THE MAJOR OPERATIONS OF THE NAVIES IN THE WAR OF AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE
BY
A.T. MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D.
CAPTAIN, U.S. NAVY
AUTHOR OF 'THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON HISTORY, 1660-1783,' 'THE INFLUENCE OF SEA POWER UPON THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND EMPIRE, 1783-1812,' 'THE RELATIONS OF SEA POWER TO THE WAR OF 1812,' 'NAVAL STRATEGY' ETC.
WITH PORTRAITS, MAPS, AND BATTLE PLANS
LONDON
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON & COMPANY, LIMITED
Overy House, 100 Southwark Street, S.E.
Copyright, 1913, By A.T. MAHAN
All rights reserved
Published, October, 1913
The University Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
PREFACE
The contents of this volume were first contributed as a chapter, under the title of "Major Operations, 1762-1783," to the "History of the Royal Navy," in seven volumes, published by Messrs. Sampson Low, Marston, and Company, under the general editorship of the late Sir William Laird Clowes. For permission to republish now in this separate form, the author has to express his thanks to the publishers of that work.
In the Introduction following this Preface, the author has summarized the general lesson to be derived from the course of this War of American Independence, as distinct from the particular discussion and narration of the several events which constitute the body of the treatment. These lessons he conceives to carry admonition for the present and future based upon the surest foundations; namely, upon the experience of the past as applicable to present conditions. The essential similarity between the two is evident in a common dependence upon naval strength.
There has been a careful rereading and revision of the whole text; but the changes found necessary to be made are much fewer than might have been anticipated after the lapse of fifteen years. Numerous footnotes in the History, specifying the names of ships in fleets, and of their commanders in various battles, have been omitted, as not necessary to the present purpose, though eminently proper and indeed indispensable to an extensive work of general reference and of encyclopædic scope, such as the History is. Certain notes retained with the initials W.L.C. are due to the editor of that work.
A.T. MAHAN.
December, 1912.
CONTENTS
Preface [v]
List of Illustrations [xix]
List of Maps [xxi]
List of Battle-Plans [xxiii]
INTRODUCTION
THE TENDENCY OF WARS TO SPREAD
Macaulay quoted on the action of Frederick the Great [1]
Illustration from Conditions of the Turkish Empire [2]
Lesson from the Recent War in the Balkans, 1912-1913 [2]
The War of American Independence a striking example of the Tendency of Wars to Spread [3]
Origin and Train of Events in that War, Traced [3]
Inference as to possible Train of Future Events in the History of the United States [4]
The Monroe Doctrine Simply a Formulated Precaution against the Tendency of Wars to Spread [4]
National Policy as to Asiatic Immigration [4]
Necessity of an Adequate Navy if these two National Policies are to be sustained [4]
Dependence on Navy Illustrated in the Two Great National Crises; in the War of Independence and in the War of Secession [4]
The United States not great in Population in proportion to Territory [5]
Nor Wealthy in Proportion to exposed Coast-Line [5]
Special Fitness of a Navy to meet these particular conditions [5]
The Pacific a great World Problem, dependent mainly on Naval Power [5]
CHAPTER I
THE NAVAL CAMPAIGN ON LAKE CHAMPLAIN
1775-1776
Preponderant effect of Control of the Water upon the Struggle for American Independence [6]
Deducible then from Reason and from Experience [6]
Consequent Necessity to the Americans of a Counterpoise to British Navy [6]
This obtained through Burgoyne's Surrender [6]
The Surrender of Burgoyne traceable directly to the Naval Campaigns on Lake Champlain, 1775, 1776 [7]
The subsequent Course of the War in all Quarters of the world due to that decisive Campaign [7]
The Strategic Problem of Lake Champlain familiar to Americans from the Wars between France and Great Britain prior to 1775 [8]
Consequent prompt Initiative by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold [8]
Energetic Pursuit of first Successes by Arnold [9]
Complete Control of Lake Champlain thus secured [9]
Invasion of Canada by Montgomery, 1775 [9]
Arnold marches through Maine Wilderness and joins Montgomery before Quebec [10]
Assault on Quebec. Failure, and Death of Montgomery [10]
Arnold maintains Blockade of Quebec, 1776 [10]
Relief of the Place by British Navy [11]
