The Technic
of the
Baton

A Handbook for Students
of Conducting

by
Albert Stoessel

With a Preface by
Walter Damrosch

Copyright, 1920, by
CARL FISCHER, Inc., NEW YORK
International Copyright Secured

Copyright, 1928, by
CARL FISCHER, Inc., NEW YORK
International Copyright Secured

Carl Fischer, Inc.
COOPER SQUARE, NEW YORK 3
Boston · Chicago · Dallas · Los Angeles

PREFACE

Conducting is an art, and a difficult one to master.

It requires a special talent, enthusiasm, great nervous vitality; a serious study of the works written by the masters of music; the magnetic power of forcing the executants to carry out the conductor’s demands; infinite patience, great tenacity, great self-control, and absolute knowledge of the technique of the baton.

The last is a complete sign language through and by which the conductor issues his commands and achieves his results.

With the baton and an infinite variety of movements of hand, wrist and arm, the conductor indicates the tempo and its changes, the dynamics, the expression, and in fact all the inner spirit and meaning of the music.

He insures precision and unanimity whether his executants number one hundred or one thousand, and plays upon them as the pianist upon his keyboard or the violinist upon the strings of his Cremona.

Much of this must be inborn, but much can be acquired by study. Mr. Albert Stoessel’s book will be of great help to the earnest student.

Mr. Stoessel was appointed teacher of conducting in the Bandmasters’ School, which I founded during the war at General Pershing’s request at G. H. Q., Chaumont, France.

His book is admirably planned and executed. It is clear, practical and stimulating, and I hope it will be generally used throughout the country.

The lack of routine and the ignorance of even the simplest rudiments of the art of “beating time” is appalling among many of our conductors, organists and choir-masters. Mr. Stoessel’s book should be of great help to them.

(Signed) Walter Damrosch.

July 4th, 1920

CHAPTER I
A BRIEF OUTLINE OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF CONDUCTING

“Conducting is the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of gesture.” It is thus that Ralph Vaughan-Williams heads his illuminating article on conducting, written for Grove’s Dictionary, and while this rather terse definition is an admirable summing up of the meaning of conducting, it needs to be qualified.

In music the conductor is one, who after assimilating in his own consciousness every phase of a musical composition, becomes the supreme arbiter in the process of bringing that composition into actual being. Music as an art is absolutely dependent on the interpreter. It lives only in the performance, and the interpreter, sensing his importance, is often tempted to place his own personality between the audience and the music itself. It would seem, however, that in ensemble music, (music requiring several or more performers) this opportunity for the glorification of the personality of the virtuoso would be present in a far less degree. And yet, the interpretation by the conductor of the score of such a piece demands a degree of virtuosity transcending by far that which is required in the performance of an ordinary solo composition.

It is the conductor who unlocks the mysteries of the score. Like water that will always rise to its own level, it may safely be said that the actual performance of an orchestral or choral work will only rise to the level of the conductor’s intellectual and spiritual conception. A good conductor can get good results from players of lesser ability, while a poor conductor can throw the finest orchestra into confusion.

Granted that the conductor has a clear and matured mental conception of a musical work, there is still a vast distance between this conception and its final perception by the listener. An enumeration of these obstacles and a description of their overcoming will constitute a complete outline of what the art of conducting is.

A conductor with a definite conception of the musical score in his head is not unlike the commander of an army who has worked out a complete plan of action. Each has to carefully consider the limitation of his forces and equipment, and how best to achieve the objective. Each is working through others and in so doing must make due allowance for the uncertainties of human nature, the capacity and character of each individual as well as that intangible something known as “esprit de corps.” Ceaseless drilling is necessary to achieve that mechanical perfection which forms the foundation of later inspirational and artistic performance.

A survey of the history of conducting will show that the art has evolved through three distinct periods which might be called the “time-beater,” “drill-master” and “conductor” phases. The preparation and performance of any musical score requires the assuming of all three of these roles by the conductor.

