ANATOMY AND EMBALMING

ANATOMY
AND EMBALMING

A Treatise on the Science and Art of Embalming,
the Latest and Most Successful Methods
of Treatment and the General
Anatomy Relating to
This Subject.

BY

ALBERT JOHN NUNNAMAKER, A. B.
AND
CHARLES O. DHONAU

PROFESSORS OF ANATOMY AND SANITARY SCIENCE AT THE
CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF EMBALMING, CINCINNATI, OHIO.

Illustrated

Cincinnati, Ohio.
THE EMBALMING BOOK COMPANY.
1913

Copyright, 1913, by

THE EMBALMING BOOK COMPANY.

Dedicated
to
Those Who Are Advancing
The Standards
of the
Profession

PREFACE

This book is the result of many years of contact with embalmers in training and in practice. We have included in this work a crystallization of essential information without which, the embalmer must be poorly equipped to carry out the many duties incident to his calling in a manner satisfactory to his patrons and to himself.

Having been thrown in contact with the many problems surrounding the education of the embalmer, the authors have gained many ideas as to just how to place the information before the embalmer so that the result will be reflected in an increased capacity for good work on the part of the individual embalmer.

In prescribing information for the embalmer in this manner, we know clearly just what is to be expected from the application of the sciences herein described, and wish for the novitiate and practitioner the same enthusiasm for actual knowledge that has helped us thus far in arranging the information.

In Part One, we have chronicled, from the word of historians and men of the present day, a condensed, yet complete exposition of the funeral customs relating to the care of the dead, giving our readers a better understanding of present methods by reason of an opportunity to compare them with those of the past.

In Part Two, we have placed the ground work or foundation for the securing of the proper education in embalming. The work on Anatomy, which, if mastered by the student or practitioner, is by far the greatest lever in helping him to master his lifework.

In Part Three, we have placed the practical application of the principles of modern embalming, tempered by the use of the sciences of pathology, bacteriology, and chemistry in our own application of the work and in its transcription to these pages.

In formulating the technical part of the work, we have been greatly assisted by many authorities among whom are:—Green, Howell, Thomas, Piersol, Gray, Spalteholz, Myers, Barnes, Renouard, Clarke, and those authors who have from time to time contributed articles to the current embalmers journals. We are deeply indebted to these men for the results of their work.

We have based the treatments given herein on the following classification of embalming fluid as expressed in the percentage strength of formaldehyde gas contained within the fluid.

As the existence of a calling or profession depends on a constant assimilation of newly discovered information counterbalanced by the throwing off of that which has been found faulty, we commend this book to the embalmer and hope that it will meet with all the requirements of the higher education, for which we are constantly battling.

THE AUTHORS.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PART I. HISTORY OF EMBALMING

Ancient Embalming

CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF EMBALMING.

Guanch Embalming.

—The Guanches with the Egyptians are the only nation among whom embalming had become national, and there exists in the process and mode of preservation of both such striking analogy, that the study of the Guanch mummies is, probably, the surest means of arriving at some positive notions of their origin and relationship. The details known of the mode of embalming among the Guanches will enlighten and complete the descriptions that ancient authors have left to us of the Egyptian processes. They were silent on desiccation in the act of mummification, but it is to be regarded as a simple omission on their part. This desiccation was continued during the seventy days of preparation, and it constituted the principle part of the process adopted.

The details that I am about to give are extracted from the work of M. Bory de Saint Vincent on the fortunate Isles.

“The arts of the Guanches were not numerous, the most singular without doubt is that of embalming. The Guanches preserved the remains of their relations in a scrupulous manner and spared no pains to guarantee them from corruption. As a moral duty each individual prepared for himself the skins of goats, in which his remains could be enveloped, and which might serve him for sepulture. These skins were often divested of their hair, at other times they permitted it to remain, when they placed indifferently the hair side within or without. The processes to which they resorted to make perfect mummies, which they named xaxos, are nearly lost.

With the Guanches, the embalmers were abject beings; men and women filled this employment respectively, for their sexes; they were well paid, but their touch was considered contamination; and all who were occupied in preparing the xaxos lived retired, solitary, and out of sight.

There were several kinds of embalming, and several different employments for those who had charge of it. When they had need of the services of the embalmers, they carried the body to them to be preserved, and immediately retired. If the body belonged to persons capable of bearing the expenses, they extended it at first on a stone table, the operator then made an opening in the lower part of the belly with a sharpened flint, wrought into the form of a knife and called tabona; the intestines were withdrawn, which other operators afterwards washed and cleaned; they also washed the rest of the body, and particularly the delicate parts, as the eyes, interior of the mouth, the ears, and the nails, with fresh water saturated with salt. They filled the large cavities with aromatic plants; they then exposed the body to the hottest sun, or placed it in stoves, if the sun was not hot enough. During the exposition they frequently endued the body with an ointment, composed of goats' grease, powder of odoriferous plants, pine bark, resin, tar ponce stone, and other absorbing material.

On the fifteenth day the embalming should be completely terminated; the mummy should be dry and light; the relatives send for it and establish the most magnificent obsequies in their power. They sew up the body in several folds of skin, which they had prepared while living, and they bind it with straps.

The kings and the grandees were besides placed in a case or coffin of a single piece, and hollowed out of the trunk of a juniper tree, the wood of which was held as incorruptible.

They then finally carried the xaxos, thus sewed and encased, to inaccessible grottoes consecrated to this purpose.

Egyptian Embalming.

—The Egyptians embalmed their dead, and the processes which they employed were sufficiently perfect to secure them an indefinite preservation. This is a fact which the pyramids, the cavern, and all the sepultures of Egypt offer us irrefragible proof. But what were the causes of the origin of this custom? We have in answer only hypothesis and conjecture. In the absence of valid documents, each one explains according to the bias of his mind, or the nature of his studies, a usage, the origin of which is lost in the night of time. One of the ancients informs us that the Egyptians took so much pains for the preservation of the body, believing that the soul inhabited it so long as it subsisted. Cassien, on the other hand, assures us that they invented this method because they were unable to bury their dead during the period of inundation. Herodotus, in his third book, observes, that embalming had for its object the securing of bodies from the voracity of animals; they did not bury them, says he, for fear they would be eaten by worms, and they did not burn them, because they considered fire like a wild beast that devours everything it can seize upon. Filial piety and respect for the dead, according to Sicculus, were the sentiments which inspired the Egyptians with the idea of embalming the dead bodies. De Maillet, in his tenth letter upon Egypt, refers only to a religious motive as the origin of embalming: The priests and sages of Egypt taught their fellow citizens that, after a certain number of ages, which they made to amount to thirty or forty thousand years, and at which they fixed the epoch of the grand revolution when the earth would return to the point at which it commenced its existence, their souls would return to the same bodies which they formerly inhabited. But in order to arrive, after death, to this wished for resurrection, two things were absolutely necessary; first that the bodies should be absolutely carefully preserved from corruption, in order that the souls might re-inhabit them; secondly, that the penance submitted to during this long period of years, that the numerous sacrifices founded by the dead, or those offered to their names by their friends, or relation, should expiate the crimes they had committed during the time of their first inhabitation on earth.

With these conditions exactly observed, these souls separate from their bodies, should be permitted to re-enter at the arrival of this grand revolution which they anticipated—remember all that had passed during their sojourn, and become immortal like themselves. They had further the same privilege of communicating this same happiness to the animals which they had cherished, provided that their bodies inclosed in the same tomb with themselves, were equally well preserved. It is in virtue of this belief that so many birds, cats, and other animals are found embalmed with almost the same care as the human bodies with which they have been deposited.