Arnold Retreats to Crown Point [12]
Arnold's Schemes and Diligence to create a Lake Navy, 1776 [13]
Difficulties to be overcome [13]
Superior Advantages of the British [13]
The British by building acquire Superiority, but too late for effect in 1776 [13]
Ultimate Consequences from this Retardation [14]
Constitution of the Naval Force raised by Arnold [14]
He moves with it to the foot of Lake Champlain [15]
Takes position for Defence at Valcour Island [15]
Particular Difficulties encountered by British [15]
Constitution of the British Lake Navy [16]
Land Forces of the Opponents [17]
Naval Forces of the Two at the Battle of Valcour Island [17]
Magnitude of the Stake at Issue [18]
Arnold's Purposes and Plans [18]
Advance of the British [19]
Arnold's Disposition of his Flotilla to receive Attack [20]
The Battle of Valcour Island [21]
The Americans Worsted [22]
Arnold Retreats by night Undetected [23]
Pursuit by the British [24]
Destruction of the American Vessels [25]
British Appreciation of the Importance of the Action, as shown [26]
Criticism of the conduct of the Opposing Leaders [26]
Arnold's Merit and Gallantry [27]
End of the Naval Story of the Lakes [27]
Effect of the Campaign upon the Decisive Events of 1777 [28]
CHAPTER II
NAVAL ACTION AT BOSTON, CHARLESTON, NEW YORK, AND NARRAGANSETT BAY—ASSOCIATED LAND OPERATIONS, TO THE BATTLE OF TRENTON
1776
Necessity that Force, if resorted to, be from the first Adequate [29]
Application to National Policy in peace [29]
To the Monroe Doctrine [29]
Failure of the British Government of 1775 in this respect [30]
Consequences of such failure [30]
General Howe evacuates Boston and retires to Halifax. Extent of his Command [30]
Dissemination of Effort by British Government [30]
Expedition against South Carolina [31]
Local Conditions about Charleston [32]
Description of Fort Moultrie [33]
Plan of British Naval Attack [33]
The Battle of Fort Moultrie [34]
Failure of the Attack. British Losses [36]
Comment upon the Action [37]
The Expedition retires to New York [38]
The Howes, Admiral and General, arrive in New York Bay [39]
Operations about the City [39]
Continuous and Decisive, but Inconspicuous, Part played by the British Navy [40]
Description of Local Conditions about New York [40]
American Preparations for Defence [41]
Crucial Weakness of the Scheme [42]
The Advance of the British [42]
Washington withdraws his Army from the Brooklyn side [43]
Success of this Withdrawal due to British Negligence [44]
Subsequent Operations, and Retreat of Washington to New Jersey [45]
Retreat continued to Pennsylvania, where he receives reinforcements [46]
Slackness of Sir William Howe's actions [47]
The British take possession of Narragansett Bay. Importance of that position [48]
Washington suddenly takes the Offensive. Battle of Trenton [48]
He recovers most of the State of New Jersey [49]
CHAPTER III
THE DECISIVE PERIOD OF THE WAR. SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE AND CAPTURE OF PHILADELPHIA BY HOWE. THE NAVAL PART IN EACH OPERATION
1777
British Object in Campaign of 1777 the same as that in 1776 [50]
Part assigned to Burgoyne [50]
Slowness of his Progress at the beginning [51]
Sir William Howe, instead of coöperating, takes his Army to the Chesapeake [52]
Criticism of this Course [52]
Howe's Progress to Philadelphia, and Capture of that City [53]
Admiral Lord Howe takes the Fleet from the Chesapeake to the Delaware [53]
Surrender of Burgoyne and his Army [53]
British Naval Operations in Delaware Bay [54]
Brief Tenure—Nine Months—of Philadelphia by British [55]
The general Failure of the British Campaign determined by Howe's move to the Chesapeake [55]
General Results of the Campaign [56]
Part played by the British Navy. Analogous to that in Spain, 1808-1812, and in many other instances [57]
CHAPTER IV
WAR BEGINS BETWEEN FRANCE AND GREAT BRITAIN. BRITISH EVACUATE PHILADELPHIA. NAVAL OPERATIONS OF D'ESTAING AND HOWE ABOUT NEW YORK, NARRAGANSETT BAY, AND BOSTON. COMPLETE SUCCESS OF LORD HOWE. AMERICAN DISAPPOINTMENT IN D'ESTAING. LORD HOWE RETURNS TO ENGLAND
1778
France recognizes the Independence of the United States, and makes with them a defensive Alliance [58]
A French Fleet sails for America under Comte d'Estaing [59]
Unprepared condition of the British Navy [59]
Admiral Byron sails with a Reinforcement for America [59]
Ill effect of Naval Unreadiness upon British Commerce; and especially on the West Indies [60]
Admiral Keppel puts to Sea with the British Channel Fleet [61]
First Guns of the War with France [62]
Extreme Length of Byron's Passage [62]
He turns back to Halifax [62]
D'Estaing's slowness allows Howe to escape from Delaware Bay. Howe's Celerity [62]
