáchárya and 7 Parashurám. The Sanskrit text is:—
अश्वत्थामा बलि र्व्यासो हनुमंतो बिभीषणः । कृपाचार्यः परशुरामस्सप्तैते चिरजीविनः ॥ [↑]
[7] School Masters, Agáshi and Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[8] School Master, Samangad, Kolhápur. [↑]
[9] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[10] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[11] School Master, Wávashi, Kolába. [↑]
[12] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[13] School Master, Apta, Kolába. [↑]
[14] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[15] School Master, Tale, Kolába. [↑]
[16] School Master, Bakavali, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[17] School Master, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[18] School Master, Devgad, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[19] School Master, Parule, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[20] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[21] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[22] School Master, Makhamle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[23] School Master, Sangameshwar, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[24] School Master, Kámáthipura, Bombay. [↑]
[25] School Master, Dábhol, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[26] School Master, Náringre, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[27] School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[28] School Master, Málwan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[29] School Master, Palset, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[30] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[31] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[32] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[33] School Master, Sákharpe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[34] School Master, Dahánu, Thána. [↑]
[35] School Master, Edwan, Thána. [↑]
[36] School Master, Mángaon, Thána. [↑]
[37] School Master, Dahigaon. [↑]
[38] School Master, Bhiwandi, Thána. [↑]
[39] School Master, Agáshi, Arnála, Thána. [↑]
[40] School Master, Agáshi, Thána. [↑]
[41] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[42] School Master, Shahápur, Thána. [↑]
[43] School Master, Agáshi, Thána. [↑]
[44] School Master, Medhe, Kolába. [↑]
[45] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[46] School Master, Akol, Kolába. [↑]
[47] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[48] School Master, Shirosi, Thána District. [↑]
[49] School Master, Parule, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[50] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[51] School Master, Kankaoli, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[52] School Master, Achare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[53] School Master, Masure, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[54] School Master, Palset, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[55] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[56] School Master, Málwan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[57] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[58] School Master, Kochare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[59] School Master, Devgad, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[60] School Master, Malgund, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[61] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[62] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[63] School Master, Sasawane, Kolába. [↑]
[64] School Master, Akol, Kolába. [↑]
[65] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[66] School Master, Bhuwan, Thána. [↑]
[67] School Master, Agáshi, Thána District. [↑]
CHAPTER III.
DISEASE DEITIES.
At Vengurla, in the Ratnágiri District, when epidemic diseases prevail, the people of the village assemble and prepare a basket in which are placed cooked rice, cocoanuts, lemons, wine, red flowers and Udid (Phaseolus radiatus) grain. The basket is then carried out of the village along with a cock or a goat, and deposited outside the village boundary. To carry this basket, a person belonging to the Mahár caste is generally selected. The people of the next village similarly carry the basket beyond their village limits; and it is finally thrown into the sea. It is believed that if the basket of offerings to the disease-deities is carried from one village to another, it is sure to bring the disease with it. Great care is therefore taken to throw the offerings into the sea. In cases of small pox a feast is given to women whose husbands are alive. In some cases boiled rice is mixed with the blood of a cock, and on the rice is placed a burning black cotton wick in a cocoanut shell with a little oil in it. The whole is then carried beyond the village boundary and thrown away.[1] In the village of Mithbáv in the Ratnágiri District, epidemic diseases like cholera, small pox, plague, etc., are supposed to come from disease deities, and in order to avoid the danger of such diseases the people of the village go to the temple of the village deity and pray for protection. The special form of worship on such occasions is the Kaul, i.e., asking a favour from the deity. When an epidemic of plague broke out for the first time at Sangameshwar, the people of the village at once proceeded to worship the village deity; but a few cases of plague occurred, even after worshipping the village goddess Jákhmáta. When the people went to the temple and asked the reason why the plague continued, it was announced by the deity through the temple ministrant that she was helpless in the case of plague, and desired the people to worship the god Shiva, thereby signifying that the village deity has limited powers, and that the power of averting great evils lies with Shiva the god of destruction.[2] In the Devgad Taluka of the Ratnágiri District in epidemic diseases like cholera, etc., the usual ceremony, i.e., the Paradi (disease-scaring basket) is performed. A basket containing boiled rice, red powder, red flowers, lemons, betel nuts, betel leaves, etc., is prepared, and on that rice is kept a burning cotton wick dipped in oil. The basket is then carried beyond the village boundary along with a goat having a red flower garland round its neck. The goat is set free at the outskirts of the village. In cases of small pox, married women whose husbands are alive are worshipped with turmeric powder, cocoanuts, flowers, etc., and incense is kept burning in the house. The deity of small pox is also specially worshipped for a number of days. It is represented by a brass or copper lota with a cocoanut placed over it. This process is called mánd bharane i.e. arranging the materials of worship. The girls in the house sing songs in praise of the small pox deity. It is believed that in this way the severity of the disease is reduced.[3]
In the Sangameshwar taluka of the Ratnágiri District, when epidemic diseases prevail, the people of the village assemble in the temple of the village deity, offer a cocoanut to the goddess, and ask for a Kaul (omen). After receiving the Kaul they pray for mercy. It is believed that if the Kaul is in favour of the people the diseases will disappear.[4] At Achare in the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District it is believed that epidemic diseases such as cholera, small pox, etc., are caused by the anger of the deities Jari and Mari; and in order to satisfy those deities animal sacrifices are offered at the time of their worship. There are no other deities who cause such diseases.[5] At Vijayadurg in the Ratnágiri District, in cases of small pox, the child suffering from the disease is made to sleep on a silk garment Sovalen. Flowers are thrown upon the patient’s body, and are given to him to smell. Incense is burnt in the house. On the seventh day from the beginning of the disease, the child is first bathed in milk and then in water. Black scented powder called Abir is thrown on the body. After two or three days an image representing the deity is made of flour, which is worshipped, and a feast is given to Bráhmans and unwidowed women.[6]
At Basani in the Ratnágiri District the disease of small pox is averted by a Bráhman worshipping the goddess Shitala. Bráhmans are also worshipped, and a feast is given to them. In cases of cholera and the other epidemic diseases the village deity is worshipped and sacrifices are made to her.[7]
At Kochare in the Vengurla taluka of the Ratnágiri District, a woman whose husband is alive is made to represent the goddess Jari Mari, and is worshipped with flowers, red powder Kunku and black ointment Kájal. She is given a feast of sweet things; and rice and cocoanuts are put into her lap by another woman whose husband is alive. She is then carried in procession through the village with beating of drums and the singing of songs. This is similar to the Paradi procession, which is also common in that District.[8]
At Navare in the Ratnágiri District, in cases of small pox, the diseased child and the person into whose body the small pox deities called Báyás enter, are worshipped with Abir black scented powder, flower garlands, &c.[9]
At Pendur in the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District the wrath of the female deities or Mátrikás is supposed to be the cause of epidemic diseases, and these Mátrikás are accordingly worshipped for their pacification.[10]
At Chaul in the Kolába District the god Shankar is worshipped by Bráhmans when epidemic diseases prevail in a village. The worship consists in repeating Vedic hymns. The nine planets are also propitiated by sacrifices of boiled rice, etc. There is a famous temple of the goddess Shitala at Chaul where the deity is worshipped by Bráhmans, who recite Vedic hymns, whenever small pox prevails in the village. The mantras of the goddess and the Shitala Ashtaka are also repeated in the Pauránic style. The women walk round the temple every day as long as the signs of the disease are visible on their children. The goddess is worshipped with turmeric and red powders, and clothes and fruits are given to her. The Kaul ceremony is also practised in this District. It is worth noticing that even Musalmáns ask for a Kaul from this goddess. The days fixed for Kaul are:—Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday. The morning hours are considered specially auspicious for the Kaul. There is another temple at Chaul, of the goddess Shri Golába Devi. This goddess is also worshipped when other epidemic diseases prevail in the village. Saptáha i.e. continuous worship for seven days is also performed in honour of the deity. The gardeners (Mális) of the village worship this deity every Tuesday morning with cocoanuts gathered from every house in the village. This temple is being repaired at present.[11]
When epidemic diseases prevail in the village of Poladpur of the Kolába District the god Shiva is worshipped by continuously pouring water over the deity’s head or linga. Sacrifices of fruits and animals are also offered to the village deity. Where there is a temple of the deity Mári or Mahámári, the deity is worshipped through a Bráhman, and sacrifices of cocks and goats are offered to her. The deity named Shitala is worshipped in cases of small pox.[12]
At Vávashi in the Pen taluka of the Kolába District, in cases of epidemic diseases, the people of the village invoke the god Shiva, and holy fires called homa are kindled in honour of that god. Sacrifices of boiled rice are also offered to the deity. For averting small pox the deity Shitala is invoked by the mantras called Shitala Ashtaka. For averting fevers the gods Shankar and Vishnu are also worshipped.[13]
At Medhe in the Rohe taluka of the Kolába District the god Shiva is worshipped in order to avert an epidemic, and Hanumán is worshipped to avert fevers.[14]
At Málád in the Salsette taluka of the Thána District, when an epidemic prevails in a village, the goddess Navachandi is worshipped and the Homa is kindled in her honour. On the last day of worship a goat is set free as a sacrifice to the deity. The Bali, i.e., the offering of boiled rice, and the goat are taken beyond the boundary of the village, and handed over to the people of the neighbouring village, who follow the same procedure, and at last both the sacrifices are thrown into the sea. The goat generally dies, as it does not get water and food till it reaches the sea.[15]
In the village of Anjur in the Thána District, in cases of long standing fevers the Bráhmans observe the ceremony called Udak Shanti or propitiation by water. It is as follows:—An earthen pot filled with water is placed on the ground. On the top of the pot is placed a round plate in which the image of the god Brahmadev the son of Vishnu is consecrated. Four Bráhmans sit on the four sides of the pot and repeat their Vedic hymns. These four Bráhmans are supposed to be the four mouths of the god Brahmadev. It is believed by the people that by performing this ceremony the fever is made to disappear.[16]
At Rái in the Thána District some people believe that malarial fevers are averted by placing secretly a small stone on the head of the god Hanumán.[17]