The activity of conducting is doubtless as old as music itself and was probably always employed whenever the musical performance called for several or more participants. The ancient Greeks indulged in two styles of conducting: the conductor indicating the beat by stamping his iron-soled foot or by resorting to what is known as “Chironomy.” This latter was a system of indicating the progress of a musical composition by arm, hand, and finger motions, a definite movement corresponding to every rise and fall of the melody. It was from chironomy, in connection with various speech accents that the notation system of neumes developed.

An interesting feature of this early conducting is the fact that all down beats (accented) were indicated by up strokes of the hand and the up beats (unaccented) vice versa, with downward movements. This is just the opposite to modern practice.

This manner of conducting was probably in vogue in the early Gregorian singing schools, and even a superficial perusal of the Gregorian chants will indicate the intricate rhythmical character of the music taught and sung in these establishments. These early chants, not unlike our modern operatic recitative, had no regular rhythmic scheme and the singing was a sort of musical prose. The singing was lead by a precentor. It was he who gave the pitch and lead with “voice and hand,” that is, he gave the chironomic signs and helped the singers over the rough spots by singing along. The church, however, also knew strict rhythmical hymns and there the leader stamped the beat audibly.

With the advent of polyphony the duties of the conductor increased. He often found it necessary to lead both visibly and audibly. Mendelssohn in a letter to his teacher, Zelter, gives a description of this manifold activity on the part of the conductor, indicating that it persisted even to the rather late date of 1830. Describing the papal choir in Rome, he writes:

“There is a chorus of priests (clericals) who sing only in the presence of the Pope or his representative. It numbers thirty-two regular members but they are seldom all present. The director personally sings with them, helping each part, sometimes singing the deepest bass and again jumping with astounding agility to the highest falsetto soprano.”

With the introduction of the mensural notation the old chironomic system ceased to have a reason to exist and the conductor instead of indicating every fluctuation of the melodic line, merely beat time at certain of the accented divisions of the phrase. This was done usually with a parchment roll of music in the hand, so that the singers and ever increasing number of instrumentalists could keep together.

The transition from the 16th to the 17th century brought about important innovations in music—the accompanied solo numbers of the opera came into being, the figured bass and bar line were introduced generally into choral and orchestral works. And, when in the course of the 17th century the demand that the conductor cease this mechanical beating of the time and give the tempo in a manner commensurate with the effect desired became insistent, the conductor took his place among the performers and lead the music from the clavicembalo. From this position he not only led the performance but also filled in the harmonies according to the figured bass. When the rhythm wavered, the first violin, whom we call the concertmaster, gave the beat.

Although this method of combined leadership (cembalo and first violin) was the one in general use during the 18th century, there were other modes of leading. Rousseau pokes fun at the Paris opera where much evil noise was made by pounding the floor with a stick in order to keep the musical forces together. It is a grotesque truth that Lully lost his life from an infection of the foot caused by a misdirected stroke of the cane with which he was beating time.

According to Gessner, Bach presided at the organ or cembalo while conducting and this seems to have been the method of Handel and Gluck likewise. Haydn conducted his London Symphonies sitting at the piano, more as a sort of public exhibition than as actual leader. The conducting was done by Solomon, the violinist.

In the meantime another revolutionary change had taken place in music itself. The general or figured bass playing clavier or cembalo was rendered superfluous by the incorporation of the full harmony into the orchestra itself. The only place where it held its own was in the accompaniment to the recitative.

Beethoven conducted his “Eroica” in the house of Prince Lobkowitz, 1804, standing at the conductor’s desk. It is assumed that he used a roll of sheet music, because in Germany the use of the baton was first introduced by Mosel in 1812.

Spohr gives us an interesting glimpse of Beethoven’s conducting methods. He says: “It was Beethoven’s custom to insert all sorts of dynamic markings in the parts, and remind his players of the marks by resorting to the most curious bodily contortions. At every ‘sforzato’ he would thrust his arms away from his breast where he held them crossed. When he desired a ‘piano’ he would crouch lower and lower; when the music grew louder into a ‘forte’, he would literally leap into the air and at times grow so excited as to yell in the midst of a climax.”