Evacuation of Philadelphia by British Army, and its precipitate Retreat to New York [63]
Escape of both Army and Fleet due to d'Estaing's Delays [63]
Rapid Action of Lord Howe [64]
D'Estaing Arrives off New York [64]
Howe's elaborate Dispositions for the Defence of New York Bay [65]
Statement of British and French Naval Force [66]
D'Estaing decides not to attempt Passage of the Bar, and puts to Sea [67]
Anchors off Narragansett Bay [69]
Forces the Entrance to Newport and Anchors inside the Bay [70]
The British garrison besieged by superior American and French forces [70]
Howe appears with his Fleet and anchors off the entrance, at Point Judith [71]
Sustained Rapidity of his action at New York [71]
D'Estaing Withdraws from Siege of Newport and puts to Sea [73]
Manœuvres of the two Opponents [74]
D'Estaing quits the Field, and both Fleets are scattered by a heavy Gale [75]
Howe returns to New York and collects his Fleet [76]
D'Estaing calls oft Newport; but abandons the Siege finally, taking his Fleet to Boston [77]
Critical Condition of British garrison in Newport. D'Estaing's withdrawal compels Americans to raise the siege [77]
Howe follows d'Estaing to Boston [77]
Discussion of the Conduct of the opposing Admirals [78]
Howe gives up his Command and returns to England [80]
CHAPTER V
THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPE. THE BATTLE OF USHANT
1778
Admirals Keppel and D'Orvilliers put to Sea from Portsmouth and Brest [82]
Instructions given to the French Admiral [83]
Preliminary Manœuvres after the two Fleets had sighted one another [83]
The Battle of Ushant [84]
A Drawn Battle. The respective Losses [91]
The Significance of the Battle in the fighting Development of the British Navy [93]
The "Order of Battle" [93]
The Disputes and Courts Martial in Great Britain arising from the Battle of Ushant [94]
Keppel Resigns his Command [97]
CHAPTER VI
OPERATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES, 1778-1779. THE BRITISH INVASION OF GEORGIA AND SOUTH CAROLINA
Influence of Seasonal Conditions upon Naval Operations in America [98]
Commercial Importance of the West Indies [98]
The French seize Dominica [99]
D'Estaing Sails with his Fleet from Boston for Martinique [100]
A British Squadron under Hotham sails the same day for Barbados, with Five Thousand Troops [100]
Admiral Barrington's Seizure of Santa Lucia [101]
D'Estaing sails to Recapture it [102]
Rapidity and Skill shown in Barrington's Movements and Dispositions [102]
D'Estaing's attacks Foiled, both on Sea and on Shore [103]
He Abandons the attempt and Returns to Martinique [104]
Importance of Santa Lucia in Subsequent Operations [104]
Byron Reaches Barbados, and takes over Command from Barrington [105]
D'Estaing Captures the British Island Grenada [105]
Byron goes to its Relief [106]
The Action between the two Fleets, of Byron and d'Estaing, July 6, 1779 [106]
Criticism of the two Commanders-in-Chief [110]
D'Estaing returns to Grenada, which remains French [112]
Byron returns to England. British North American Station assigned to Admiral Arbuthnot, Leeward Islands to Rodney [113]
British Operations in Georgia and South Carolina. Capture of Savannah [113]
Fatal Strategic Error in these Operations [114]
D'Estaing's attempt to Retake Savannah Foiled [115]
His appearance on the coast, however, causes the British to abandon Narragansett Bay [115]
D'Estaing succeeded by de Guichen in North America. Rodney also arrives [115]
CHAPTER VII
THE NAVAL WAR IN EUROPEAN WATERS, 1779. ALLIED FLEETS INVADE THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. RODNEY DESTROYS TWO SPANISH SQUADRONS AND RELIEVES GIBRALTAR
Spain declares War against Great Britain [116]
Delays in Junction of French and Spanish Fleets [116]
They enter the Channel. Alarm in England [117]
Plans of the French Government [118]
Their Change and Failure. The Allied Fleets return to Brest [119]
Criticism of the British Ministry [120]
Divergent views of France and Spain [120]
Prominence given to Gibraltar, and the resulting Effect upon the general War [121]
Exhaustion of Supplies at Gibraltar [121]
Rodney with the Channel Fleet Sails for its Relief, with ultimate Destination to Leeward Islands Command [121]
He Captures a large Spanish Convoy [122]
And Destroys a Second Spanish Squadron of Eleven Sail-of-the-Line [123]
Distinction of this Engagement [124]
Gibraltar and Minorca Relieved [125]
Rodney proceeds to the West Indies [126]
The Channel Fleet returns to England [126]
CHAPTER VIII
RODNEY AND DE GUICHEN'S NAVAL CAMPAIGN IN WEST INDIES. DE GUICHEN RETURNS TO EUROPE AND RODNEY GOES TO NEW YORK. LORD CORNWALLIS IN THE CAROLINAS. TWO NAVAL ACTIONS OF COMMODORE CORNWALLIS. RODNEY RETURNS TO WEST INDIES