In the Kolhápur District the nine planets are worshipped in the house to ward off diseases such as cholera, small pox, fevers, etc. The goddess Laxmi is worshipped in order to avert small pox, the worship being generally performed in a garden or a grove of mango trees, when parched rice, cocoanuts and lemons are offered to her. The people assembled at the spot partake of the food. To avert fever, the people perform a certain ceremony ordained in the Shástras. If the sick person is supposed to be under the evil influence of the planet Saturn, the planet is invoked by repeating the mantras, and worshipped with the usual offerings. Garments such as a Sári and a Choli are offered to the goddesses Mári and Kálubái. When an epidemic disease such as cholera prevails in a village, the people of the village install the deity Margai at a place where four roads meet, and worship her for seven or eight days with much ceremony. Every one brings offerings of cocoanuts, lemons, ambil or conjee, cooked rice and curds, etc. with the beating of drums to offer to the deity. After worshipping the goddess in this manner for eight successive days they sacrifice a Bali of a he-buffalo before her. The deity is then put upon a bullock cart and carried through the village with the beating of drums and much ceremony, to be thrown away beyond the village boundary along with the offerings.[18]
Epidemic diseases are not attributed to witchcraft at Devgad in the Ratnágiri District. It is believed that they are caused by the accumulated sins of the people.[19] In the Dápoli taluka of the Ratnágiri District epidemic diseases are attributed to witchcraft by low caste people. The power of averting such diseases lies in the hands of the village deities. They are therefore propitiated by the sacrifices of cocks, goats, and cocoanuts.[20] At Poládpur in the Kolába District, epidemic diseases are sometimes attributed to witchcraft by low caste people. Persons well versed in the mantras of evil spirits are called Bhagats or exorcists. Some of them keep evil spirits at their command. The poor people believe that what these exorcists foretell is sure to occur. It is believed that the spirit dwells on the tongue of these exorcists. When these spirits are hungry, they are let loose in the village by the sorcerers for the destruction of the people, thus causing an epidemic. When a spirit is to be destroyed, the people of the village assemble in a mob and attack the sorcerer, a small quantity of blood is taken from his tongue and water from the earthen pot of a Chámbhár is poured upon it. It is believed that by so doing the spirit is permanently destroyed and the sorcerer either forgets all his mantras or they become ineffective. The spirit is called tond bhut, and it sometimes troubles even animals.[21]
At Chauk in the Karjat taluka of the Kolába District, the people believe that the devotees of the Mári deity bring on epidemic diseases by the use of their mantras, and in order to satisfy them, offerings are made to the deity Mári which are taken by the devotees or Bhagats.[22] At Váde in the Thána District epidemic diseases are attributed to witchcraft. There are some women who are supposed to bring on, or at least foster, the growth of such diseases by their evil mantras. Such women are threatened or punished by the people, and sometimes they are even driven out of the village.[23] In the village of Anjur of the Thána District, if a man vomits blood accidently and falls ill, or dies, it is believed to be due to the act of Muth Márane, that is, the throwing of a handful of rice over which incantations have been repeated. If there be any sorcerer in the village who has learnt the same incantations, he alone is able to return the Muth to the sorcerer who first used it.[24] At Shirgaum in the Umbergaon taluka of the Thána District, when epidemic diseases prevail in the village, the people of the village take a turn round the village in a body and kill a buffalo. A Bali or offering of boiled rice, cocoanuts, cocks and goats is also offered to the deities that cause epidemic diseases.[25]
When cattle disease breaks out in a village the people of the Devagad taluka in the Ratnágiri District generally prevent the healthy cattle from mixing with the diseased, and the people of the neighbouring villages take precautions against using the milk, etc. of the diseased cattle. At such times the cattle of the village in which the disease breaks out are prohibited from entering the neighbouring villages.[26] At Ubhádánda in the Ratnágiri District, the deity named Maha Gira is worshipped in connection with cattle diseases. At some places a feast is given to Bráhmans, and in certain villages of this District a man is painted like a tiger, carried out of the village and bathed in a river. It is believed that this is one of the remedies for averting cattle diseases.[27] At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District, when cattle disease breaks out, a goat or a cock is sacrificed at the temple of the village deity.[28] In some villages of the Málwan taluka the deity Bráhman is worshipped.[29] At Basani in the Ratnágiri District the gods of the Mahárs as also the village deity are worshipped in connection with the cattle diseases.[30] At Vávashi in the Kolába District when cattle disease prevails in a village, a pig is killed and buried on the border of the village. A sweet oil lamp in the shell of a crab or a lobster is kept burning in the cowshed. River or sweet water fishes are boiled in water, and the water is given to the animals to drink. The owner also cleans the cowshed and burns sulphur, camphor, dammer and other disinfectants.[31] At Varsai in the Pen taluka of the Kolába District a Kaul is taken from the village deity to prevent cattle diseases, that is, the village deity is consulted through the temple ministrant, who acts as the spokesman of the oracle.[32] At Medhe in the Rohe taluka of the Kolába District the village deity Bahiroba is worshipped in connection with cattle diseases. The diseased animals are minutely examined, and the affected part of their body is branded with a red hot iron.[33] In the village of Umela of the Thána District the village deity is worshipped and sacrifices are offered to her. Milk from the affected villages is prohibited, and vegetables are not fried in oil during the prevalence of the disease in the village.[34] At Kolhápur, the people make vows to the god, and ashes from the temples are brought and applied to the forehead of the cattle. Cotton strings are tied to the feet or the neck of the cattle in the name of the god. They also make vows to the deities Tamjái and Wághjái, and offer to them eyes made of silver, a new cloth, a fowl or a goat, when their animals are cured of the disease.[35]
In the Devgad taluka of the Ratnágiri District, in cases of malarial fevers pieces of certain kinds of herbs are fastened together with black cotton strings, and tied round the arm or neck of the person suffering from the disease. Sacred ashes are put in a copper amulet and the amulet is tied in the manner above described.[36] At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District, in addition to herbs and copper amulets, peacock feathers in black cotton strings are tied to the arms of the persons suffering from malarial fevers, etc.[37] At Vengurla in the Ratnágiri District, in fevers like malaria, black strings of cotton are tied round the arm or neck, and certain secret mantras are repeated at the time. It is believed that the power of the mantras is lost if they are disclosed to the public.[38] At Murud in the Dápoli taluka of the Ratnágiri District the mantras of the god Narsinh, the fourth incarnation of Vishnu, are repeated for the exorcism of diseases.[39] In the Dápoli taluka people who want to get rid of their diseases tie a copper amulet to their arms. The mantras that are repeated on such occasions are kept secret. There are at present some persons in the Anjarle village who give such amulets and charms.[40] In the Chiplun taluka of the Ratnágiri District the following articles are used for averting diseases:—Copper amulets, black cotton strings, and holy water over which certain mantras have been repeated by the exorcist.[41] At Poladpur in the Kolába District, black cotton strings are tied round the arm in cases of malarial fevers. Some mantras are repeated in cases of pain in the right or left side of the body. Besides the mantras some signs and figures are drawn on birch leaves, and tied round the arm or the neck of the patient. Women who wish to have children wear such black cotton strings and copper amulets.[42] At Vávashi in the Kolába District mantras are in vogue for the exorcism of diseases such as liver and spleen affections. For exorcising eye diseases black cotton thread is tied to the ear.[43] At Chauk in the Karjat taluka of the Kolába District, ashes are applied to the body of the sick person after repeating certain mantras over them.[44] At Málád in the Thána District, for exorcising diseases caused by evil spirits, certain letters of the Nrisinha mantra are written on a birch leaf, and the leaf is tied round the arm of the sick man with a copper amulet. In order to drive out the evil spirit permanently, the god Nrisinha is worshipped, and sacred fire is kindled to propitiate the deity. For the worship of Nrisinha the ministrant required must be a regular devotee of Nrisinha, and he must also be a Panchákshari, i.e., one who knows the mantras of evil spirits.[45] In the village of Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka of the Thána District, in addition to copper amulets and black threads of cotton, mantras of Musalmán saints or pirs are in vogue for exorcising disease.[46] At Kolhápur, the higher classes perform the religious ceremony called Anushthán to propitiate Shiva, the god of destruction, in order to avert disease, and also make vows to the same deity. The lower classes offer cocoanuts, fowls or a goat. They sometimes go to the exorcist for ashes in the name of the god, and apply them to the forehead of the diseased person. Copper amulets and cotton strings given by the exorcist are also tied round the neck of the sick person.[47]
At Adivare in the Ratnágiri District the following practices are adopted for driving out evil spirits that cause disease. Incense is burnt before the exorcist, drums are beaten, and then the exorcist takes a burning wick in his hand and frightens the diseased person by striking the ground with a cane or a broom of peacock feathers. He also cries out loudly. He then draws out the evil spirit from the body of the diseased person, and puts it in a bottle, which is either carried out of the village and buried under ground near a big tree or is thrown into the sea.[48] In the Sangameshwar taluka of the Ratnágiri District, the process of exorcising is sometimes accompanied by dancing and loud cries. The person who suffers from evil spirits is taken to Narsoba’s Wádi in the Kolhápur State where patients are believed to find a cure.[49] In the Devgad taluka of the Ratnágiri District the exorcist, when possessed, does not dance as at other places, but freely uses abusive epithets to drive out the evil spirits; and on such occasions the threats are repeated loudly by the exorcist.[50] In the Dápoli taluka of the Ratnágiri District, dancing is used in exorcism. While dancing, the exorcist makes a show of different kinds of fits. They are similar to those made by a person suffering from hysteria. He also stands and sways his body to and fro for some time, then assumes a serene and quiet attitude, and begins to cry out loudly.[51] There are some sorcerers at Dásgaon in the Kolába District, who dance and cry out loudly in order to drive out the evil spirits from the body of the diseased.[52] At Málád in the Thána District dancing is used in exorcism. The following is a description of one of these dances. Songs of the deity which is to be summoned on the occasion are sung along with the music of the Tál (a kind of cymbal) and the beating of drums called Ghumat. The Ghumat is an earthen jar, the lower and upper ends of which are covered over with leather. The man in whose body the deity is to make its appearance takes his bath and sits by the side of a small prayer carpet called Asan. A small quantity of rice (about a ser) is put in front of the carpet, and a copper pot filled with water is placed on the rice. The musicians begin to strike their instrument with a loud clash, and the exorcist’s body begins to shake. The shaking of the body is a sure indication of his being spirit-possessed. He then sits upon the carpet and begins to throw grains of rice into the copper pot containing water, gives out the name of the particular spirit with which he is possessed, and the cause for which it has attacked the patient. He then explains the measures and rites by which the spirit can be driven out. The people abide by his directions, and the patient is thus cured.[53]
At Padghe in the Thána District, when an evil spirit is to be driven out from the body of the patient, the latter is asked to hold in his mouth a betelnut or a lemon. After some time, the betelnut or the lemon is put into a bottle, the bottle is then tightly corked and buried underground. A copper pot is filled with water, and the diseased person is asked to hold the pot upside down. If the water runs out it is believed that the spirit has disappeared.[54]
In the village of Edwan of the Thána District, dancing is practised in cases of spirit possession, but it is resorted to among the lower castes only. While dancing, the sorcerer cries out loudly, and throws grains of Udid (Phaseolus radiatus) on the body of the diseased person[55] after repeating certain mantras. This rite is styled Bhárani or the process of charming.