Such was the idea of perfect happiness which they hoped to enjoy in this new life. Surely superstition alone, it could scarcely be believed, would induce men to save from destruction the mortal spoils of individuals whom they had loved whilst living. We much prefer looking for the source of this usage in the sentiment which survives a cherished object snatched from affection by the hand of death. Since death levels all distinctions—respecting neither love nor friendship—since the dearest and most sacred ties are relentlessly broken asunder, it is the natural attribute of affection, to seek to avoid in some degree, a painful separation, by preserving the remains of those they loved and by whom they were beloved. This according to Saint Vincent. Volney and Paraset write as follows as to the probable cause of the origin of the custom: In a numerous population, under a burning climate, and the soil profoundly drenched during many months of the year, the rapid putrefaction of bodies, is a leaven for plague and disease. Stricken by these numerous pests, Egypt at an early day, struggled to obviate them; hence have arisen, on the one hand a custom of burying their dead at a distance from their habitations; and on the other an art so ingenious and simple to prevent putrefaction by embalming. One individual may be induced to embalm the bodies of his relatives and friends by motives of superstition; another from egotism and personal interest; a third from motives of salubrity or common interest; another is impelled to perform the sacred duty of preserving the remains of those who were dear to him by an instinctive affection. Caylus says that the Egyptians, according to appearances owe the idea of their mummies, to the dead bodies which they found buried in the burning sands which prevail in some parts of Egypt, and which, carried away by the winds, bury travelers and preserve their bodies, by consuming the fat and flesh without altering the skin.

The mourning, embalming and funerals were conducted as follows: When a man of consideration dies, all the women of his house, cover the head and even the face with mud; they leave the deceased in the house, girdle the middle of their bodies, bare the bosom, strike the breast, and overrun the city, accompanied by their relations. On the other side, the men also girdle themselves, and strike their breasts; after this ceremony they carry the body to the place where it is to be embalmed.

Certain men according to the law have charge of the embalming, and make a profession of it. When a body is brought to them, they show the bearers models of the dead in wood. The most renowned represents, they say, Him whose name I am scrupulous to mention. This model was probably the figure of some divinity. To be prepared after this model would cost one talent, (about nine hundred dollars of our money). They show a second which is inferior to the first, and which is not so costly, twenty mina, (or about three hundred dollars in our money). They also show a third of lower price, the price of which was considered by Herodotus as a trifle, which we would infer to mean from fifty to seventy-five dollars of our money. The exhibition of models on the part of the embalmers, had reference to the richness of the work demanded, and to the expense of the chosen form. They demand after which of the three models they wish the deceased to be embalmed. After agreeing about the price, the relatives retire; the embalmers work alone and proceed as follows, in the most costly embalming.

They first withdraw the brain through the nostrils, in part with a curved iron instrument, and in part by means of drugs, which they introduce into the head. They now make an incision in the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone. The body is extended upon the earth, the scribe traces on the left flank the portion to be cut out. He who is charged with making the incision cuts with an Ethiopian stone, as much as the law allows; which, having done, he runs off with all his might, the assistants follow, throwing stones after him, loading him with imprecations, as if they wished to put upon him this crime. They regard, indeed, with horror, whoever does violence to a body of the same nature as their own.

They withdraw the intestines through this opening, clean them, and pass them through palm wine, place them in a trunk; and among other things they do for the deceased, they take this trunk, and calling the sun to witness, one of the embalmers on the part of the dead, addresses that luminary in the following words, which Euphantus has translated: “Sun and ye too, Gods, who have given life to men, receive me, and grant that I may live with the eternal Gods: I have persisted all my life in the worship of those Gods, whom I hold from my fathers, I have ever honoured the Author of my being, I have killed no one, I have committed no breach of trust, I have done no other evil: if I have been guilty of any other fault during life, it has not been on my own account, but for these things.” The embalmer in finishing these words, shows the trunk containing the intestines, and afterwards casts it into the river. As to the rest of the body when it is pure they embalm it.

Afterwards they fill the body with pure bruised myrrh, with cannella and other perfumes, excepting incense, it is then sown up. When that is done they salt the body by covering it with natrum for seventy days. The natrum carries off and dries the oily, lymphatic, and greasy parts. After the seventy days the body is not permitted to remain longer in the salt. The seventy days elapsed, they wash the body and entirely envelope it in linen and cotton bandages, soaked with gum Arabic. The relatives now reclaim the body, they have made a wooden case for the human form, in which they enclose the corpse, and put it in a chamber destined for this purpose, standing erect against the wall. Such is the most magnificent method of embalming the dead.

Those who wish to avoid the expense, choose this other method; they fill syringes with an unctious liquor which they obtain from the cedar, with this they inject the belly of the corpse without making any incision, and without withdrawing the intestines; when this liquor has been introduced into the cavity, they cork it; the body is then salted for the prescribed time. The last day they draw off from the body the injected liquor, it has such strength that it dissolves the ventricles and intestines, which come away with the liquid. The natrum destroys the flesh, and there remains of the body only the skin and the bones. This operation finished, they return the body without doing anything further to it.

The third kind of embalming is only for the poorer classes of society, they inject the body with a fluid called surmata, they put the body in natrum for seventy days, and they afterwards return it to those who brought it.

As to the ladies of quality, when they are dead, they are not immediately sent to the embalmers, any more than such as are beautiful or highly distinguished; they are reserved for three or four days after death. They take this precaution lest the embalmers might pollute the bodies confided to their care.

The relatives now fix the day for the obsequies in order that the judges, the relations, and the friends of the dead may be present, and they characterize it by saying that he is going to pass the lake; afterwards the judges, to the number of more than forty arriving, place themselves in the form of a semicircle beyond the lake. A bateau approaches, carrying those who have charge of the ceremony, and in which is a sailor whom the Egyptians name in their language, Charon. Before placing in the bateau the coffin containing the body of the deceased, it is lawful for each one present to accuse him. If they prove that he has led a sinful life, the judges condemn him, and he is excluded from the place of his sepulture, if it appear that he has been unjustly accused, they punish the accuser with severity. If no accuser presents himself or if the one who does so is known to be a calumniator, the relatives, putting aside the signs of their grief, deliver an eulogism, on the deceased without mentioning his birth, because they consider all Egyptians equally noble. They enlarge on the manner in which he has been schooled and instructed from his childhood; upon his piety, justice, temperance, and his other virtues since he attained manhood, and they pray the Gods of hell to admit him into the dwelling of the pious. The people applauded and glorified the dead who were to pass all eternity in the abodes of the happy. If any one has a monument destined for his sepulture, his body is there deposited; if he has none, they construct a room in his house, and place the bier upright against the most solid part of the wall. They place in their houses those to whom sepulture has not been awarded, either on account of crimes, of which they are accused, or on account of the debts which they may have contracted; and it happens sometimes in the end that they obtained honorable sepulture, their children or descendants becoming rich, pay their debts or absolve them.

The Egyptian embalmers knew how to distinguish from the other viscera, the liver, the spleen, and the kidneys, which they did not disturb; they had discovered the means of withdrawing the brain from the interior of the body without destroying the bones of the cranium; they knew the action of alkalies upon animal matter, since the time was strictly limited that the body could remain in contact with these substances; they were not ignorant of the property of balsams, and resins to protect the bodies from the larvae of insects and mites; they were likewise aware of the necessity of enveloping the dried and embalmed bodies, in order to protect them from the humidity, which would interfere with their preservation.