1780
Rodney's Force upon arrival in West Indies [128]
Action between British and French Squadrons prior to his arrival [129]
Rodney and de Guichen put to sea [130]
Action between them of April 17, 1780 [131]
Cause of Failure of Rodney's Attack [133]
His Disappointment in his Subordinates [135]
His Expression of his Feelings [135]
Discussion of the Incidents and Principles involved [137]
The Losses of the Respective Fleets [140]
They Continue to Cruise [141]
The Action of May 15, 1780 [142]
That of May 19, 1780 [144]
The Results Indecisive [144]
Contrary Personal Effect produced upon the two Admirals by the encounters [145]
De Guichen asks to be Relieved [145]
Rodney's Chary Approval of his Subordinates in these two instances [145]
Suspicion and Distrust rife in the British Navy at this period [146]
Twelve Spanish Sail-of-the-Line, with Ten Thousand Troops, Arrive at Guadeloupe [147]
They refuse Coöperation with de Guichen in the Windward Islands [147]
De Guichen Accompanies them to Haïti with his Fleet [147]
He declines to Coöperate on the Continent with the Americans, and sails for Europe [148]
Rodney Arranges for the protection of the Homeward West India Trade, and then proceeds to New York [149]
Effect of his coming [150]
The Year 1780 one of great Discouragement to Americans [151]
Summary of the Operations in the Carolinas and Virginia, 1780, which led to Lord Cornwallis's Surrender in 1781 [151]
Two Naval Actions sustained by Commodore Cornwallis against superior French forces, 1780 [153]
The Year 1780 Uneventful in European seas [157]
Capture of a great British Convoy [157]
The Armed Neutrality of the Baltic Powers [158]
The Accession of Holland to this followed by a Declaration of War by Great Britain [158]
The French Government withdraws all its Ships of War from before Gibraltar [158]
CHAPTER IX
NAVAL CAMPAIGN IN WEST INDIES IN 1781. CAPTURE OF ST. EUSTATIUS BY RODNEY. DE GRASSE ARRIVES IN PLACE OF DE GUICHEN. TOBAGO SURRENDERS TO DE GRASSE
Effects of the Great Hurricanes of 1780 in West Indies [159]
Rodney's Diminished Force. Arrival of Sir Samuel Hood with reinforcements [160]
Rodney receives Orders to seize Dutch Possessions in Caribbean [160]
Capture of St. Eustatius, St. Martin, and Saba [161]
The large Booty and Defenceless state of St. Eustatius [161]
Effect of these Conditions upon Rodney [161]
Hood detached to cruise before Martinique [162]
De Grasse arrives there with Twenty Ships-of-the-Line [163]
Indecisive Action between de Grasse and Hood [164]
Criticism of the two Commanders [166]
Junction of Rodney and Hood [166]
De Grasse attempts Santa Lucia, and Fails [167]
He captures Tobago [168]
He decides to take his Meet to the American Continent [168]
CHAPTER X
NAVAL OPERATIONS PRECEDING AND DETERMINING THE FALL OF YORKTOWN. CORNWALLIS SURRENDERS
1781
Summary of Land Operations in Virginia early in 1781 [169]
Portsmouth Occupied [170]
A French Squadron from Newport, and a British from Gardiner's Bay, proceed to the Scene [170]
They meet off the Chesapeake [171]
Action between Arbuthnot and des Touches, March 16, 1781 [171]
The Advantage rests with the French, but they return to Newport. Arbuthnot enters the Chesapeake [174]
Cornwallis reaches Petersburg, Virginia, May 20 [175]
Under the directions of Sir Henry Clinton he evacuates Portsmouth and concentrates his forces at Yorktown, August 22 [175]
The French Fleet under de Grasse Anchors in the Chesapeake, August 30 [176]
British Naval Movements, in July and August, affecting conditions in the Chesapeake [176]
Admiral Graves, successor to Arbuthnot at New York, joined there by Sir Samuel Hood, August 28 [177]
Washington and Rochambeau move upon Cornwallis [178]
The British Fleet under Graves arrives off the Chesapeake [179]
Action between de Grasse and Graves, September 5 [179]
Hood's Criticism of Graves's Conduct [181]
The British, worsted, return to New York. De Grasse, reinforced, re-enters the Chesapeake, September 11 [184]
Cornwallis Surrenders, October 19 [184]
De Grasse and Hood Return to West Indies [185]
CHAPTER XI
NAVAL EVENTS OF 1781 IN EUROPE. DARBY'S RELIEF OF GIBRALTAR, AND THE BATTLE OF THE DOGGER BANK
Leading Objects of the Belligerents in 1781 [186]
The Relief of Gibraltar by Admiral Darby [186]
Capture of British Convoy with the spoils of St. Eustatius [188]
The French and Spanish Fleet under Admiral de Cordova again enters the English Channel [188]
Darby in inferior Force shut up in Tor Bay [188]
The Allies Decide not to attack him, but to turn their Efforts against British Commerce [189]