At Kolhápur, dancing is not used in exorcism, but the people suffering from evil spirits sometimes dance and cry out loudly. Some of them loose their hair while dancing, and even strike their heads. Some quarrel like combatants, and some of them try to make speeches like orators. There is a temple of the god Shri Dutta at Narsinhwádi in the Kolhápur State, to which people suffering from evil spirits are brought for a cure. These people cry out loudly when the palanquin of the Swámi Maháráj is carried through the village, and spirits usually quit the bodies of their victims at this time, for it is said that they cannot bear the proximity of the Swámi Maháráj. Patients are also cured by residing in the village for a certain period. On this account the village of Narsobáchiwádi is considered very holy. A big festival is celebrated in this village annually on the twelfth day of the dark half of Ashvin (October). Feasts are given to the Bráhmans, the expenses being borne by the Kolhápur State.[56]
In the Sangameshwar taluka of the Ratnágiri District, the Bhagat or exorcist is respected by the lower caste people. His duties are to ask a kaul from the deity on behalf of the people and to alleviate their sufferings. His appointment is hereditary, the clever member of the family generally following the profession of his father.[57] In the Devgad taluka of the Ratnágiri District, low class people are afraid of sorcerers because they might injure them if they are offended. They therefore are careful not to cause them displeasure. There, the profession of a sorcerer or exorcist is not hereditary. Any one who learns the wicked mantras after attending regularly the burial and burning grounds for some days becomes an expert, and may follow the profession.[58] In the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District the chief function of the village sorcerer is to worship the village deity. All kinds of gifts and presents intended for the deity are made through him. His profession is hereditary and he is much respected by the ignorant people[59]. At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District the exorcist is not appointed, but one who can satisfactorily interpret or explain to the village deity the sufferings of the people is generally selected.[60]
In the Vengurla taluka of the Ratnágiri District, the chief function of the village sorcerer is to find remedies for the cure of persons suffering from evil spirits. His position among the people of the low classes is considered high. He follows the hereditary profession of a sorcerer, and generally the eldest son succeeds his father.[61]
At Chidhran in the Panwel taluka of the Kolába District, Bhutes, a caste of beggars, are the devotees of a goddess. Some of them are called Bhagats. Devrishis are very rare. The difference between a Devrishi and a Bhagat is as follows:—A Devrishi removes the evil spirits by simply repeating the mantras while the Bhagat removes them by bringing the evil spirit into his own body and by dancing, etc.[62]
At Chaul in the Kolába District, Bhutes go begging in the morning every day for the first nine days of the month of Ashvin (October). On the tenth day the Bhutya is given a pice from every house. These Bhutes are devotees of the goddess Shakti. At Sasawane in the Kolába District the village sorcerer comes to beg every day and is given rice, etc., but during the first nine days of the bright half of Ashvin (October) he is given copper coins.[63] At Anjur in the Thána District the devotee of a particular god is called Bhagat, and one who knows how to summon or eject evil spirits is called Bhutya. A Devrishi is a person who knows the mantras for warding off the great evil spirits such as Brahma Rákshasa, Brahma Samband, etc. These three classes are respected only for performing their respective duties, and not otherwise.[64]
At Kolhápur, the sorcerer is never appointed. His functions are to ask a kaul from the deity, to pray for the welfare of the people, and explain to them what he sees in his dreams. He holds no position in higher society, but the poor people who believe in him are afraid of him. Sorcerers are generally very cunning; they frighten poor people, and obtain from them presents and gifts for their maintenance.[65]
In the Vengurla taluka of the Ratnágiri District red flags are hoisted on Banyan, Pipal, and Umbar trees, and on certain occasions offerings of coins and cocoanuts are made. It is believed that when the three kinds of trees happen to grow together, i.e., close to each other, near a well or on the bank of a river, the god Datta resides there, but such cases are very rare. These trees are supposed to be the haunts of the Munja spirit, and therefore copper coins waved round the persons suffering from evil spirits are thrown underneath them. There are no sacred wells in this taluka.[66] In the Dápoli taluka of the Ratnágiri District, the Banyan and Pipal trees are worshipped. The former is worshipped by women on the full moon day of the month of Jestha (June) and on the no moon day when it falls on Monday. On these occasions a cotton thread is tied round the tree, and offerings of glass beads, cocoanuts, fruits, etc., are made. These trees are also worshipped with offerings of copper coins, etc.[67] In the Dápoli taluka, there is a certain place between the two villages of Anjarla and Harnai where persons passing by that side throw one or two stones, causing thereby a heap of stones there. It is believed that by doing this the person who throws such stones gets rid of his itch. This place is called Girjoba. Hands and feet made of wood are also offered by persons who make vows to do so when their hands or legs are affected by any disease.[68] At Ibrámpur in the Ratnágiri District offerings of cotton thread, copper coins, and fruit are made to Banyan and Pipal trees on the full moon day of the month of Jestha (June) and on every Saturday in the month of Shráwan (August).[69]
At Vavanje in the Panwel taluka of the Kolába District, offerings of coins, etc., to sacred trees are made at the time of Parwani (a festival). For instance, when the no moon day falls on Monday, the women worship the Pipal tree, and on the full moon day of Jestha (June) they worship the Banyan tree. The custom prevails of the worship of a well by women after their delivery. A woman, after completing the period of her confinement or ceremonial impurity, is taken to a well, from which she has to bring home water, and is required to worship the well with the following materials, viz.:—cotton thread, copper coins, cocoanuts and such other fruit as can be had on the occasion.[70] At Varsai in the Pen taluka of the Kolába District, offerings of cotton cloth, copper coins, cocoanuts, betelnuts and plantains are made to the Banyan, Pipal, and Umbar trees, and also to holy wells. The Pipal, Tulsi, and Umbar trees are worshipped daily by women in this district, while the Banyan is worshipped on the full moon day of Jestha (June). The materials of worship are:—rice, fruits, water, sandalpaste, flowers, mangoes and jack fruits.[71]
At Málád in the Thána District, the Banyan tree is worshipped by women of the Dwijas, i.e., of the twice born castes, on the full moon day of the month of Jestha. Copper or silver coins and fruit are offered to the tree. These offerings are taken by the Bráhman priest, who explains to them the modes of worship. The Bráhman priest is also given some money as a gift. This Vrata, i.e., vow, is observed by women by fasting for three successive days, from the 13th to the 15th day of the bright half of Jestha (June). The Pipal tree is worshipped daily by some men and women of the Bráhman caste. Women walk round this tree for a hundred and eight times or more daily. Some persons hold a thread ceremony for the Pipal tree in order to obtain a son, and worship the tree for a certain period. It is worshipped with fruit and copper coins. Wooden cradles are also offered to the tree. Wells are worshipped on auspicious days such as Parwani by women of the upper castes.[72] At Padghe in the Thána District the Banyan tree is worshipped on the full moon day of Jestha, and the Pipal is worshipped every Saturday in the month of Shráwan (August). The Pipal tree is not worshipped before the performance of its thread ceremony, and its thread ceremony is not performed till the tree bears at least one thousand leaves.[73]
At Kolhápur, the Banyan and Pipal trees are considered very holy, and offerings of rags, coins, etc., are made to them. It is a custom among the Hindu women to worship the Banyan tree on the full moon day of Jestha. Offerings of cloth and fruit are made to this tree, and copper or silver coins are given as dakshana. Some women make a small model in gold, silver, or copper of the Banyan tree or of its leaf, and present it to the Bráhman priest along with a present of money. All these rites are required to be strictly performed as enjoined in the Shástras.[74]
At Nágothane in the Kolába District, it is believed that men who are well versed in the mantras of witchcraft and sorcery sometimes transfer diseases from one person to another.[75] Vaccination is believed to be a method of transferring disease to other persons.[76]
At Málád in the Thána District a method of transferring disease from one person to another is in practice among the Shudras. It is as follows:—A woman without a child cuts secretly a little piece from the garment of a woman who has children. She then burns the piece, puts the ashes into water, and the mixture is then drunk by the barren woman. It is believed that, by so doing, the evil spirit of the disease that is troubling the barren woman is transferred to the other who has children. The barrenness of the first woman then disappears, and she begets children. It is said that if the second woman comes to know of the mischief before using that garment, she discontinues the use of the same, and no harm is done to her.[77]
In the Umbergaon taluka of the Thána District the methods of transferring disease are called Muth Márane, i.e., a bewitched lime is sent to the person to whom the disease is to be transferred. Various mantras are also secretly repeated with the object of transferring the disease to an enemy.[78]
At Kolhápur, there are no methods of transferring disease to other persons, but it is said that the following ceremony is practised in the case of persons suffering from swollen glands. Rice, Udid grain etc. are tied in a yellow cloth, and three knots are made in it. This is then kept for one night under the pillow of the diseased person. It is taken out the next morning and thrown away at a place where three roads meet. It is then supposed that the person who steps on the bundle first is attacked with the disease, and the one for whom the rite is performed is cured.[79]
At Devgad taluka in the Ratnágiri District it is believed that evil spirits are fond of things like a cock, cocoanuts, boiled rice, etc., and when a person considers himself attacked by evil spirits, these things are waved round his body and thrown away at some distance from his residence. This is generally done in the evening, but if necessary it can be done at any time. The person who goes to throw these things away is prohibited from looking behind. The things required for a bali, i.e., oblation, on such occasions are boiled rice, red powder, and an oil lamp made of black cotton wick.[80]
In the Vengurla taluka of the Ratnágiri District, when a person is suffering from any disease for a long time, and when ordinary medicines prove to be ineffective, a goat or a cock is waved round the body of the patient, and are then put beyond the village boundary or taken away by the sorcerer. While performing this rite, the man must repeat certain mantras.[81]
At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District, the use of scapegoats is resorted to in cases of persons supposed to have been attacked by evil spirits. Curds and boiled rice are waved round the body of the diseased person and thrown away at a distance from the house. In some cases it is said that the cock which is waved round the body of the sick person dies instantaneously.[82]
In the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District the scapegoat (often a cock) is waved three times round the sick person and thrown into the street. The man who goes to throw it away is prohibited from looking behind. Burnt cowdung ashes are thrown out of the door after the man has left the house, and the door is closed at once.[83]
In the Dápoli taluka, cocoanuts, curds, boiled rice, turmeric powder, red powder, cocks etc. are waved round the body of the sick person and taken beyond the village boundary or to a big tree supposed to be haunted by evil spirits, and in some cases these things are thrown away where four roads meet.[84]
In the Rájápur taluka of the Ratnágiri District scapegoats are used by the low caste people, while Bráhmans use cocoanuts, boiled rice and copper coins.[85] At Kálshe in the Ratnágiri District eggs, cocks, goats, etc. are used as scapegoats. These things are waved round the body of the patient, and taken beyond the village limits or far from the residence of the sick person. For this rite a man from the Ghádi, Gurav, Rával, or Mahár caste is invited at night, and he is paid in cash for his services.[86]
At Ibrámpur in the Ratnágiri District, the cocks and goats used for driving out evil spirits from the body of the patient are not thrown away, but are eaten by the exorcist.[87]
At Navre in the Ratnágiri District, hens are used to extract the poison of snake bites from the body of the sufferer. In cases of evil spirits alone, cocoanuts, cocks and goats are used as scapegoats.[88]
At Dásgaon in the Kolába District, a Paradi (basket) containing black glass beads, bangles, turmeric and red powders, sweetmeat of five sorts, flowers, cocoanut, a burning scented stick, and rice, is waved three times round the body of the patient, and thrown away outside the village.[89]
At Kolhápur, the use of fowls, goats, limes, cocoanuts, copper coins, dry chillies and salt is in vogue, not only in cases of sick persons, but also when a person performs a feat such as bending an iron bar, or doubling with his hands a silver coin, or winning a victory in wrestling. The articles are then waved round him and thrown away in order that he may not suffer from an evil eye. Among the rich the same rite is performed on ordinary occasions such as leaving a house, starting on a journey etc. In cases of illness it is specially performed in the evening, and the articles are thrown away at the outskirts of the village, or by the side of a well.[90]
[1] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[2] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[3] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[4] School Master, Sangameshwar, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[5] School Master, Achare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[6] School Master, Vijaydurg, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[7] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[8] School Master, Kochare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[9] School Master, Navare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[10] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[11] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[12] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[13] School Master, Vávashi, Kolába. [↑]
[14] School Master, Medhe, Kolába. [↑]
[15] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[16] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[17] School Master, Rái, Thána. [↑]
[18] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[19] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[20] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[21] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[22] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[23] School Master, Váde, Thána. [↑]
[24] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[25] School Master, Umbergaon, Thána. [↑]
[26] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[27] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[28] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[29] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[30] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[31] School Master, Vávashi, Kolába. [↑]
[32] School Master, Varsai, Kolába. [↑]
[33] School Master, Medhe, Kolába. [↑]
[34] School Master, Umela, Thána. [↑]
[35] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[36] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[37] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[38] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[39] School Master, Murud, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[40] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[41] School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[42] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[43] School Master, Vávashi, Kolába. [↑]
[44] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[45] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[46] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[47] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[48] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[49] School Master, Sangameshwar, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[50] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[51] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[52] Schoolmaster, Dásgaon, Kolába. [↑]
[53] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[54] School Master, Padghe, Thána. [↑]
[55] School Master, Edwan, Thána. [↑]
[56] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[57] School Master, Sangameshwar, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[58] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[59] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[60] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[61] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[62] School Master, Chidhran, Kolába. [↑]
[63] School Master, Sasawane, Kolába. [↑]
[64] School Master, Anjur, Thána. [↑]
[65] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[66] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[67] School Master, Bankavli, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[68] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[69] School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[70] School Master, Vavanje, Kolába. [↑]
[71] School Master, Varsai, Kolába. [↑]
[72] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[73] School Master, Padghe, Thána. [↑]
[74] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[75] School Master, Nágothane, Kolába. [↑]
[76] School Master, Navare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[77] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[78] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[79] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[80] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[81] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[82] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[83] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[84] School Master, Anjarla, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[85] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[86] School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[87] School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[88] School Master, Navre, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[89] School Master, Dásgaon, Kolába. [↑]
[90] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
CHAPTER IV.
WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.
In the Konkan, especially among the lower classes, a strong belief prevails regarding the mortality of the spirits of the dead and of their re-appearance or re-birth in their children. And for this reason, as well as for protection against evil, the dead ancestors are worshipped.