The preceding is a description of ancient Egyptian embalming as given by Herodotus, and has been the subject of numerous commentations, discussions and researches. It is almost a positive fact that Herodotus has omitted desiccation, and that it naturally took place during the time consecrated to preparation. From the mummies examined it is believed now that the body was first salted for seventy days, then dried, and that it was not until after this desiccation that the resinous and balsamic substances were applied. A simple inspection of the mummies is sufficient to confirm this opinion and besides what use would have been these resinous matters, with which the alkali of the natrum would soon form a soapy mass, which the lotions would have carried off, at least in great part? It is much more reasonable to suppose that these balsamic and resinous substances were not applied to the bodies until after they were withdrawn from the natrum.

All the ancients agree, in saying that the Egyptians made use of the various aromatics to embalm the dead; that they employed for the rich myrrh, aloes, canella, and cassia lignea; and for the poor, the cedria, bitumen, and natrum. The natrum was a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda. It was a fixed alkali, which acted after the manner of quicklime; despoiling the bodies of their lymphatic, and greasy fluids, leaving only the fibrous and solid parts. The odoriferous resins and bitumen not only preserved from destruction, but also kept at a distance the worms and beetles which devour dead bodies.

The embalmers, after having washed the bodies with palm wine, and having filled them with odoriferous resins or bitumen, they place them in stoves, where by means of convenient heat these resinous substances united intimately with the bodies, and these arrive in a very little time to that state of perfect preservation which we find them at the present day. This operation of which no historian has spoken, was, without doubt, the principle and most important part of their embalming.

CHAPTER II. EMBALMING FROM EGYPTIANS DOWN TO CIVIL WAR.

Here facts are almost entirely wanting and the history of the art we are studying, can only be followed in the recitals of historians, to control whose veracity we have no longer those monuments which Egypt offers us in such great numbers. Among the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, and all modern nations, we see the honors of embalming accorded to Kings, Princes and men of distinction, but no tomb that has been opened, has rendered a single mummy so perfect, as those which we admire among the Egyptians.

Jews.

—The Jewish people, who, like others, testified their respect for the dead, never admit the care of embalming the body as a common usage. Thus Abraham purchased the field where Sarah was buried; Joseph had the body of his father magnificently embalmed; Moses only carried away the bones of Joseph; David praised the people of Gilead, for having buried with pomp Saul and his sons, etc. In most of these examples, no mention is made of embalming; nevertheless, the body of Jesus Christ was embalmed. It is written that Joseph of Arimathea, a secret disciple, and Nicodemus, ministered unto him, after the crucifixion, and that 100 lbs. of myrrh and aloes were used. In this action the greatest secrecy had been observed, for “when the Sabbath was over, very early on the first day of the next week, came the faithful women who had loved him, with spices and ointment they had prepared where with to annoint him, not knowing that, already, this loving service had been performed by the hand of pious affection.”

The following is nearly the method used by the Jews: Each sex took care of its dead; they first of all, close the mouth and eyes of the exposed person, afterward they washed the body and then rubbed it with perfumes, tied it with bands, and then bandaged it in several cloths of very fine linen or woolen; and finally, they put it into the sepulture. It is thought that the myrrh and aloes which they employed had very little virtue to resist putrefaction, and that the great quantities of aromatics which they consumed, was rather for pomp, than for the long preservation of the subject. They took no pains to dry the body; they did not take away the intestines, and in spite of all these odoriferous drugs, decomposition must have soon revealed itself as was testified by the body of Lazarus when resurrected.

Persians.

—Neither did the Persians possess a very great knowledge of preservation. Cyrus, King of Persia, said to his children: “when I have ceased to live, place my body neither in silver nor in gold, nor in any other coffin, but return it immediately to the earth, etc.” It will be perceived that Cyrus, in forbidding that any care should be taken with his body, does not allude to embalming, which, of all other means, would have been the most efficient in preventing its elements from returning to the Common Mother.

Babylonians.

—The Babylonians, anointed the bodies of their dead with honey, after which, they were immersed in the same substance. It is highly improbable that this process was successful for long time preservation, for the preservative power of honey was only equal to its ability to keep the air from the body.

Scythians.

—The Scythians coated the bodies of their dead with wax. This process could not have been successful excepting to retard decomposition through shutting off all communication between the body and the air.

Ethiopians.

—The Ethiopians coated the bodies of their dead with waxy covering called parget. The same comment given on the Babylonian and Scythian processes must also be used here.

Romans.

—The disposition of the dead among the Romans embraced the following treatment: the deceased was first washed with hot water varied with oil, at intervals, for seven days; was dressed and embalmed with the performance of a variety of singular ceremonies. Cremation was then the means of ultimate disposal of the dead, the ashes being gathered and placed in urns and then the urns, in turn, were placed in tombs.

Greeks.

—Homer describes cremation, as an honorable mode of sepulture practiced in the heroic ages. Later from their many conquests, the Greeks acquired the art of embalming patterned after the Arabian and Assyrian-Persian methods, of which we have no record.

Norsemen.

—It appears from the sages that a form of cremation was used by the early Norsemen, who used to place the viking in his ship and send him “flaming out to sea.” Later it became the custom to place him, with all his belongings, in his vessel set on an even keel, and entomb him beneath a mound of earth.

Hindoos.

—Suttee (from Sati-a virtuous wife), an Indian custom, involving the burning of widows on the same funeral pyre as the husband, was the rule until 1829 A. D.

French and Belgians.

—Paleolithic cave dwellers of France and Belgium buried their dead in natural caves or crevices, like those in which they lived. Later stone-age people throughout Europe buried in chambered barrows or cairns. Bronze age people buried in unchambered barrows or in cemeteries of stone cists set in the ground often on a natural eminence, and surrounded by circles of standing stones. The cist was formed of a double row of stones covered with rude stone slabs.

Britains.

—Neolithic tribes in Britain buried either in caves or in chambered tombs, probably representing the huts of the living. Some of these barrows are very elaborate and massive; that of West Kennett is said to be 350 feet long. The dead were buried in the British tombs as they died, or in a contracted posture, probably due to their habit of sleeping in this position, and not at full length on a bed. Many cleft skulls are found in these tombs, suggesting human sacrifice, which as Caesar tells us, was prevalent among the Gauls. The bronze age usages were divided between burying and cremation. In burying, the contracted posture was followed. In cremation, the body was placed in a coffin made of the hollow trunk of an oak, split in two. In cremation, the ashes were collected in a funeral urn, twelve to eighteen inches high and were placed in a chamber. Articles of daily use were thrown into the fire.

Peruvians.

—The aborigines of the western continent were familiar with embalming. Prescott's “Conquest of Peru” tells that the royal “Incas” of Peru, were preserved by some process which did not give evidence of an external application. These bodies were then secreted under mounds of earth and in the interior of the temples. Prescott presents highly interesting pictures of these embalmed Peruvian monarchs sitting “natural as life,” in the chairs of the temples of the sun, at Cusco. They were clothed as in life, the raven black hair on their heads was still unchanged, and their hands were crossed upon their bosoms in the grim dignity of death.

Aztecs.