From about the year 1812 the use of the baton spread rapidly. We have records of Carl Maria von Weber using the baton in 1817 in Dresden, Mendelssohn in 1835 in Leipzig, and Spohr tells a most amusing anecdote of how the musicians of the London orchestra protested most vehemently when he first proposed to lead them with the magic little stick instead of playing the violin with them.

The art of conducting as we understand it can be said to date back to this triumvirate, von Weber, Spohr and Mendelssohn. Although all creative musicians of the first water (and who until the era of the modern travelling virtuoso was not primarily a creative musician), these men grasped in the greatest measure the tremendous importance of the proper interpretation of a musical composition and through their personal effort and skill as leaders raised the standard of performance wherever they directed. They realized the important difference between merely beating time and giving the living pulse or tempo of a composition.

Although Spohr is remembered today chiefly as a composer of violin concerti and duos that all pupils play, in his own time his prestige was equal to, if not greater than that of Beethoven. A man of inflexible character and peculiar critical methods, he was not in full sympathy with Beethoven and von Weber but on the other hand he vigorously espoused the cause of the new German school, even giving a performance of Wagner’s “Flying Dutchman” at a time when Wagner was not at all popular. Wagner never forgot his indebtedness to Spohr, who was the first German musician to recognize him. It was Spohr who introduced the system of marking the score with letters and numbers to facilitate rehearsing.

It is interesting to read Carl Maria von Weber’s directions for time beating. To quote him: “The beat must not be like a tyrannical mill-hammer but must be to the musical composition what the pulse beat is to the life of a human being. There are no slow tempi in which places do not occur which demand a faster movement in order to eliminate the tendency to drag. On the other hand there is no presto which has not contrasting episodes that must be played much slower to avoid the slighting of the expressive passages.—All accelerandi as well as ritardandi must be made skillfully, that is, gradually.” This is only a small example of the reforms brought about by the composer of “Oberon.”

Mendelssohn might be said to have been a living example of the rather worn expression “a born conductor.” Brought up in the most musical of households he was familiar with the orchestra from childhood and in his life time was equally famous as conductor and composer. Although his conducting was not entirely free from certain traits of superficiality and rigid elegance, Wagner’s biting criticism of him must be taken with a grain of salt.

Other prominent conductors of the romantic period were the composers Meyerbeer and Spontini.

It is possible to reconstruct a picture of Hector Berlioz as conductor from his own words. In his little book on the “Orchestral Conductor” he says: “The orchestral conductor should see and hear; he should be active and vigorous, should know the composition and the nature and compass of the instruments, should be able to read the score, and possess—besides the especial talent of which we shall presently endeavor to explain the constituent qualities—other indefinable gifts, without which an invisible link cannot establish itself between him and those he directs; otherwise the faculty of transmitting to them his feeling is denied him, and power, empire, and guiding influence completely fail him. He is then no longer a conductor, a director, but a simple beater of the time—supposing he knows how to beat it, and divide it, regularly.”

“The performers should feel that he feels, comprehends, and is moved; then his emotion communicates itself to those whom he directs, his inward fire warms them, his electric glow animates them, his force of impulse excites them; he throws around him the vital irradiations of musical art. If he is inert and frozen, on the contrary, he paralyzes all about him, like those floating masses of the polar seas, the approach of which is sensed through the sudden cooling of the atmosphere.”

“His task is a complicated one. He has not only to conduct, in the spirit of the author’s intentions, a work with which the performers have already become acquainted, but he must also introduce new compositions and help the performers to master them. He has to criticise the errors and defects of each during the rehearsals, and to organize the resources at his disposal in such a way as to make the best use he can of them with the utmost promptitude; for, in the majority of European cities nowadays, musical artisanship is so ill distributed, performers so ill paid and the necessity of study so little understood, that economy of time should be reckoned among the most imperative requisites of the orchestral conductor’s art.”