The custom regarding the worship of ancestors prevailing at Kálshe in the Ratnágiri District is as follows:—The worship of ancestors is called Shráddha (anniversary). It is performed on the no moon day of every month, on the date of the death of the person every year, and also on the same date of the dark half of the month of Bhádrapada (September). Among the Bráhmans, Bráhman priests are invited, worshipped, and are given a feast, after worshipping balls of boiled rice as representing the dead ancestors. The special materials used for worship are sesamum and barley grain. The same custom prevails among non-Bráhmans with the exception that the balls are made of rice flour and not of boiled rice. To partake of the food on such occasions, the lower classes invite married persons of their own caste. The anniversary day of Sádhus and Mahants, i.e., saints, is called Punya tithi, i.e., the day of merit.
It is commonly believed that spirits are mortal. The life of the deceased remains in the spirit condition until the sins which he may have committed are washed away by the good deeds of his descendants. There is no belief that one spirit dies and another takes its place, but it is believed that the ancestors are sometimes reborn in the same family.[1]
At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka of the Ratnágiri District ancestors are worshipped every year on the same date of the month (according to the Hindu calendar year) on which the person died, by performing a Shráddha rite. They are also worshipped on the same date in the second half of Bhádrapada (September) every year. This is by a rite called Mahálaya Shráddha. On both these occasions Bráhmans are invited, and the worshipping ceremony is performed by repeating the mantras. After the ceremony, all the invited guests men and women partake of food.
Sádhus are worshipped after washing their feet with sandal paste, flowers, cocoanuts and gifts of money.
It is believed that evil spirits undergo a transformation after a lapse of twelve years. The practice of giving the names of ancestors to children is common, and it is due to the belief that the spirits of the dead are reborn in children in the same family.[2]
At Pendur in the Ratnágiri District the ancestors are worshipped on the last day of every Hindu calendar month. This monthly worship is called Darsha Shráddha. The annual anniversary of the manes is celebrated by the ceremony called the Sámvatsarik Shráddha. If any ancestor has died after becoming a recluse or Sanyási, his body is buried, and a tomb called a samádhi is erected over it; and his descendants, instead of performing the annual Shráddha, worship the tomb of the recluse every day. It is believed that the spirits take a different form after the lapse of seven generations. The belief that the spirits of the dead are reborn in the same family prevails among the people of this district. The following measures are adopted for the purpose of identification. When a person dies in a family, a basil or bel leaf is placed on a certain part of the body, or some familiar sign is made in sandal paste; and when a child is born in the family, its body is carefully examined to ascertain whether there are any signs on the body of the child such as were made on the dead body of the ancestor. If the same sign appears to the satisfaction of the members of the family, it is believed that the dead person has been reborn in the same family.[3]
At Navare in the Ratnágiri District Bráhmans are invited, worshipped and given a feast in honour of ancestors. Sádhus and Mahants, or saints, are worshipped by giving them the same honour accorded to the family deities.[4]
At Basani in the Ratnágiri District the anniversary day of saints is observed by the performance of a Bhajan, which consists in singing the good deeds of saints and in offering prayers. It is believed that spirits are mortal, but they do not die like ordinary human beings. They cease to exist as spirits as soon as the period of their release is over. The spirits obtain absolution by visiting certain holy places.[5]
At Dabhol in the Ratnágiri District the people believe that the souls of ancestors are reborn in children in the same family if some of their desires remain unfulfilled at the time of their demise.[6]
At Shiravde in the Ratnágiri District ancestors are worshipped every year by performing the rites called tarpan, which consist in offering oblations of holy water, sesamum, barley grains and repeating prayers. The tarpan is observed on the very date of the month in which the person died. The procedure of worshipping the Hindu saints is similar to that of the other deities. Owing to the belief that the spirits of the dead are reborn in children in the same family the name of the grandfather is given to the grandson.[7]
At Náringre in the Ratnágiri taluka ancestors are worshipped by inviting Bráhman priests, and worshipping them with sandal paste and flowers. These Bráhmans are supposed to represent the father, grandfather and great grandfather of the worshipper.[8]
At Bándivade in the Ratnágiri District the leaves of the herb called pudina, (a good medicine for worms) sesamum, and darbha grass are required for the worship of ancestors. The man who worships the ancestors has to turn his sacred thread from the right hand to the left.[9]
At Anjarle in the Ratnágiri District Mahants and Sádhus are worshipped in their life-time like family deities, and their tombs are worshipped after their death.[10]
At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District ancestors are worshipped by making balls of boiled rice on their anniversary day. The balls are supposed to take the place of the dead parents, and they are worshipped with sandal paste and flowers, and by burning incense and lighting a lamp of clarified butter. Betelnuts and leaves, cocoanuts and Dakshina (presents of money) are given to them. People also bow before them. Mahants and Sádhus are worshipped by washing their feet, sandal paste is applied to their body, and they are garlanded with flowers. Cocoanuts, a piece of cloth and a gift in coins are given to them according to the means of the giver. It is said that spirits can remain as spirits for about a thousand years.[11]
At Vijayadurg in the Ratnágiri District the method of worshipping ancestors is as follows:—In some cases elderly parents as well as a grandfather and great grandfather are also worshipped, their feet are washed with water, and the water is accepted as tirth or holy water. While worshipping the Mahants and Sádhus, or saints, water is poured on their right hand, and they are worshipped with sandal paste and flowers, and given a dakshana or gifts of money according to one’s means and will. The pádukas, or foot prints, of saints are worshipped after their death.[12]
At Mithbáv in the Ratnágiri District holy persons such as Sanyásis are worshipped after their death by performing their anniversary ceremony every year. It is believed that spirits are mortal. Evil spirits such as munjas, etc., undergo a kind of transformation, and it is believed that this occurs at places like Narsoba’s Wádi.[13]
At Devgad in the Ratnágiri District ancestors are worshipped on their anniversary days, the manes being represented by pieces of Darbha grass and balls of boiled rice.[14]
At Poladpur in the Kolába District a person whose father is alive but who has lost his mother’s father, has to perform the Shráddha of that grandfather on the 1st day of the bright half of Ashvin (October). This Shráddha is called Duhitra. A person who has lost his wife has to perform the Shráddha for that wife on the 9th day of the dark half of the month of Bhádrapada. This day is called Ahev Navami. These different sorts of Shráddhas are observed only by the high class Hindus. The lower classes worship their ancestors on the last day of the month of Bhádrapada by preparing a ball of boiled rice or flour, and putting it out for the crows to eat. It is believed that spirits are mortal. The ceremony called Narayan Nagabali is performed when it is believed that the spirit of an ancestor is giving trouble to the family. When this rite is performed, the spirit is saved and the ailment ceases. It is believed that the spirits of the dead are sometimes reborn in children in the same family, and in such cases the names of the ancestors are given to their children by the people.[15]
At Khopoli in the Karjat taluka of the Kolába District the form of worship of ancestors is similar to that of the ordinary Hindu deities. In the case of the worship of the deities the person performing the worship has to sit with his face towards the east, while at the worship of the ancestors he has to sit with his face towards the south.[16]
At Chaul in the Kolába District, the tombs of Sanyásis, i.e., ascetics and Sádhus are worshipped on their anniversary days, and a great fair is held in their honour. The other ancestors are worshipped by the shráddha rites. The anniversary of the founders of the different sects is observed by their followers by a bhajan, i.e., singing songs in their own style and exhibiting the different insignia and flag of the sect as advised by their founders.[17]
The people of Chidhran in the Kolába District believe that the period for which the soul has to remain in the spirit state depends upon the sins of the person, or the wishes which remained unfulfilled during his life time. It is not that all the spirits of the dead are reborn in children. The rebirth depends upon the good or bad deeds of the deceased. However, if the nature of any child suggests the nature of any dead person in the family, it is assumed that the spirit of the deceased has returned to the family.[18]
At Nágothane in the Pen taluka of the Kolába District some of the communities worship small images called tánks on the anniversary of their ancestors’ death; among the Shudras food is given to the crows on the last day of Bhádrapad. The custom of giving a grandfather’s name to the grandson prevails largely, and is due to the belief that the spirits of the dead are sometimes reborn in the same family.[19] It is also said that in some of the Hindu communities, if a child cries continuously, ashes are applied to its forehead in the name of one of the ancestors in the family; and if the child sleeps quietly or stops crying, the name of that ancestor is given to it.[20]
At Shirgaon in the Thána District, the worship of ancestors is performed on the day of the father’s death, every year. On any auspicious occasion the rite called Nandi shráddha is performed at the beginning of the ceremony. It is believed that evil spirits or ghosts have to remain in the ghostly state for about one thousand years, or at least until one of the descendants in the family goes to a holy place like Káshi (Benares) and there performs the shráddha rites of his ancestors.[21]
At Málád in the Thána District, the worship of ancestors is performed on the day of the father’s death every month till the completion of one year by inviting Bráhmans and giving them a feast. This is done among Bráhmans only. The other communities worship their ancestors by performing the rite called Chata Shráddha and by giving Shidha, i.e., rice, pulse, vegetables and ghi to Bráhman priests. A feast is then given to their castemen.[22]
At Kolhápur, ancestors, Mahants and Sádhus are worshipped by the rites known as the Puranic ritual, that is, no Vedic mantras are repeated while performing these rites. It is a common belief in this province that the soul of the person who has committed a murder, or has incurred debt and enmity, is obliged to repay the debt by being born again as a servant or in some other subordinate capacity of the debtor.[23]
The tombs of the Hindu and Mahomedan saints are considered holy, but they are not supposed to possess miracular powers.[24] The following is a list of saints who have been deified and worshipped by the people of the Ratnágiri District. (1) Mukundráj, (2) Dnyándev, (3) Tukárám, (4) Eknáth, (5) Námdev, (6) Rámdás, (7) Akkalkotche Swámi, (8) Ranganáth, (9) Dev Mámlatdár, (10) Kabir, (11) Kamál, (12) Nipat Niranjan, (13) Tulshidás, (14) Pundalik, (15) Vashistha, (16) Dattátraya, (17) Sohiroba, (18) Gorakshanath, (19) Purnanáth.