—The Aztecs, who were highly civilized, and were one of the most interesting and powerful tribes of early America, inhabited Mexico. The Aztecs were conquered by Cortez in 1519. Their history has been traced back to the twelfth century. The bodies of their dead, especially of those who could claim royal descent, were embalmed. It is related in Aztec legends how, after the deluge, seven persons came forth from the tomb to which their mummified bodies had been committed, and, in renewed existence, repeopled the earth.

North American Indians.

—Even our own North American Indians knew the art of embalming. Mummies remarkably well preserved have been found among the Flat Heads, Dakotas and Chinooks; and the Florida and Virginia Indians preserved the bodies of their Kings in the same way. The Kentucky caves have given up some remarkable specimens of this kind. The bodies of a woman and child were, in 1899, found in a cave in the Yosemite valley, and which, on account of its size (six feet and eight inches), some authorities believe to be a relic of the lost tribe of the stone age, possibly antedating the Christian era 3,000 years.

Early Christians.

—For a time the early Christians embalmed the bodies of their dead, using these forms with which they were familiar in Palestine. After a time, however, they gave up the practice. It has been said that they feared by the continuation of the process to cast discredit upon the power of God to call together the scattered dust of the body which had returned to its native element, and present it, like unto Christ's own glorious body, on the morning of the resurrection. No word spoken by Jesus, would indicate that he disapproved of methods, with which he as a Jew was familiar, to preserve the body from decay. During the first four centuries of the Christian era, the catacombs at Rome were used for burial. These catacombs consist of subterranean excavations, long horizontal passages with recesses on either side, arrayed in tiers for the reception of bodies, closed in by slabs bearing inscriptions and emblems of the faith.

Later European Embalming.

—After the previous discussion of the care of the dead affecting prehistoric as well as the earliest historic usages, we are brought forward to the seventeenth century. All embalming processes of the earlier days having been forgotten during the dark ages. The slow but sure development of the medical profession having manifested a dire necessity for the preservation of anatomical material, this necessity was first met by Dr. Frederick Ruysch, who occupied the chair of anatomy at Amsterdam, Holland, during the close of the seventeenth and early years of the eighteenth century (1665-1717).

Dr. Ruysch was probably the first to practice a successful system of arterial injection, in order that his anatomical specimens might resist the processes of decay. The reader should understand that embalming as a convenient process for preserving human dead bodies for funeral purposes had not been thought of at this time, and the principal interest in embalming was for its successful preservation of anatomical specimens. The method followed by Dr. Ruysch, was first an arterial injection, then allowing the diffusion of the fluid for some hours, after which, he proceeded to open the body as in making a postmortem examination, removing the viscera, cleaning them and replacing them surrounded with a preservative solution. Dr. Ruysch died, leaving his secrets buried with him, and they were lost to science.

Dr. William Hunter, an eminent Scottish physician, anatomist and physiologist of the eighteenth century (1718-1783) is given credit by many as being the original inventor of the injection system, for he published his plan of injection in minute detail, so that science might benefit thereby. The artery usually selected by Dr. Hunter was the femoral and his solution was composed of oil of turpentine five pints; Venice turpentine, one pint; oil of lavender, two fluid ounces; oil of rosemary, two fluid ounces; and vermillion. This was forced into the vessel until it reached over the whole body, giving the skin a general reddish appearance. As in Dr. Ruysch's method, the body was left untouched for a time, and was then opened, the viscera being treated and placed back again. After treating the exterior of the body in some cases, a coffin was prepared and the body was placed on a bed of dry plaster of paris in order that desiccation might set in. The body was then left for four years and if dryness had not set in by that time, was placed upon another bed of plaster of paris. Some of Hunter's specimens are to be seen today in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London.

Dr. John Hunter, a younger brother of William, was also very active in experimentation along these lines, and his work was little less renowned along the same lines. The Hunterian method was used for years by English anatomists with little if any alteration.

M. Boudet, attempted to use the Egyptian form of procedure in embalming, using as preservative agents corrosive sublimate, tan, salt, asphalt, Peruvian bark, camphor, cinnamon, and other aromatics. He completely enveloped the body in bandages, varnish being coated over the body and cavities and outer bandages.

M. Franchini, injected the common carotid artery with a solution made up of eight decigrams of arsenious acid, combined with a small quantity of cinnabar, dissolved in nine kilograms of spirits of wine. By this method bodies could be kept odorless and natural in color for sixty days, after which desiccation set in.

Jean Nicholas Gannal, and his son Dr. Gannal of Paris, injected chloride of alumina with success, J. N. Gannal, had previously, a formula containing arsenic, which the French Government compelled him to discontinue by prohibiting the sale of the arsenic. In addition to the above treatment the body was placed in a lead coffin and four or five litres of various essences were poured over the body and the casket was soldered. In this way preservation was said to be indefinite.

M. Sucquet, injected a solution of chloride of zinc arterially, and in one body which was taken up after being buried 14 months achieved remarkable success, the incident being the result of a contest between M. Gannal, M. Dupre, and M. Sucquet. This led to the use of the zinc salts in fluid, not only in Europe but in this country as well.

M. Falcony, desiccated the body in a mixture which was composed of saw dust and powdered zinc sulphate. Bodies so preserved remained flexible for about forty days, after which they dried up, although still retaining their natural color.

Franciolli, used arsenic acid, four ounces; carbonate of potash, two ounces; powdered alum, eight ounces. He completely eviscerated the body and then injected it in all directions, afterwards replacing the organs and surrounding them with liquid preparation composed of corn starch, water, alcohol, and corrosive sublimate, which after hardening, would prevent the sinking of the parts.

Many processes are noted in the various histories of the art, all using the arterial injection, which by this time had become universally accepted as the only true way of reaching the body tissues completely. The reader has noted absolutely nothing as to embalming being the most convenient process for funeral purposes. This is left to the following matter which begins with the embalming done by Dr. Thomas Holmes during the civil war (1861-1865 A. D.)

CHAPTER III. EMBALMING IN AMERICA AFTER THE CIVIL WAR.

Dr. Holmes was authorized by the U. S. Government to prepare the bodies of slain troops, so that they could be transported to their former homes. The practice of embalming for funeral purposes received its greatest impulse during the regime of Dr. Holmes, and it opened up an era of unprecedented discovery and success in preserving the dead body.

After Holmes, the man who cared for the dead began to feel that his was a professional work worthy of the name. The average undertaker, at the time just after the civil war, was a cabinet maker, whose chief function was to make the coffin or casket for the body, take the casket to the house and place the body in it. Then the larger undertakers in the larger cities found that they were compelled to preserve some of the bodies in some way so that distant relatives could reach the scene before the funeral. This probably was the result of betterments in transportation facilities which led people to travel more. Along with this, travelers frequently died away from home and had to be shipped. The baggage men rightfully objected to remaining in the same enclosed space with an unembalmed body and, altogether, a condition arose in which it was necessary to have some way to preserve the body.

As evolution is always a slow process, we cannot as we would like to do, chronicle the introduction of chemical embalming at this time, for refrigeration was the first thing thought of. The ice box, was the means by which bodies were kept for several days; the body being covered and left that way until a few hours before the funeral. This became so unsatisfactory specially when the sensibilities of the undertaker became sharpened, that they immediately looked about for a more convenient way to handle the situation. Spurred on by this demand, several concerns came into the market with preservative solutions with an arsenical base, and which were used principally for external application and cavity injection. All kinds of instruments were used with which to introduce the fluid into the body cavities until Captain George Billow, of Akron, Ohio, a civil war veteran, and at present a member of the Ohio State Board of Embalming examiners, contrived the pen point trocar, which is still in use among the profession.

With the introduction of the trocar, and the campaigns of the fluid manufacturers, trade periodicals and traveling men, cavity embalming became the means of preservation, until its limitations were learned.

Joseph Henry Clarke, who first traveled for fluid houses, and who was interested in the anatomy of the human body, since his connection with the U. S. hospital service in the Civil war, determined to introduce the arterial injection as the means of placing the fluid through the body. In collaboration with Dr. C. M. Lukens, the occupant of the chair of Anatomy at the Pulte Medical College of Cincinnati, Prof. J. H. Clarke opened a school of embalming naming it the Cincinnati School of Embalming. This took place during the year 1882. Prof. Auguste Renouard of Denver, Colorado, came into the field about the same time. Thus we have the beginning of the greatest revolution of all times in the care of the dead human bodies.

After Prof. Clarke and Prof. Renouard, came Prof. Frank Sullivan, and from time to time the list was augmented by the addition of others, a few of whom being Dr. Eliab Meyers, of Springfield, Ohio, Dr. Carl L. Barnes of Chicago, etc. With the efforts of all these men, the undertakers were led to use the arteries more and more until now, at the present time, this form of embalming is used exclusively through the United States, and Canada; European countries not having, as yet progressed as rapidly in that direction. The additions to the work from the time just previous to the start given to it by Prof. Clarke, number all the methods which we use today, including, the injection of any large artery in the body; the drainage of blood to further the obtaining of a complete circulation; the various processes by which discolorations are prevented and cured; the various processes by which bodies are disinfected; the various processes by which features are restored and many other of the vital operations of the present time. The undertaker having progressed from the cabinet maker, to a man of professional bearing having a good knowledge of all things pertaining to the dead human body, is now a man in whom the greatest reliance may be placed. Where previously, he was uneducated and uncultivated in matters pertaining to the body, he is now an authority to a great extent.

As a part of this historical contribution, we cannot overlook the very great advance made in the nature and composition of the preservative solutions used today. When formaldehyde was introduced, the high cost of it prevented its immediate use; but, later on, improved methods of manufacture brought the cost down to such a point where it became an essential ingredient in the fluids. Later when, on medico-legal grounds, arsenic was prohibited in the fluid (this action paralleling the action taken by France in the case of J. N. and Dr. Gannal), formaldehyde was depended upon for the maximum preservative action. Thus it still remains the base of most of the modern fluids. Several compounders have discontinued its use, preferring phenol, creosote, etc., but these chemicals have not as yet, made much progress against the formaldehyde.

In the early days, when the fluids were likely to be inadequate to care for certain conditions, the question as to which fluid is to be used was the principal care of the embalmer. Today, when the standard fluids are of the highest possible efficiency, it is a question of knowledge and technic on the part of the embalmer; it being a recognized fact that there is only about 1 chance in 1,000 for a standard fluid to contain inferior elements. In this way we may state that the burden of obtaining success has been shifted from the fluid, to the man using it; and it is then unnecessary to state that the best preparation along the line of education for the embalmer is advised, so that by his knowledge, he may do what he is expected to do by the people whom he is serving.

PART II. ANATOMY

Anatomy

The word anatomy is derived from two Greek words, meaning, to cut apart, which literally means dissection.

Anatomy is used to indicate the study of the physical structure of organized bodies.

Anatomy is the science of organization or the science of organic structure.

Human anatomy is divided into two great divisions, known as (a) general or descriptive anatomy and (b) surgical or regional anatomy.

Descriptive anatomy deals with the separate parts of the human body.

Histology is that part of descriptive anatomy where the separate parts of the human body are studied by means of the microscope.

Osteology is that part of descriptive anatomy describing the number, form, structure and uses of bone.

Myology is that part of descriptive anatomy which treats of muscles.

Neurology is that part of descriptive anatomy which treats of nerves.

Syndesmology is that part of descriptive anatomy which treats of ligaments.

Angiology is that part of descriptive anatomy which treats of the blood-vessels and lymphatics.

Surgical or regional anatomy describes the relation which certain parts,—muscles, nerves, arteries, etc.,—bear to each other.

CHAPTER IV. HISTOLOGY.

Definition.

—Histology is that part of descriptive anatomy which treats of the intimate structure of the tissues as seen under the microscope.

Histology as taught in most professional schools constitutes a one year's course, but for the embalmer this is not entirely necessary and with the short term of schooling now existing it is quite impossible, but certain of the fundamental principles of histology are important. For this reason a few of the more important tissues have been discussed, not, however, in great detail, but only superficially, merely to have the embalmer acquainted with them.

A Cell.

—A cell is defined as a nucleated mass of protoplasm endowed with the attributes of life.

Protoplasm is the name applied to the semi-fluid, granular substance contained within the cell.

The simplest forms of animal life are organisms consisting of only one cell which are called protozoa.

Cells having similar shape and similar functions are grouped to form tissues.

Tissues are grouped together to form organs.

Every cell consists of a cell body and a nucleus. The cell body consists of a substance known as protoplasm. The nucleus is the essential part of a typical cell and is the controlling center of its activity.

Fig. 1—A, A vertical section of the cuticle; B, the lateral view of the cells; C, the flat side of scales like (d) magnified 250 diameters.

Cells divide or reproduce themselves by means of direct or indirect division. In direct division the nucleus and the cell wall simply divide into two equal divisions and results in the formation of two new cells. In indirect division the process is much more complicated, and several stages must be passed through before there is a complete division.

The process of fertilization consists in the conjugation of two sexual cells. The male sexual cell is called the spermatazoon, and the female sexual cell is called the ovum.

The nucleus of the ovum in its earlier development stages is known as the germinal vessicle.

In the living organism many cells are destroyed during the various physiologic processes and are replaced by new ones. When a cell dies, changes take place in the nucleus which result in its gradual disappearance. This process is known as chromatolysis.

Tissues.

—A tissue is an aggregate of cells all having a common function.

Those important tissues with which the embalmer should be more or less acquainted are the following:

Skin, nails, hair, superficial fascia, deep fascia, lymphatics, glands, cartilage, bone, teeth, nerves, muscles, tendons, aponeuroses, ligaments, fat, mucous membranes, serous membranes, synovial membranes, arteries, veins and blood.

The Skin.

—The skin or integument (intego, to cover) is the outside covering of the human body. It is the first tissue that is cut when operating upon the body.

Fig. 2—A cross section of the skin. (Gray)

The skin is the seat of the organs of touch. The multitudes of sensory nerve endings convey the sensations of temperature, pressure and pain to the brain, thus informing the brain at all times, to keep the body from harm, and in a strong and healthful condition.

The skin is also the regulator of the body temperature, for connected with the skin are sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, each having important excretory functions.

The skin is also a protective coat, very elastic, and varies greatly in thickness. It is thinnest in the eyelids and thickest over the back of the neck, back of the shoulders, palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.

The color of the skin depends upon two things, first, on the pigment, which is found, one of the discriminating points between the races, named by the color of the skin as white, black, yellow, etc.; second, the color depends upon the amount of blood in circulation, the deepest hue being in the parts exposed to the air, light and the varied temperatures. Besides these the color of the skin varies with age, pinkest in the infant and becoming yellow with old age. It varies with exposure and with climate, the people living in the north having a much different complexion than those living in the south under the tropical sun. The color of the skin also varies with certain diseases, being extremely pale in anaemia, brown in Addison's disease, and yellow in jaundice.