At Shiroda in the Ratnágiri District a practice prevails of making vows to the tombs of women who burnt themselves as Satvis. Vows are also made to the Musalman Pirs, and offerings are often made in fulfilment of such vows.[25]
At the fort of Vishálgad there is a tomb of a Pir (saint). It is usual to make a vow to worship this Pir with fetters on one’s legs, and it is believed that, at the time of worship, the chains break off.[26]
There is at Dahibáv in the Ratnágiri District a tomb of a Hindu saint named Shri Anand Murti, to which the people of that locality make vows when severe calamities befall them, and it is believed that the saint listens to their prayers.[27]
When a Bráhman assumes the garb of a recluse or Sanyási, he is considered by the people as sacred as a Hindu god, and is worshipped with great reverence, provided he abides by the rules contained in the shástras.[28]
There is a tomb of a Pir at Báwa Málangad in the Panwel taluka of the Kolába District, where the people make vows to the Pir, and it is believed that the Pir fulfils their wishes. Hindu saints such as Rámdás, Dnyáneshwar, Námdev are held in great honour in this District.[29]
There is a temple of Nágoba at Avas in the Kolába District where persons suffering from snake-bite, if carried to the temple while still alive, are said to be cured.[30]
At Kawad in the Bhiwandi taluka of the Thána District there is a tomb of a Brahmachári named Sakhárám Báva who has been deified by the people of that District. A great fair is held at the tomb every year.[31]
The following instance is given of a miracle at the tomb of Sakhárám Báva of Kawad. A man suffering from fits showed an inclination to go to Kawad to read Guru Charitra for seven successive days. He was taken to that place accordingly. After his arrival, he continued to suffer from these fits in the morning and evening at the time of the worship at the tomb. Once during the fits he said that he would be free from the disease if Rs. 200 were spent in giving a feast to the Bráhmans at Páli. The relatives of the sufferer agreed to arrange accordingly, and instantly the man put his head on the Samádhi (tomb) and threw himself on his back. He came to his senses after ten minutes, and from that time he was completely cured. A feast was then given to the Bráhmans at Páli, and Rs. 200 were spent over it as promised. Another instance of miracular power is cited, and that is of the priest of the goddess Mahaluxmi of Kolwan. This priest goes up and hoists the flag of the goddess on a steep hill which no other person can climb, and it is believed that he can do this only when the spirit of the goddess enters his body.[32]
At Umbergaon in the Thána District there is a miracle-working tomb of a saint called the Dátár “Pir.” Sakhárámbáva of Angaon Kawad, a Hindu saint, is held in high honour in this village.[33] At this place it is also believed that some of the Pirs walk round the village at night, and their tombs are said to be seen in motion. The Dátár Pir is worshipped even by the Hindus of that locality.[34]
At Shirosi in the Murbád Taluka of the Thána District, Sakhárámbáva of Kawad, Dev Mámlatdár, Chandirámbuva of Khed, Narayanbuva of Nanuri, the Swámi of Akkalkot, the Swámi of Kumbhar Peth at Kolhápur, and the Dandekerbuva of Rájápur are the principal saints held in honour by the people.[35]
At Mánikpur in the Thána District it is said that a bright light or flames emanate from certain tombs of Musalman saints.[36]
At Umela in the Thána District it is said that flames and smoke are given out from the tombs of certain Mahomedan saints situated in the locality. These flames appear and disappear very suddenly.[37]
In the Kolhápur District people believe that the Samádhi of Swámi Anandmúrti, who was a disciple of Raghunath Swámi of Bhramanál, shakes on the Shiwarátri day, that is the 13th of the dark half of Mágha, and on the Rámanawami day i.e. the 9th of the bright half of Chaitra, at the time of the worship called Bhajan. Among the tombs held most sacred by the Hindus of the Konkan may be mentioned the following viz.: Bhujang Swámi of Lokapur, Rámdás Swámi, the Samádhi of Shri Shankaráchárya at Shirgaon, Chintaman Swámi of Murgud, and the Samádhi of Mangalmúrti Morya at Chinchwad near Poona. All these Swámis were Brahmacháris or bachelors, and they spent their lives in the service of God and preached virtue and morality to the masses. These Samádhis are of two kinds: (1) of saints after death, and (2) of saints on the point of death. The third kind is called Jal Samádhi, i.e., immersion in water, but no tomb of the latter kind is to be found in this Province. It is said that, if a lime is placed above the Samádhi of Bhujanga Swámi, it begins to shake at the time of the Arti ceremony. The present disciple of Bhujanga Swámi sits in (Samádhi) meditation continuously for four to eight days. There prevails a belief at Kolhápur that the swámi whose body is buried in the tomb at Chinchwad is still alive. Some years ago when the present disciple of the Chinchwad Swámi was anxious to take Samádh, he had a dream in which the swámi in the tomb told him that he was still living in that Samádhi, and that therefore there was no need for his disciple to take Samádh. He was thus obliged to forego the project. The Peshwas of Poona, who were staunch devotees of the Chinchwad swámi, and by whose favour they were raised to a position of social equality among the Deccan Bráhmans, granted an Inam of some villages for the maintenance of this Samádhi, and the British Government have allowed the descendants of the swámi to retain the Inam. The following are the principal Musalman saints who have been deified in the Kolhapur District:—
(1) Bába Jamál, (2) Ghod Pir, (3) Bara Imám, (4) Avachit Pir, (5) Buran Sáheb and (5) Mira Sáheb of Miraj. All these Pirs have been supplied with annual grants of money by the Kolhápur State.[38]
At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka of the Ratnágiri District some Hindus have adopted the worship of Mahomedan saints. Mahomedan Pirs are worshipped in the month of Moharram. On these occasions Hindus beg in the town in the disguise of Fakirs, and the alms thus obtained are offered to the Pir. They make offerings of water to the Pirs, while the tábuts are being carried to the sea for immersion. But this practice is being slowly discontinued.[39]
At Bándivade in the Ratnágiri District Hindus offer cocoanuts and khichadi to the Pirs at the time of the Moharram, and at some places a lamp is kept burning every Monday in honour of a Pir.[40]
At Kálbádevi in the Ratnágiri taluka there is a tomb of a Musalmán saint who is worshipped by the Hindus. Similarly there is a Pir at Gaonkhádi in the Rájápur taluka who is held in reverence even by high caste Hindus.[41]
At Ade in the Dápoli taluka of the Ratnágiri District there is a tomb of a Musalman saint which is worshipped by the Hindus including the Bráhmans. The building and also the mosque in that village have been repaired from contributions obtained from high class Hindus.[42] Many Hindus of Devagad in the Ratnágiri District worship Musalman saints. Occasionally they offer cocoanuts to tábuts, and throw red powder over them. They also make vows to the Pirs.[43]
There are two Pirs at Vijayadurg who are worshipped by the Hindus. The same practice prevails at Rájápur and Khárepátan.[44]
At Chauk in the Karjat taluka of the Kolába District some Hindus worship Pirs. The members of the Ketkar family of Chauk are the Pujáris or ministrants of the Musalmán saint known as Báva Málangad. This shows that even Bráhmans worship Musalmán saints.[45]
The tomb of Báva Málangad situated in the Kolába District is worshipped first by a Bráhman and then by Musalmáns. The Bráhman worshipper performs this task more for the pecuniary benefit which he derives from the worship than from faith in the divinity of the Pir.[46]
At Poladpur in the Mahád taluka of the Kolába District there are no instances of Musalmán saints being worshipped by Hindus, but persons wishing to have children make vows to Pirs, and children born by the favour of such Pirs are required to assume the robe of a Fakir during the Moharram festivities.[47]
The practice of worshipping such saints exists at Khopoli in the Kolába District. Persons in trouble, or desirous of getting children, make vows to the saint Imám Hussein, and when their desires are fulfilled they dress themselves as Fakirs and beg at certain places during the Moharram festivities.[48] A certain Lakshman Gangádhar Joshi of Rewdanda in the Kolába District is the Mujáwar (priest or ministrant) of a Musalman saint Chánsewalli and he holds an Inám in connection with his office of Mujáwar of the saint’s Darga.[49]
At Akshi in the Kolába District there is a tomb of a Pir which is worshipped by lower class Hindus such as Kolis, Mális and Bhandáris.[50]
The Hindus of Bhuwan in the Murbád taluka of the Kolába District worship the Pir of the locality. It is said that the cultivators of the village once lost their cattle, and that a Fakir attributed the loss to the rage of the Pir. Since that time they are careful to worship the saint, and the result is that there has been no disease among their cattle. They offer Malinda, i.e., bread and jágri, to the Pir every Thursday.[51]
The Hindu inhabitants of Málád in the Thána District sprinkle water over the roads by which the tábuts are to pass, and allow their children to pass beneath the tábuts. Some throw sweetmeat on the tábuts, and distribute the same to the poor.[52]
At Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka of the Thána District some Hindus make vows to the local Pir and take part in the tábut procession. They pour water over the feet of the tábut bearers, and throw abir (black scented powder) and flowers on the tábuts. They also distribute to the fakirs Malinda, or Khichadi.[53]
The Mujáwar (priest) of the saint Walli Amir Shaha of Shahápur in the Thána District is a Marátha by caste.[54]
In the Kolhápur District Pirs are held in great reverence by Hindus. They make vows to the Pirs in order to get a son, and when their object is fulfilled they offer a preparation of Til (sesamum) and sugar called Rewadi, and other sweets called Chonge, Malinda and Pedhe at the time of Moharram. They also give Fakiri to their sons in the tábut season. Some of them even bring a tábut and Nál sáheb to their houses, and spend much money on them for illuminations, etc. They dance from one Nálpir to the other saying that the Nálpir has entered their bodies. While going through the streets they cry out very loudly the words ‘Yalli Dhulla’. The holiday of the Moharram is observed for ten days. On the tenth day the tábuts and the Nálpirs are taken to the river for the purpose of immersion. While returning home from the river with the bundle of the Patka of Nálpir on their heads they cry out loudly the following words: “Alabidáyo ála bidásha ya Husan bani alidosháke sultán albida”. On the third day after the immersion of tábuts into the river, the Pirs devotees kill a goat in the name of their patron Pir and make a preparation of the goat’s flesh called Konduri.[55]
The following rites are in vogue for the cure of barrenness in the village of Dábhol in the Ratnágiri District.—(1) Walking round the Pipal tree daily; (2) Observing a fast for sixteen successive Mondays; (3) Performing the worship of Shiva after observing the aforesaid fast.[56]
At Kálshe in the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District a barren woman is required to walk round a Pipal tree every day in the morning, and if the barrenness be attributed to the disfavour of any deity or the attack of an evil spirit, the same deity or the evil spirit is invoked and worshipped by the woman herself, or through a medium who knows the appropriate mode of worship.[57]
To steal an earthen image of the God Ganpati, to make a cross or a Swástika on the bodies of children with marking nut, and the worship of the god Máruti or some other powerful deity at midnight in the no moon by a barren woman, after divesting herself of her clothes, are rural methods for the cure of barrenness observed at Anjarle and other places in the Dápoli taluka of the Ratnágiri District.[58]
At Bándivade in the Ratnágiri District copper amulets and black cotton strings are used to cure barrenness. Some people make vows to a particular deity, and some perform the rite of Nágabali.[59]
To walk round Pipal and Umbar trees, to circumambulate the temple of a particular deity, and to make vows to that deity, to recite or have recited the holy scripture Harivansha, are methods in practice for cure of barrenness at Achre in the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District.[60]
At Vijayadurg in the Ratnágiri District, it is believed that beating a woman at the time of an eclipse is one of the surest methods of curing barrenness. Some people give charity, observe fasts, worship certain deities and make vows to them to obtain children.[61]
At Ubhádánda in the Ratnágiri District, stealing the idol of Krishna when it is being worshipped on the 8th day of the dark half of Shráwan (August), the birth day of the god Krishna, and putting a cocoanut or a betelnut in its place is believed to be the best method of curing barrenness.[62]
At Chauk in the Kolába District, the same plan of stealing the idol of the god Krishna is observed as a cure for barrenness. But here the idol is returned with great pomp, and replaced in its original place after the birth of a child. The godlings Hanumán and Bawan Vir are also worshipped for the cure of barrenness.[63]
At Poladpur in the Kolába District the favourite method of curing barrenness is to obtain copper amulets and black or red cotton strings from a Fakir.[64]
The following are the methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness at Khopoli in the Kolába District.
(1) To inquire from a sorcerer the cause of barrenness, and then to perform the rites mentioned by him.
(2) To use copper amulets and cotton strings taken from a Mántrik, i.e., one well versed in the mantras.
(3) To walk round the Tulsi (basil) plant or the Pipal or Banyan tree daily in the morning after worshipping it.
(4) To feed another woman’s child, or to give milk to a child.[65]
At Náta in the Kolába District, a woman wishing to have a child is required to strike with a knife the Jack, the Tamarind, and the Chámpa trees during an eclipse. It is believed that by so doing the woman will bear a child, and the trees will also bear flowers and fruits.[66]
At Medhe in the Roha taluka of the Kolába District, the following methods are in vogue for the cure of barrenness:—
(1) To worship the god Shiva and to observe fasts on Mondays.
(2) To worship the god Ganpati and to observe fasts on Sankasthi chaturthi, i.e., the fourth day of the dark half of every month.