The skin can be said to be moveable, although in places it is attached firmly to the underlying structures, especially on the scalp, the soles of the feet, and the palms of the hands.

Upon close examination the skin discloses a multitude of openings, creases, furrows, depressions, folds and hairs.

A dimple is a permanent pit or depression due to the adhesion of the surface to parts beneath.

Structure.—The skin consists of two intimately connected structures, the one is the true skin, corium, or dermis and is the deepest layer of the skin; and the other is the false skin, cuticle, or epidermis, and is the outermost layer of the skin.

The true skin, is composed mostly of connective tissues and elastic fibers. It is the real seat of the sense of touch, for it is here that the sensory nerves have their termination. In this layer we also have the termination of the minute capillaries of the skin.

The false skin, contains no blood vessels or nerves, and being without these it is practically dead tissue, and to illustrate this fact one can take a needle and run it through this outside layer without the least pain or the drawing of blood.

The false skin is the part which slips off in case of skin slip. In as much as the minute capillaries end at the termination of the true skin, when putrefaction and fermentation begin there is an oozing of water from the capillaries and the surrounding tissues, between the two layers of skin, causing a blister to form, and known as skin slip.

At the lowest part of the false skin is a layer of germinal cells, from which all the other cells are derived, and becoming more flattened and horny as they are pushed farther away from the blood supply; and also a layer of pigment cells, which give the discriminating color to the skin.

In the skin are seen numerous sebaceous and sweat glands.

The sweat glands are the organs by which a large portion of the aqueous and gaseous materials are excreted by the skin. Sweat glands are found in almost every portion of the skin, and are situated in small pits below the surface of the skin, surrounded by a quantity of adipose tissue or fat. They are small, round, reddish bodies, consisting of a single tubule, convoluted in form, which extends up through the skin and opens on the surface. The size of these glands, of course, vary, being especially large in those regions where the flow of perspiration is copious as in the axilla.

The sebaceous glands are small, sacculated, glandular organs, lodged in the substance of the skin. They are found in most parts of the skin and are usually connected with the hair follicles. Each gland consists of a single duct, more or less capacious, which terminates in a cluster of small secreting pouches or saccules. These glands secrete an oily fluid, which keeps the skin soft and also oils the shaft of the hair.

The Nails.

—The nails are a peculiar modification of the epidermis and have the same cellular structure as that of the epidermis. The nails are found on the dorsal surface of the fingers and toes and act as a protection, and enable one to pick up small objects, or to grasp more firmly any object. Were it not for the nails it would be impossible for one to pick up a needle from off the floor.

Each nail is convex on its outer surface, and its chief mass which is called the body lies upon the nail bed, or true skin; the free end projects out over the surface of the finger, and is that part which is not attached below, and since it is the continuation of the epidermis, it likewise will have no nerve or blood supply and therefore can be trimmed without pain to the individual.

The root is implanted in a groove in the skin and is composed of cells which have not become horny. The root is white in color and is the little half moon which you can see next to the skin.

The matrix is that part of the true skin beneath the body and the root of the nail, and is so called, because, it is that part from which the nail is produced and so long as the matrix at the root of the nail is uninjured, the nail will be reproduced after an accident.

After death the nail turns black, due to the infiltration of blood into the matrix.

Treatment by the Embalmer.—The blackened condition of the nail due to the infiltration of blood into the matrix can in many cases be overcome by carefully rubbing the nail at the time the body is being injected. After the discoloration is removed the fingers should be kept elevated so that the blood will not settle there again.

The Hair.

—The hair, like the nails, is a peculiar modification of the epidermis and consists of practically the same cellular structure as the epidermis. Hair is found on nearly every part of the body excepting the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet, the borders of the lips, etc. It varies much in length, thickness and in the different races of mankind. In the eyelids it is short, on the scalp it is of considerable length. In other parts as the eye-lashes, the hair of the pubis region, the whiskers and beard the thickness is remarkable.

A hair consists of the root and the shaft. The root of the hair or that part implanted in the skin presents at its extremity a bulbous enlargement, called the hair bulb. Into this bulb we find the small arterial capillary circulating and at its termination the beginning of the venous capillary. In this way the hair is nourished in life. We also find a small nerve going to the hair bulb. The shaft is the remaining part or that part coming out from the skin.

The hair grows from its roots and as it grows it pushes itself out from the skin and owes its growth to the small capillary circulation, carrying pure arterial blood to each and every hair, and for this reason you can understand for yourself the erroneous idea of what is termed the “post-mortem growth of hair.” Only a few weeks ago one of the students declared that he had actually seen a subject shaved and the body at the time of the funeral was placed in a vault to await the arrival of a close relative who had to come from Europe.

Three weeks later the student, together with the undertaker and relatives, went to the vault to view the remains. The body was in a perfect state of preservation, only for a large growth of beard as the student supposed. This student had observed rightly, but he did not go far enough. He did not think of how the hair actually got its nourishment. The hair owes its life to the circulation of the blood, just as much as the heart or any other organ does, and will die and cease to grow just as soon as the body dies and the circulation is cut off. What this student saw was only an apparent growth, for after the body dies the tissues begin to shrink, squeezing the blood and fluid substances out of them, thus giving the hair cylinder a more projected appearance.

The student was very much surprised at his mistake, but after the explanation he saw that the hair owed its life to the circulation and that when this circulation was cut off, the hair must cease to grow.

The chief function of hair is that of protection from heat or cold and to help shield the brain from the effect of a blow upon the head.

The hair, next to the teeth and bones, is the least destructible part of the body.

The Fascia.

—The fascia (fascia, a bandage) is areolar or aponeurotic tissue of variable thickness and strength found in all regions of the body and invests or surrounds the softer and more delicate organs. From its situation in the body the fascia is divided into two groups, superficial and deep.

Superficial fascia is found immediately beneath the skin over almost the entire surface of the body. It connects the skin with the deep fascia and consists of areolar tissue.

The superficial fascia varies in thickness in different parts of the body and some places, especially in the groin is capable of being subdivided into several different layers. The first layer of the superficial fascia, which is just beneath the skin, usually contains a great amount of fat or adipose tissue. This, in most text books, has been termed the subcutaneous tissue. The second layer is comparatively devoid of adipose or fatty tissue and in this we find the trunks of the subcutaneous vessels and nerves, as for example, the radial and ulnar veins in the arms and the saphenous vein in the leg.

The superficial fascia facilitates the movement of the skin, serves as a soft medium for the passage of the vessels and nerves to the skin and retains the warmth of the body, since the fat contained in its meshes is a had conductor of heat.

Deep fascia or aponeurotic fascia is a dense inelastic, unyielding fibrous membrane, forming a sheath for the muscles and affording them broad surfaces for attachment. On removal of the superficial fascia, the deep fascia is usually exposed and can be seen as a dense, tough membrane, which not only binds down the muscles to each region, but gives to each a separate sheath as well as to the blood vessels and nerves.

Thus, on going down into the arm between the biceps and triceps muscles to raise the brachial artery, you would first cut through the skin, then the subcutaneous tissue, the superficial fascia and then you would come to a membrane investing the artery, vein and nerve. This membrane is the part of the deep fascia which covers the vessels, making a distinct sheath for them and you must go through this sheath before you can hope to raise the artery.