(3) To walk round the temple of Máruti and Pipal and Umbar trees every day, in the morning.[67]
At Padaghe in the Bhiwandi taluka of the Thána District, images of Ráma and Krishna are put into the lap of a barren woman on their respective birthdays i.e., the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra, and the 8th day of the dark half of Shráwan. Cocoanuts are also placed in her lap with these images.[68]
At Mánikpur in the Thána District the goddess Shitala is worshipped by women to cure barrenness. They observe fasts, and go to the temple of the goddess bare-footed with their hair loose and throwing milk on their path. They offer to the goddess wooden cradles and children’s toys in fulfilment of their vows.[69]
At Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka of the Thána District, it is said that the repetition of the mantra “Santán Gopál jáy” is resorted to as a cure for barrenness.[70]
At Wáde in the Thána District, women make vows even to minor deities such as Chedoba to get rid of barrenness. They also use copper amulets and cotton strings procured from a sorcerer well versed in the use of mantras.[71]
At Dahigaon in the Thána District the worship of the god Shri Satya Náráyan is held to cure barrenness. Some women also distribute to the poor jágri equal to the weight of a child.[72]
At Dehari in the Murbád taluka of the Thána District, the village deity Dehari Máta is invoked and worshipped by women for the cure of barrenness.[73] In the Kolhápur District, the help of the family deities and of the household deities is invoked. Women take turns round the Banyan, Pipal and Umbar, trees. Some make vows to the gods, and perform certain propitiatory rites as well as the Náráyan Nágabali. It is believed that the children do not live long if a member of the family has killed a snake, or if the funeral rites of a person in the family have remained unperformed. The following ceremony is known as Náráyan Nágabali. A snake is made from the flour of Rála (panie seed), and another made of gold is put into it. It is then burnt like a dead body. All the ordinary funeral rites are performed. After performing the eleventh day rites, homa, i.e., sacred fire, is kindled at night time, and after keeping vigil for the whole night, milk and a dakshana are given to Bráhmans. A feast is given to eleven Bráhmans on that day. On the twelfth day sixteen Bráhmans are fed, and on the thirteenth, five Bráhmans are given a feast, after performing the Shráddha rites. On the fourteenth day, again, a feast is given to about 100 to 500 Bráhmans according to the means of the host. It is believed that, after the performance of these rites, the soul of the deceased reaches heaven, and there is an end to the troubles and misfortunes of the family.[74]
[1] School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[2] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[3] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[4] School Master, Navare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[5] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[6] School Master, Dabhol, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[7] School Master, Shiravde, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[8] School Master, Náringre, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[9] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[10] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[11] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[12] School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[13] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[14] School Master, Devgad, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[15] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[16] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[17] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[18] School Master, Chidhran, Kolába. [↑]
[19] School Master, Nágothane, Kolába. [↑]
[20] School Master, Vavanje, Kolába. [↑]
[21] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[22] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[23] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[24] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[25] School Master, Shiroda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[26] School Master, Sakharane, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[27] School Master, Náringre, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[28] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[29] School Master, Chauk, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[30] School Master, Akshi, Kolába. [↑]
[31] School Master, Váda, Thána. [↑]
[32] School Master, Padghe, Thána. [↑]
[33] School Master, Dahánu, Thána. [↑]
[34] School Master, Umbergaon, Thána. [↑]
[35] School Master, Shirosi, Thána. [↑]
[36] School Master, Mánikpur, Thána. [↑]
[37] School Master, Umela, Thána. [↑]
[38] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[39] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[40] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[41] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[42] School Master, Murud, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[43] School Master, Devagad, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[44] School Master, Vijaydurg, Ratnágir. [↑]
[45] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[46] School Master, Chidhran, Kolába. [↑]
[47] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[48] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[49] School Master, Chowl, Kolába. [↑]
[50] School Master, Akshi, Kolába. [↑]
[51] School Master, Bhuwan, Thána. [↑]
[52] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[53] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[54] School Master, Shirosi, Thána. [↑]
[55] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[56] School Master, Dábhol, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[57] School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[58] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[59] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[60] School Master, Achre, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[61] School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[62] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri: [↑]
[63] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[64] School Master, Poladpur, Kolába. [↑]
[65] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[66] School Master, Náta, Kolába. [↑]
[67] School Master, Medhe, Kolába. [↑]
[68] School Master, Padaghe, Thána. [↑]
[69] School Master, Mánikpur, Thána. [↑]
[70] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[71] School Master, Wáde, Thána. [↑]
[72] School Master, Dahigaon, Thána. [↑]
[73] School Master, Dehari, Thána. [↑]
[74] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
CHAPTER V.
THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
At Ubhádánda in the Ratnágiri District the following dreams are believed to be lucky and propitious. To swim through the river or sea, to rise to the sky, to see the Sun, the Moon and the other planets, to eat meat, to bathe in blood, and to eat rice and curds. It is also believed that the sight of white objects in dreams foretells success in any work or undertaking that may be in view. A deity, a Bráhman, a king, a married woman decked with ornaments, a bullock, a mountain, trees full of fruits, climbing the Umber tree, a looking glass, meat and flowers, if seen in dreams, are good omens. Climbing the Palas tree, Warul, i.e., an ant heap, the bitter lime tree, to marry, to use red clothes or red flower garlands, to eat cooked meat, to see the sun and the moon without lustre, and to see shooting stars during dreams, are said to be bad omens.[1]
At Mithbáv in the Devgad taluka of the Ratnágiri District dreams are believed to be caused by indigestion and restlessness. To embrace a dead body in a dream, to see troubled waters, to dine heartily, are said to be bad omens. Feasting friends and receiving gifts from them are said to be good omens.[2]
At Fonda in the Ratnágiri District dreams are said to indicate things that have happened, or are about to happen in the near future. All white substances other than cotton, salt, and bones, are considered auspicious, and all black substances excepting a lotus, a horse, an elephant, and a deity are considered inauspicious.[3]
At Ibrámpur in the Chiplun taluka, horrible dreams are good omens, while pleasing dreams indicate approaching calamities.[4]
At Pendur in the Ratnágiri District it is believed that dreams foretell future events. It is believed that the dream will prove correct and effective if the person dreaming has asked three questions and received three answers in his dream. Those dreams which are caused through cold are called Jalap. They are generally false dreams, and no good omens are derived therefrom.[5]
At Basani in the Ratnágiri District it is believed that the ancestors who take interest in the welfare of their descendants appear in dreams and foretell future events, so that the dreaming person may take the needful precautions for the prevention of future calamities.[6]
At Kálshe in the Málwan taluka of the Ratnágiri District it is believed that dreams in the last part of the night, i.e., just before daybreak, and in which great men are seen, generally prove effective. If anybody sees himself married in a dream it is supposed that he will hear of the death of some relative.[7]
At Chauk in the Kolába District it is believed that, when calamities are threatened, the guardian deity of the family as well as the dead ancestors appear in dreams and give warnings of the coming calamities.[8]
The people of Poladpur in the Kolába District believe in dreams; and when some of their deities appear in dreams and give them advice or directions, they are careful to follow them. Sometimes even evil spirits appear in dreams, and advise the people to do certain things to avert calamities. People who have faith in such spirits act according to their wishes, and if they fail to do so, trouble is sure to follow.[9]
The people of Khopoli in the Kolába District believe that if a person sees in a dream, the dead body of a near relative, it indicates that the person whose corpse was seen in the dream will live long.[10]
At Birwadi in the Kolába District it is believed that if a person sees a snake in a dream, a son will be born to him; if he sees a hell, he is sure to get wealth. If he sees gold, it is a sure sign of losing wealth. Again, if a person sees himself taking his meals in a dream, it indicates that his death is nigh at hand.[11]
At Málád in the Thána District, omens are derived from dreams. In case of bad dreams the god Vishnu is remembered, and the gods Shankar and Máruti are also worshipped.[12]
At Belápur, wood, cowdung cakes and turbid water, if seen in dreams, foretell calamities. White clothes, beautiful flowers, and food containing sweetmeat are considered auspicious.[13]
At Murbád in the Thána District it is believed that all black things, and white things such as ashes, are inauspicious when seen in dreams, but a black cow, white flowers, and pearls are auspicious. Considering the four parts of the night, the dreams that occur in the first part prove effective within one year, that of the second part within six months, that of the third within three months, and of the fourth within one month, and those caused at daybreak are realized immediately.[14]
At Kolhápur, dreams are believed to be caused through some mental derangement or bodily disorder. It is customary to derive omens from dreams, but their nature greatly depends upon the different times at which these dreams occur. The dreams caused in the latter part of the night, i.e. just before daybreak, are believed to come true.[15]
At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka it is believed that the soul of a person leaves the body temporarily during his sleep; hence it is said that no changes or marks of colour, etc. should be made on the body of a person during sleep, because it is believed that, while returning, the soul identifies the body, and if it is satisfied with the marks of the body it enters it; otherwise it might not return.[16]
At Adivare it is believed that only Hindu saints and ascetics, after deep and devout meditation, are capable of removing the soul from the body. It is believed that their souls go to heaven during that period and return at pleasure. At present there are no such sádhus in the district.[17]
Many Hindus in the Ratnágiri District believe that the soul goes to drink water at night, and therefore keep a pot filled with water at their sleeping place.[18]
The people of Chaul in the Kolába District do not consider it possible ordinarily for the soul to leave the body, but they state that the Swámi of Alandi, who died in or about the year 1886, used to remove his soul from the body by means of Yoga.[19]
At Kolhápur, it is believed that the soul leaves the body temporarily at night when a person is asleep.[20]
At Bankavali in the Dápoli taluka, it is believed that ghosts or evil spirits have the form of a human being, but their feet are turned backwards. They can assume any form they choose. Their character is ordinarily to trouble the people, but when satisfied they are said to prove friendly. The following story is narrated of a person who went to reside in one of the villages of the Konkan. His wife was first attacked by a ghost called Girha. The Girha troubled him much by playing mischief in his house, viz.: by taking away eatables or by mixing dirt in his food. At night he used to divest the couple of their clothes, and on one occasion an ornament was removed by the spirit from the person of the wife. Tired of these annoyances, the man left the village and went to reside at a distance, when, to the astonishment of the public, it happened that the ornament which was lost at the old village was restored to the man’s wife while she was asleep in the new village, and nobody knew who brought it there. All this was believed to be the work of the Girha.[21]
At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka people believe that a Bhut is fierce in aspect and very troublesome, but when its wishes are complied with, it becomes harmless. The Bhuts reside in jungles, burial or cremation grounds, old trees, sacred groves and deserted houses. They assume all sorts of shapes and forms. Sometimes they appear very tall, and they can instantly assume the shape of a dog, a cat, a tiger, or any other animal. Some ghosts are even seen fishing on the banks of rivers.[22]
At Mithbáv in the Devgad taluka it is believed that the souls of those who die with their wishes unfulfilled take the form of a Bhut. They enter the bodies of people. Any woman who is attacked by the Bhut of a Pir becomes able to speak in the Hindi language although it may not be her mother tongue. When a child or a person is suffering from the attacks of a spirit, incense is burnt, and it at once begins to tell the whereabouts of the spirit and the reason why the person has been attacked. He is then asked to state what he wants, and when the things which the spirit wants are offered, it goes away.[23] Spirits are generally invisible.
The spirits that belong to the class of malignant Bhuts are of a ferocious appearance; but those that belong to the class of friendly Bhuts possess bodies like human beings.[24]
At Náringre in the Devgad taluka, it is believed that spirits are cruel by nature and have no shadow, that they are capable of taking any form they like, and can perform miracles.[25] At Pendur it is believed that Bhuts eat chillies, and that they do not speak with human beings. Spirits are said to remove and conceal their victims for a certain period of time.[26] At Vijayadurg, a Bhut is considered to be of mean character. People perform certain rites to bring it under subjection. Their actions are always contrary to nature. When a person begins to cry, dance, to eat forbidden things etc. he is said to be attacked by a Bhut. When there is enmity between two persons, the one who dies first becomes a sambandh and troubles his living enemy.[27] At Basani, there is a belief that there are two kinds of spirits. Some aim at the welfare of the people, and others are always troublesome. As they have no regular form they cannot easily be recognised. They can change their forms at any time.[28]
The character of a Bhut is to trouble people and to take revenge on an old enemy. A person attacked by a spirit speaks incoherently and acts like a mad man. In such cases the leaves of the herb satáp are used. The leaves are pounded and put under the patient’s nose. In a few minutes, the person who is possessed by the spirit begins to speak.[29]
The people of Chauk in the Kolába District believe that the main function of a Bhut is to frighten people, to beat them, and to make them perform unpleasant tasks and thereby to obtain food from them.[30] At Poládpur it is believed that if a person is able to bring a Bhut under his control he can make it do every kind of work for himself.[31] The people of Akshi believe that kindling fire without any reason and throwing stones at certain houses are the main functions of Bhuts.[32] At Vávashi in the Pen taluka, it is believed that Bhuts, while walking, never touch the earth but always move through the air, and that they have no shadow.[33] The old men of Shirgaum in the Máhim taluka advise young children not to respond to the call of anybody at night unless the person calling is an acquaintance. For such calls are sometimes those of an evil spirit.[34]
In the Kolhápur District, it is believed that the character of a Bhut is like that of a human being. When a person is attacked by a spirit, a great change is observed in his language and actions. He begins to speak in the language of the Bhut by which he is attacked. If the ghost is of the female sex, the person speaks the language of females. It is believed that the souls of those who have been murdered or tortured assume the form of a spirit known as Sambandh, and trouble the murderer or the torturer, by entering his body. It is said that in some cases the spirit does not leave the body of such a person till he dies, thus exacting revenge for his past misdeeds.[35] In Khopoli in Ratnágiri it is said that the cow which is given to a Bráhman while performing the funeral rites of a dead person helps him to reach heaven. He gets there by catching hold of her tail. There are three paths to the other world. They are Bhaktimárga, Karmamárga, and Yogamárga. The Karmamárga is believed to be superior to all.[36] At Málád, a belief prevails that the path to the other world is through the Himálayas. While going through the mountains of the Himálayas, souls find happiness or sorrow according to their actions in life-time. The people also believe that the soul returns every month on the date of the man’s death to accept Kágvás, i.e., cooked food given to the manes, and reaches heaven at the end of one year.[37] At Dahigaon in the Murbád taluka, it is customary among the Hindus to smear with cow dung the place from which a dead body has been removed to the burning ground. The place is then covered with rice flour, and is hidden under a basket, an oil-lamp being kept, burning near by. The persons who accompany the corpse return home to look at the lamp, and it is believed that the soul of the deceased will pass to any creature or species of which footprints are seen on the rice flour.[38]
At Kolhápur it is believed that the soul of a person after death attains that state to which he aspires at the last moment before his death. Virtuous persons who die without any desire reach heaven and remain there in the form of the stars, where they are believed to enjoy the happiness of heaven. Some of them are sent to this world when they wish to return. Sinners are said to reach hell in consequence of their misdeeds, but some remain in this world in the form of Bhuts.[39]
The people of Achare in the Málwan taluka believe that the souls of persons who die by accident return to the same caste, and have to remain there till the expiry of an appointed period.[40]
The people of Chauk believe that persons dying a sudden or violent death leave wishes unfulfilled, and are therefore compelled to remain in this world in the form of Bhuts.[41]
At Rái in the Sálsette taluka it is believed that the souls of those dying a sudden or violent death attain salvation according to their deeds in lifetime, but it is a current belief that those committing suicide take the form of a ghost, and those who die on battlefields attain eternal salvation.[42]
At Kolhápur, it is believed that the souls of those who die violent deaths do not attain salvation, but are turned into ghosts.[43]
The people of Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka believe that Bhuts do not possess visible human forms. They can assume any shapes they like, but there is a common belief that the hands and feet of Bhuts are always turned backwards.[44]
The most favourable times for spirits to enter human bodies are midday, midnight and twilight.[45] Women in delivery as well as those in their menses are most liable to be attacked by spirits.[46] It is generally believed that persons adorned with ornaments are attacked by spirits, especially in cases of women and children. Again, a common belief prevails in the Konkan that persons, and particularly ladies, decked with flowers and ornaments are more liable to be attacked by spirits than others.[47] The people of Fonda are of opinion that spirits generally enter and leave human bodies through the organ of hearing, while the people of Náringre hold that the hair is the best way for spirits to enter.[48] The residents of Ibrámpur state that the mouth and the nose are the favourite channels for spirits entering human bodies.[49] At Mithbáv it is believed that spirits attack people in the throat, and generally only those persons who are uncleanly in their habits are liable to be attacked. There are no special ways for entering human bodies.[50] At Chaul a belief prevails that spirits enter the body when a person is suffering from any disease or when he is frightened.[51]
In the Konkan, people attempt to find good or bad omens in sneezing. It depends upon the time and the position or standing of the person who sneezes. If a sick person sneezes it is presumed that he will recover from his illness within a very short period, but if the sneezing is caused by the use of tobacco or snuff, no good or bad omens are drawn.[52] Sneezing at the time of conversation or when contemplating any particular task or business is held to be inauspicious. Hence if anybody sneezes at the beginning of a task, or at the time of starting out on any such task, the time is unfavourable. Yawning is said to be caused by a relative or friend remembering the person who yawns.[53] In ancient times happiness and calamities were foretold by a voice from the sky, and in modern days they are expressed by sneezing. People have much faith in sneezing, and often inquire whether it is a good or bad omen to sneeze at the beginning of any work or undertaking.[54]
If a man sneezes with his face towards the west, it is considered auspicious. If a man sneezes while contemplating any task or business, the sneezing is considered inauspicious. Sneezing at the time of taking food i.e. while at meals, while sleeping, and while sitting on a praying carpet is considered auspicious. Sneezing with one’s face turned towards the north, the south, and the east is also unlucky.[55]
In the case of Bhagats and exorcists yawning is considered to indicate that the disease will disappear.[56]
In the Konkan it is believed that sneezing and yawning indicate the call of death, and therefore it is customary among the Hindus to snap the thumb and the middle finger at the time of yawning, and to repeat the words Shatanjiva i.e. Live for hundred years, at the time of sneezing.[57] Sneezing on a threshold is believed to forebode evil.[58]
At Kolhápur, people believe that sneezing and yawning forebode evil, and the practice is to repeat the following words at the time of sneezing and yawning, viz, Shatanjiva i.e. Live a hundred years, and also to repeat the name of Rám, while snapping the thumb and finger (chutaki). In the case of a person suffering from a serious illness, sneezing is supposed to indicate a cure. If a woman sneezes while a man speaks, it is lucky, and if a man sneezes it is unlucky. The reverse is the case in respect of females.[59]
In the Konkan, Rákshasas, or malevolent spirits, are believed to be very cruel. These evil spirits are held in great fear, and people try to avoid giving them offence. It is supposed that to cause displeasure to these demons may bring about death. With a view to propitiate them, offerings of cocks and goats are made to them every year regularly on fixed days.[60] If a woman gives birth to a child which is extraordinary or horrible in size and appearance, it is believed to be a demon reborn. Such a child is supposed to bring bad luck to the family.[61] The Konkan people believe that in former days Rákshasas, or malevolent demons, used to be tall, ugly, black, with long and loose hair, big teeth, and with their foreheads painted with red lead, or shendur. They could assume any form they liked, were powerful, and could fly in the air. They were fond of human flesh.[62] The people of Khopoli believe that Khavis is the ghost of an African Sidhi. This spirit is very malevolent, and exorcists find it very difficult to bring it under control. A strong belief prevails in the Konkan districts that those attacked by the spirits of non-Hindus are beyond cure.[63]
According to the belief of the people in the Kolhápur District, Brahma Rákshasa is one of the most powerful spirits. It takes up its abode in the sacred Pipal tree, and when it attacks a person, little hope is entertained of his delivery from its grasp.[64]
The following are the principal malignant spirits of the Konkan.
(1) Vetál, (2) Brahmagraha, (3) Sambandhas, (4) Devachár, (5) Munja, (6) Khavis, (7) Girha, (8) Chetak, (9) Zoting, (10) Vir, (11) Cheda, (12) Mhasoba, (13) Jákhin or Alwant, (14) Lávsant, and (15) Hadal.
(1) Vetál is believed to be the King of Spirits.[65] Vetál is considered to be a deity and not an evil spirit. It enters into the body of an exorcist and helps him to drive away other evil spirits.[66]
(2) Brahmagraha is the ghost of a Bráhman well versed in the Vedas, but who is over proud of his education.[67]
(3) Sambandha is the spirit of a person who dies without an heir, and whose funeral rites have not been performed by any member of his family. It troubles the members of the family, but when invoked through a Bhagat it becomes harmless, and even favourable to the family.[68] It is the spirit of a covetous person or a sanyási who dies with his desires unfulfilled.[69] It does not allow anybody to enjoy his wealth, and takes revenge on an enemy till death ensues. It haunts trees, wells and unoccupied houses.[70]
(4) Devachár is the spirit of a Shudra who dies after his marriage.[71] These (Devachár) spirits are said to reside on the four sides of a village. The spirits which reside in burial or cremation grounds, on river banks, and in old trees are said to be subordinate to these. Cocoanuts, plantains, sugar, cocks and goats must be given annually to gain their favour.[72]
(5) Munja is the spirit of a Bráhman boy who dies immediately after his thread ceremony, but before the final ceremony called Sod-munj is complete. It does not greatly affect its victim but simply frightens. When it attacks, it is difficult to drive out. It is cast out only when the patient makes a pilgrimage to a holy shrine.[73] It resides in a Pipal tree or in a well.
(6) Khavis is the spirit of a Musalmán or a non-Hindu.[74] It is also the spirit of a Mahár or a Máng.[75]
(7) Girha is the ghost of a person who dies by drowning, or of a murdered person.[76] Girha is not very powerful, and obeys the orders of the exorcists. It only frightens and troubles people.[77] It lives by the water side, and deceives persons at night by calling them by their names and leading them into false paths. It often troubles people while crossing rivers or creeks at night, and leads them to places where the water is very deep. It is said that the spirit Girha becomes the regular slave of a person who takes possession of the hair of its head, and gives him anything that he requires. It requests the person to return its hair, but this should not be given under any circumstances. For, if the Girha gets back its hair all sorts of misfortunes will befall the man.[78]
(8) Chetak is the ghost of a person of the Kunbi or Shudra caste.[79] This spirit is also known as Dáv.
(9) Zoting is the ghost of a man belonging to the Khárvi or Koli caste.[80] It is also said to be the ghost of a Musalmán.[81]
(10) Vir is the ghost of an unmarried person belonging to the Kshatriya community.[82] It is also said to be the ghost of a Rajput or a Purbhaya (Pardeshi.)