Fig. 3—Lymphatics of the head and neck. B, the thoracic duct.

The Lymphatics.

—The lymphatics occur in all parts of the body, and in many respects resemble the veins, one of the most striking similarities being that the lymphatics contain valves just the same as the venous system. The lymphatic capillaries are arranged in the form of a net work and resemble closely in structure the blood capillaries. These capillaries then unite to form the lymph vessels and these then convey the lymph to the subclavian veins. The lymph is a colorless fluid and contains numerous blood corpuscles known as lymphocytes. But in those lymphatic vessels, which have their origin in the walls of the small intestines, the lymph, especially during digestion, contains a great amount of fat, so that it has a milky appearance, and for this reason the lymphatics of this region, have been termed lacteals. There are two main lymphatic trunks, the one on the left side is called the thoracic duct. This duct extends from the lower border of the second lumbar vertebra, through the entire length of the thorax, and opens into the left subclavian vein, close to the point where it is joined to the left internal jugular. It receives the lymph from the lower limbs, the pelvic walls and viscera, the abdominal walls and viscera; the lower part of the right half and the whole of the left half of the thoracic viscera, the left side of the neck and head and the left arm.

Fig. 4—Lymphatics of the leg.

The other duct is called the right lymphatic duct and receives lymph from the upper part of the right side of the thoracic wall, part of the right side of the diaphragm and the right lobe of the liver, the whole of the right arm and neck and right side of the head. This trunk is very short and empties its supply of lymph into the right subclavian vein.

Receptaculum chyli is the expanded portion of the thoracic duct just at its beginning. Its function is to receive the lacteals which come from the villi of the intestines.

Lymph glands are the enlargements of the lymph vessels. They occur frequently in the lymphatic system, being most numerous in the axillary space, the cervical region (in the neck) and in Scarpa's triangle.

The lymphatic system aids greatly in warding off such diseases as blood poisoning, anthrax, etc.

The lacteals are the lymphatics which carry the chyme from the villi of the intestines and deposit it in the receptaculum chyli.

Glands.

—The glands of the human body are divided into three classes called tubular, alveolar and tubulo-alveolar glands.

Tubular Glands.—In these, the secreting portion consists of a long or short tubule, which may be relatively straight or variously twisted, one end of which ends blindly, while the other end opens on the free surface or into a duct.

Tubular glands may be simple, or having only a single tubule; they may be simple branched, having more than one tubule; or they may be compound branched, thus resembling the branching of a tree.

Some tubular glands would be the liver, kidneys, testes, lachrymal glands, serous glands of the mucous membranes, fundus glands of the stomach, uterine glands, the majority of the pyloric glands and the majority of the sweat glands.

Alveolar Glands.—In these, the secreting compartments have the form of variously shaped vesicles or saccules, known as alveoli which open on the free surface or into a duct.

Alveolar glands may be either simple, simple branched, or compound branched.

Some alveolar glands would be the sebaceous glands, pancreas, mammary gland, ovary and thyroid.

Tubulo-alveolar Glands.—In these, there is a combination of the tubular and the alveolar type. They may also be simple, simple branched or compound branched.

Some of this type would be certain of the pyloric glands, certain of the sweat glands, some mucous glands, the prostate and the lungs.

The most important glands will be discussed under the tissue or the organ in which they are situated.

Cartilage.

—Cartilage is a transition stage between connective tissue and bone; when it is boiled it yields condrin. It is found in various parts of the body, in the adults being found chiefly in the joints, in the sides of the thorax, and in various tubes which are not kept permanently open, such as the air passages, nostrils, ears, etc. In the foetus, the greater part of the framework is cartilaginous and as the foetus matures this cartilage is finally replaced by bone. Cartilage is divided into hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, and fibro cartilage.

Hyaline cartilage is found in the nose, larynx, trachea, and bronchi.

Elastic cartilage is found in the epiglottis and the cartilages of the larynx.

Fibro cartilage is found at the point of insertion of the ligaments, into the body of the bone, such as the cartilage which helps to hold the femur or long bone of the thigh into the hip.

Bones.

—Bone results from the calcification of cartilage or fibrous tissue. It is a highly specialized form of connective tissue. There are two varieties of bone; dense or compact bone and cancellous, loose, or spongy bone. Compact bone is dense, like ivory, and is always found on the exterior of bones.

Cancellous bone is found in the interior of bones, and has a lattice-work appearance.

Bone consists of one-third animal or organic matter and two-thirds earthy or inorganic matter. These proportions, however, vary with age. In youth it is nearly half and half, while in the adult the earthy is greatly in excess. It also varies with disease. With some defect of nutrition, the bone is deprived of its normal proportion of earthy matter, while the animal matter is of unhealthy quality, and we have as a result, a disease called rickets, so common in the children of the poor. The earthy or inorganic matter consists of phosphate, carbonate, fluoride of calcium, sodium chloride, and phosphate of magnesium. The animal matter consists of fat collagen, which when boiled with water is resolved into gelatin.

To illustrate the two substances, take a bone and place it in dilute hydrochloric acid. The acid will eat out all the mineral matter and we have left only the animal matter. After this operation one can take the bone and can bend it into any position whatever, which experiment shows that the animal matter gives elasticity to the bone.

The second experiment would be to put the bone on a bed of hot coals and burn it. Only the animal matter will burn and we will have the mineral matter remaining. After this operation one will find that the bone is very brittle and will easily break, which experiment shows that the mineral matter gives stability and support to the bone.

Fig. 5—Cross section of bone. (Sharpey)

If a cross section is made of any long bone, such as the humerus, and this section placed under the low power of the microscope, the Haversian canal system can be discerned. The Haversian canal system consists of the numerous small openings or canals through which the blood vessels ramify in distributing the nourishment to the bone. Around each individual canal are seen smaller spaces arranged in a circle. These are known as the lacunae (small lakes). Going from the lacunae are smaller canals which take on the name canaliculae, and joining all the lacunae together, making the appearance of concentric circles, we have the lamellae. The outside covering of the bone is called the periosteum and the inside covering is called the endosteum. Most of the long bones and many of the smaller bones are supplied by a nutrient artery, which enters the bone near its center, enters the bone marrow, and divides into two branches, one going up and the other down in the marrow. The blood is then distributed through the Haversian canal system. Veins emerge from the long bones in three places: 1. One or two large veins accompany the nutrient artery. 2. Numerous veins emerge from the articular extremities. 3. Many small veins arise in and emerge from the compact substance.

Bones are divided, according to shape, into four classes: long, short, flat and irregular.

Long Bones.—These bones are usually used as a system of levers to confer the power of locomotion. A long bone consists of a shaft and two extremities. The shaft is a hollow cylinder within which is the medullary canal. The extremities are somewhat expanded for the purpose of articulation, and to afford a broad surface for the attachment of muscles. The long bones are as a rule curved in two directions to give greater strength to the bone. Some examples of this class of bone are the clavicle, radius, ulna, humerus, femur, tibia, fibula, metacarpal, metatarsal, and the phalanges.

Short Bones.—These bones are placed in that part of the skeleton where there is need for strength and compactness, and where the motion of the part is slight and limited. Some examples of this class of bone are the bones of the carpus and tarsus (in the hand and the foot).

Flat Bones.—Flat bones are found where the principle requirement is either extensive protection, or the need of a broad surface for the attachment of muscles. Some of the bones of this class are the occipital, parietal, frontal, nasal, lachrymal, vomer, scapula, sternum, and the ribs.

Irregular Bones.—These bones are such as from their peculiar shape and form can not be grouped under any of the preceding heads. Some of the bones of this class are the vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx, temporal, sphenoid, ethmoid, etc.

If the surface of a bone is examined, certain articular and non-articular eminences and depressions will be seen.

Articular Eminences.—Examples of this class are found in the heads of the humerus and the femur.

Articular Depressions.—Examples of this class are found in the glenoid cavity of the scapula and the acetabulum.

Non-articular Eminences.—These are designated according to their form.

A tuberosity is a broad, rough, and uneven elevation.

A tubercle is a small, rough prominence.

A spine is a sharp, slender, pointed eminence.

A ridge, line, or crest is a narrow, rough elevation, running some way along the surface.

Non-articular Depressions.—These are of variable form, and are described as notches, sulci, fossae, grooves, furrows, fissures, etc. These non-articular eminences and depressions may serve to increase the extent of surface for the attachment of ligaments and muscles or may receive blood vessels, nerves, tendons, ligaments, or portions of organs.

Canals or foramina are channels or openings in bone through which pass the nerves and blood vessels.

Teeth.

—In the human body we find two sets of teeth. One appearing in childhood, and are known as milk teeth, twenty in number, the permanent teeth replacing these about the sixth year.

There are thirty-two permanent teeth, divided into four incisors, two canines, four bicuspids and six molars.

Teeth are made up of three different substances, which are known as enamel, dentine and cement.

The enamel is a very hard substance, the hardest in the body, and may be compared to quartz. The enamel covers the entire tooth down as far as the gums.

The cement is a continuation of the enamel below the gums, and is closely adherent to the dentine. The cement consists of bone tissue, but the lamellae as a rule do not contain Haversian canals.

The dentine is, next to the enamel, the hardest tissue of the tooth, and composes the main body of the tooth. The pulp cavity is found within the center of the tooth, with the opening toward the jaw bone. The tooth is nourished by a nutrient artery and vein and nerve which pass into the pulp of the tooth.

Nerves.

—Nerves are divided into two general classes, called medullary and non-medullary nerves. The non-medullated type arise mostly from the sympathetic system, while the medullated type arise from the brain and cord. As a rule, the nerves of the body follow the course of the arteries, and are generally found in the same sheath with the artery and vein.

Fig. 6—Section of a nerve fibre. (Klein and Noble Smith)

They are easily distinguished from the arteries and veins by touch and by their color, being very inelastic and fibrous, hard to the touch, and unlike the artery or vein, since they have no central opening.

Muscles.

—Myology is that branch of anatomy which treats of the muscles. The muscles are formed of bundles of reddish fibres, endowed with the property of contractility. In the body we find two kinds of muscular tissue, called voluntary and involuntary muscle. The voluntary type is characterized by the striped appearance which it displays when seen under the microscope, and for this reason it is called striped or striated muscle. It is so named “voluntary” because it is capable of being put into action and controlled by the will. The involuntary muscles do not present any striped appearance, and consequently are called unstriped or non-striated, and are not under the control of the will. An example of voluntary muscle would be any muscle of the bony framework as for example, the biceps or triceps.

Fig. 7—View of muscle fibers.

An example of involuntary muscle would be those of the intestines and stomach, the muscles of the bladder and uterus and the walls of the arteries and veins, etc.

When viewed under the microscope, the muscle is seen to be composed of many fibrils. The sheath covering each fibril is called the sarcolemma, and contains within its boundaries the muscle plasma, or protoplasm, and a nucleus. Many of the fibrils when grouped together constitute the entire muscle.

The muscles get their blood supply from the nutrient artery, which ramifies the tissues, the smallest capillaries coming in contact with each muscle cell.

Tendons.

—Tendons are white, glistening, fibrous cords, varying in length and thickness, sometimes round, sometimes flattened, of considerable strength, and devoid of elasticity. It consists principally of a substance which yields gelatin.

Tendons do not have a direct blood supply.

Aponeuroses.

—Aponeuroses are flattened or ribbon-like tendons, of a pearly-white color, irridescent, glistening, and similar in structure to the tendons.

Ligaments.

—Ligaments consist of bands of various forms, serving to connect the articular extremities of bones. They are strong bands of smooth, silverwhite fibrous tissue.

A ligament is pliable and flexible, so as to allow the most perfect freedom of movement, but at the same time it is tough and strong, so as not to yield readily under the severe applied force, and for this reason they serve as good connecting links for the binding of bones together.

Poupart's Ligament.—Poupart's ligament extends from the crest of the ilium to the top of the pubic bone. This ligament is of utmost importance to the embalmer, as it serves as a guide to locate the femoral artery. By placing the thumb on the crest of the ilium and the second finger on the top of the public bone, then letting the first finger drop midway between the two, which would be the center of Poupart's ligament, we have a point which marks the exit of the artery from the body and the beginning of the femoral artery.

Poupart's ligament also forms the base of Scarpa's triangle. The structure of this triangle will be taken up later.

Fat.

—Fat is a deposit of an oil in the cells of the tissues, just beneath the skin, giving roundness and plumpness to the body, and acting as an excellent non-conductor for the retention of heat.

So tiny are these cells, that there are over sixty-five million in a cubic inch of fat. As they are kept moist, the liquid does not ooze out; but, on drying, it comes to the surface, and thus a piece of fat feels oily when exposed to the air. The quantity of fat varies with the state of nutrition. In corpulent persons, the masses of fat beneath the skin, in the mesentery, on the surface of the heart and the great vessels, between the muscles, and in the neighborhood of the nerves, are considerably increased. Conversely, in the emaciated we sometimes find beneath the skin cells which contain only one oil drop. Many masses of fat which have an important relation to muscular actions—such as the fat of the orbit or the cheek, do not disappear in the most emaciated persons. Even in starvation, the fatty substance of the brain and spinal cord are retained.

Fat collects as pads in the hollows of the bones, around the joints and between the muscles, causing them to glide more easily upon each other. As marrow, it nourishes the skeleton, and also distributes the shock of any jar the limb may sustain.

Fat does not gather within the cranium, the lungs or the eyelids, where its accumulation would clog the organs.

Mucous Membranes.

—Mucous membranes line all the open cavities of the body, or all those cavities which communicate with the outside.

At the edges of the openings into the body, the skin seems to stop and give place to a tissue which is redder, more sensitive, more liable to bleed, and is moistened by a fluid or mucous, as it is called. Really, however, the skin does not cease, but passes into a more delicate covering of the same general structure, and it is to this that the name mucous membrane is applied.

The entire alimentary canal, the entire respiratory tract, and the genito-urinary tract, are lined with a mucous membrane. Mucous membrane secretes a mucous fluid.

Serous Membranes.

—Serous membranes line the closed cavities of the body. The pleurae, the pericardium and the peritoneum are examples of serous membranes. Serous membranes secrete a serous fluid.

Synovial Membranes.

—Synovial membranes are serous in character, and consist of loose connective tissue, containing fat, vessels and nerves, its inner surface being usually lined with secreting cells. The fluid secreted is yellowish-white or slightly reddish, resembling very much the white of an egg. It contains fats, salts, albumen, extractives from the lymph, and a fluid known as synovia. The chief function of this fluid is to act as an oil to lubricate the joints and surfaces in which there is any friction.

Synovial membranes are divided into three classes, known as articular, bursal and vaginal.