(11) Cheda is the ghost of an unmarried Mahár. It resides on mountains, in jungles, and the outskirts of the village.[83] Cheda attacks domestic animals. It haunts fields and farms, and resides at public places where the Holi fires are annually kindled. To avoid being troubled by it, people offer annual sacrifices of fowls and goats.[84]
(12) Mhasoba is the lord of the ghosts, and is equal in might to Vetál.[85]
(13) Jákhin or Alwant. Jákhin is the ghost of a woman who has a husband alive. Alwant is believed to be the spirit of a woman dying at childbirth or during her menses. It resides at burial or cremation grounds. Persons attacked by this spirit are taken to Narsoba’s Wádi or Gángápur, which are celebrated as shrines for the removal of malignant spirits.[86]
(14) Lávsat is the ghost of a widow. It generally resides in burial and burning grounds, and attacks domestic animals and their calves. It is also said to tear clothes and eat corpses.[87]
(15) Hadal or Hedali is the ghost of a woman who dies within ten days of childbirth or during her menses. It is supposed to be an evil spirit, but it can be kept in check by the use of a cane. It attacks all sorts of persons, but leaves them as soon as it is beaten.[88]
This spirit is also known as Dákan in the Kolhápur district.[89] Satavi is the ghost of a woman. It troubles women in childbirth, and kills their children on the 5th or 6th day after their birth.[90] Shákini is the ghost of an unmarried girl. Talkhámba is the ghost of an unmarried Shudra or a person from the low castes.[91] The people of Vijayadurg believe that one who hates and troubles the Bráhmans and speaks ill of their religious duties becomes a Brahma Sambandha after death.[92] At Poládpur in the Kolába District the ghost Bápa is represented by a stone painted with red lead and oil and placed at the boundary of a field. It is the guardian of the field, and protects the owners’ interests. Offerings are made to it annually. If the annual offerings are neglected, it troubles the owner of the field. It also troubles others when disturbed.[93]
The spirits known as Kálkáiche Bhut and Bahirobáche Bhut are not troublesome. When they favour any person, he enjoys health and happiness for a period of twelve years. But after that period he is ruined.[94] In addition to the varieties of malignant spirits already described, the following spirits are known at Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka of the Thána District. They are—Hirwa, Wághoba, Asarás, Gángud, Saitán and Chaitannadya. The spirit known as Hirwa requires the offerings of a bow and an arrow, bháng, bájri bread, and a chatni of garlic. The Wághoba haunts jungles and troubles domestic animals. Cocoanuts and lamps of ghi are offered to it. Asarás are the deities that dwell in water. They infest the wells and ponds, and attack women and children at noon time and in the evening. Red lead, cocoanuts, flowers, parched rice (láhya) and nádápudi are given to them.[95]
At Ibrámpur in the Ratnágiri District it is said that the evil spirit Zoting goes about headless.[96]
The people of Medhe in the Rohe taluka believe that the spirit known as Girha, which resides in water, goes about headless.[97]
At Shirgaon in the Máhim taluka it is believed that the spirit Hirwa goes about headless. It troubles human beings and animals. The sea and the jungle are its places of abode. To avoid being troubled by it, bháng, cocoanuts, fowls are given to it.[98]
The people of Dahigaon in the Murbád taluka believe that the Bhut known as Peesa goes about headless.[99]
Some evil spirits haunt trees such as the Pipal, Bábhul and Adulsa. Some have their haunts on a public road where three streets meet, or in a dirty place, some haunt old houses, and the rest prefer to reside in burial and burning grounds.[100]
Many spirits dwell in burial or cremation grounds. Among them are Vetál, Jákhin, Khavis, Kháprya, Zoting, Dáv, Girha, Alavat and Lávsat.[101]
The spirits Munja and Sambandh are said to reside near houses and old trees that produce sweet smelling flowers. The spirits Devchár and Chálegat are said to reside at the four corners or the boundary of a village.[102]
It is believed that all kinds of spirits assemble at night at the funeral ground when a body is burnt or buried.[103]
The evil spirits known as Khavis, Zoting and Kafri are said to dwell on mountains and in jungles; while the others named Sambandha, Jákhin, Hadal and Lávsat are said to reside on trees.[104]
Munja resides in the Pipal tree. Sambandha dwells in the Banyan, Pipal and Umbar trees. It is supposed to be a guardian of buried treasure.[105]
At Murbád in the Thána District, it is believed that an evil spirit known as Hadal infests the tamarind trees.[106]
In the Kolhápur District it is believed that the ghosts of persons dying on battlefields infest mountains and jungles, and the evil spirit known as Sambandh infests trees.[107]
Generally in the Konkan, and specially in the Ratnágiri District, young mothers and their children are supposed to be liable to the attacks of the spirits Satávi, Avagat, Alavant, Jákhin, Devchár and Chálegat.[108]
At Khopoli in the Kolába District it is believed that a young mother and her child are generally attacked by the spirit of the dead wife of her husband, or by a Hadal or Lávsat. The spirit that attacks a woman during her childbirth is difficult to drive out. The spirits are always afraid of cleanliness, and therefore, where there is cleanliness, there is very little fear of their attacks.[109]
The people of Shirgaon believe that the fiend known as Hedli attacks a young mother and her child. The Bhutya, or the sorcerer, makes use of his cane and of the dirty incense known as Nurkya Uda, and compels her to speak and to ask for what she wants. Sometimes she speaks and asks for the things required. Boiled rice and curds, and oil with red lead are given to her. When she leaves the body, the person becomes insensible for a short time.[110]
The fiend known as Hadal, and other evil spirits of the female sex, generally attack a young mother and her child. They are generally attacked by these fiends on a public cross road where three roads meet, or under a Bábhul tree, and also at wells.[111]
At Ubhádánda in the Vengurla taluka it is believed that those who are killed by tigers or other wild beasts are born as kings in the next generation.[112] On the other hand the people of Bankavli are of opinion that those who suffer death at the hands of tigers and other wild beasts are turned into spirits. The spirit of a person killed by a tiger is called Vághvir.[113]
At Achare it is believed that persons killed by lions and tigers attain salvation, while those killed by inferior beasts go to hell.[114]
The people of Ibrámpur believe that unmarried persons killed by tigers or other wild beasts take the form of a ghost. Males become Girhas and females become Jákhins and Lávsats.[115]
At Pendur it is believed that persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts become Brahma Rákshasa. The same form is assumed by those who die by accident. A murdered man becomes a Devachár.[116]
In the District of Kolhápur a belief prevails that the spirits of those killed by tigers or other wild beasts assume the form of ghosts. It is also believed that persons who die before they are married do not attain salvation, and therefore it is considered inauspicious among the Hindus to remain unmarried. This is the real reason why the majority of the Hindus marry their children at an early age.[117]
The ghost of a woman dying in childbirth or during her menses assumes the form of Alwant. For the purpose of preventing the dead woman turning into a ghost the following device is adopted. The corpse, instead of being burnt as usual, is buried underground, and four iron nails are fixed at the four corners of the spot on which the body is buried, and plants bearing red flowers are planted thereon.[118]
At Bankavli it is believed that the ghost of a woman dying in childbirth or during her menses assumes the form of Jákhin, while the people of the Kolhápur District believe that it assumes the form of Hadal.[119]
The special precautions that a father has to take at the birth of a child are:—
To arrange for a suitable place or a room provided with the materials required for the occasion, and to ensure the correct moment for the birth of the child. No person other than a midwife is allowed to enter the room for the first ten days. A pot is kept filled with water and a twig of the nim tree in the entrance of the house, and all persons entering the house have to wash their feet with this water.
A knife or some other sharp weapon is kept under the bed of the woman in order that the mother and her child may not be attacked by a spirit.[120]
The chief reason for ensuring the correct moment for the birth is that, if the birth takes place at an unlucky hour, special rites are necessary for averting the evil effects. These rites consist in the recitation of certain holy mantras and in giving presents of money, sessamum, jágri, clarified butter, etc., to the Bráhmans and alms to the poor.[121]
At Medhe in the Rohe taluka, it is customary for the father to throw a stone in a well, a pond, or a river at the birth of his son, and then to look at the face of the child.[122]
An owl is considered to be a bird of such evil repute that, in all parts of the Konkan, it is considered necessary to perform expiatory rites when an owl perches on the roof. If these rites are not performed, it is firmly believed that some evil will befall the members of the family. Various omens are drawn from the cries of the bird Pingla, and these cries are known as Kilbil, Chilbil and Khit Khit.[123]
If an owl sits on the roof of a house, it is a sure sign of coming death to a member of the family.[124]
At Devgad in the Ratnágiri District the sound of a bat or an owl is considered inauspicious, and indicates the death of a sick person in the house.[125]
At Chauk an owl is said to have some connection with spirits. Its sound at night indicates the approaching death of a sick person in the house. One variety of the owl called the pingla is supposed to foretell future events by its movements and cries, while the bat is considered an inauspicious bird, and its appearance forebodes coming evil.[126]
At Umbergaon people do not throw stones at an owl. For it is considered that the owl might sit and rub the stone, and that the person throwing it will become weak and wasted as the stone wears away.[127]
The people of Kolhápur do not believe that there is any connection between the bat or owl and the spirits of the dead, but they believe that, if an owl cries out in the evening or at night, it indicates the death of a sick person in the family. This applies also to the sound of a single pingla, but the sound of a pair of pinglas is considered auspicious.[128]
It is generally believed that old unoccupied houses are haunted by evil spirits. Persons who wish to inhabit such houses first perform the Vástu shánti ceremony, and give a feast to Bráhmans. In former times, in the districts that were ruled by the Portuguese, religious persecution prevailed. To escape from these persecutions, people were compelled to leave their houses unprotected. Before leaving their houses, they used to bury their treasure in the ground, and on that spot a human being or an animal was sacrificed in order that the spirit of the dead should hover about the place, and prevent strangers from coming.[129]
The evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried treasures and old forts are known as Mahápurush, Khavis, Brahma Rákshasa and Sambandh.[130]
If there be any buried treasure in an old unoccupied house, the owner of the treasure remains there in the form of a ghost. If the treasure be near the temple of a deity, it is supposed to be under the guardianship of that deity.[131]
At Vijayadurg it is believed that a person who builds a house in the days of his prosperity and does not survive to enjoy it, becomes a Sambandh. He remains in that house in the form of a ghost, and troubles every one who comes to stay there, excepting the members of his family. A man who buries his treasure underground becomes a ghost after death, comes back to watch his treasure, and troubles those who try to remove it.[132]
Unoccupied houses are generally haunted by evil spirits. At certain forts in the Konkan where battles were fought, the souls of those slain in the battles are said to have assumed the forms of spirits, and to keep a watch over the forts.[133]
In the Kolhápur District there is a village Nigve beyond the river Panch Ganga at a distance of three miles from Kolhápur, where the soul of a person named Appáji Kulkarni has assumed the form of a Sambandh and guards the buried treasures in his house. When anybody tries to dig up the buried money, the ghost enters the body of his daughter-in-law and begins to dance and cry out loudly, and does not allow any one to touch his treasure. It is also said that he strikes the ground with his stick at night. Another similar instance is cited in the case of the village of Latvade in the Shirol Peta, where Bápujipant Kulkarni continues to guard his house after death. He does not allow anybody to live in the house, and if any one is bold enough to sleep there at night, the spirit of Bápuji appears and throws him out of the house. The house is therefore uninhabited at present. His wife has adopted a son, but he has to live in another village, Vadange.[134]
[1] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[2] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[3] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[4] School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[5] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[6] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[7] School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[8] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[9] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[10] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[11] School Master, Birwadi, Kolába. [↑]
[12] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[13] School Master, Belápur, Thána. [↑]
[14] School Master, Bhuwan, Murbád, Thána. [↑]
[15] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[16] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[17] School Master, Adivare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[18] School Master, Kálshe, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[19] School Master, Chaul, Kolába. [↑]
[21] School Master, Bankavali, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[22] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[23] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[24] School Master Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[25] School Master, Náringre, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[26] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[27] School Master, Vijayadurg, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[28] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[29] School Master, Chawl, Kolába, [↑]
[30] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[31] School Master, Poládpur, Kolába. [↑]
[32] School Master, Akshi, Kolába. [↑]
[33] School Master, Vávashi, Kolába. [↑]
[34] School Master, Shirgaum, Thána. [↑]
[35] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[36] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[37] School Master, Málád, Thána. [↑]
[38] School Master, Dahigaon, Thána. [↑]
[39] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[40] School Master, Achare, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[41] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[42] School Master, Rái, Thána. [↑]
[43] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[44] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[45] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[46] School Master, Rái, Thána. [↑]
[47] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[48] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[49] School Master, Ibrámpur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[50] School Master, Mithbáv, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[51] School Master, Chawl, Kolába. [↑]
[52] School Master, Pendur, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[53] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[54] School Master, Bándivade, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[55] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[56] School Master, Chawl, Kolába. [↑]
[57] School Master, Vavanje, Kolába. [↑]
[58] School Master, Umbergaon, Thána. [↑]
[59] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[60] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[61] School Master, Fonda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[62] School Master, Adivan, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[63] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[64] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[65] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[66] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[67] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[68] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[69] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[70] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[71] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[72] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[73] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[74] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[75] School Master, Chowl, Kolába. [↑]
[76] School Master, Khopoli, Kolába. [↑]
[77] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[78] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[79] School Master, Bankavli, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[80] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[81] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[82] School Master, Basani, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[83] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[84] School Master, Anjarle, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[85] School Master, Shirgaon, Thána. [↑]
[86] School Master, Ubhádánda, Ratnágiri. [↑]
[87] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]
[88] School Master, Khopol, Kolába. [↑]
[89] Ráo Sáheb Shelke, Kolhápur. [↑]
[90] School Master, Chauk, Kolába. [↑]