Franz Liszt’s position as composer is too well known to require further elucidation here, but Wagner’s description of his future father-in-law’s conducting is certainly worth quoting. Wagner, passing through Weimar in his flight from the governmental authorities, had an opportunity to attend one of Liszt’s rehearsals of “Tannhäuser.” He tells us: “What I felt when I created this music, he felt in his performance of it; what I wanted to say as I wrote it down, he said in bringing it to performance.” In the directions attached to the scores of his Symphonic Poems, Liszt gives an interesting picture of his ideas on conducting:

“A performance of my orchestral works which measures up to the standard and intentions of the composer and that will give them the proper tone color, rhythm and life, can best be brought about by preliminary sectional rehearsals. With this in mind I respectfully request of the esteemed conductors who intend to perform my symphonic works that they precede the general rehearsal with separate rehearsals for the strings, wood-wind, brass, etc.”

“At the same time I would like to remark that the usual mechanical, cut and dried performance (customary in many cities) be avoided and in its place the ‘new period’ style which stresses proper accentuation, the rounding off of melodic and rhythmical nuances be substituted. The life-nerve of a symphonic production rests in the conductor’s spiritual and intellectual conception of the composition, it being assumed, of course, that the orchestra possesses the necessary powers to realize this conception. Should the latter condition be absent, I recommend that my works be left unperformed.”

“Although I have tried through exact markings of the dynamics, the accelerations and slowing up of the tempo, to clearly indicate my wishes, I must confess that much, even that which is of the greatest importance cannot be expressed on paper. Only a complete artistic equipment on the part of the conductor and players, as well as a sympathetic and spiritually enlivened performance can bring my works to their proper effect.”

It was Liszt’s desire to free the performance of orchestral and choral works from the limitations of bar line rhythm and to effect this change his style of conducting became a sort of modern chironomy in which his gestures expressed the “melos” and underlying spirit of the composition as well as fulfilling their mechanical function.

From Liszt we easily trace the line of growth in the art of conducting to Richard Wagner, and interestingly enough, with Richard Wagner the great line of composer-conductors stops.

In this day and generation the ever increasing tendency of specialization has brought about an almost complete separation of creative activity from executive activity. Even in the 18th and early 19th century the virtuoso who travelled around was principally a composer who played his own works. The conductor, player, or singer who performs only the works of others is a modern product and was completely unknown until recently.

But, before reviewing the names and accomplishments of the line of purely virtuoso conductors, we must take time to consider Richard Wagner’s position as conductor.

That same unquenchable reformatory fire which manifested itself in Wagner’s composing made him one of the greatest conductors in all musical history. His illuminating performances of Weber’s “Freischuetz,” Gluck’s “Iphigenia,” Palestrina’s “Stabat Mater,” Beethoven’s “Ninth Symphony” still cast their echoes down the corridors of time to the influencing of performances that are being given today. Beethoven’s “Ninth Symphony” was performed three times by Wagner (in 1846, ’47 and ’49) and not once did his name appear on the program. What a contrast to these days, when often in the advance announcement only the name of the ‘prima donna’ conductor appears!

For years Beethoven’s colossal work was the rock upon which many talented conductors had foundered. Only the Parisian conductor, Habeneck, who conducted from a violin-part, had the patience and character to so drill his Conservatoire orchestra that they mastered to a relatively high degree the difficulties of the work. Wagner tells us in his book on conducting, of the great disappointment that was his when he heard the actual performance in Germany of works which he had come to love through the study of the score. In fact, his book is almost entirely a diatribe against the superficial and conscienceless conductors of this time. Habeneck’s performance of the “Ninth” opened his eyes and he did not rest until he was likewise able to give performances of Beethoven’s immortal work that were to mark a new era and standard of orchestral technic.

He placed little stress on tempo marks, agreeing with Bach that a true musician is able to tell from the character of the music just how fast or slow a composition is to be taken. Taking his cue from Habeneck, he made perfection of ensemble and correct rendition of the notes his starting point and on this solid foundation he reared a structure of the highest poetic beauty and imagination. The melos or spiritual melody of the artwork was sought by him in every measure and when found he caused whichever instrument through which it was expressed to sing it with the utmost intensity and conviction. His fanatical desire to always bring out the “melos” caused him at times to even go so far as to alter the instrumentation of the original, giving notes to the trumpets and horns which they in Beethoven’s time did not possess, and often changing awkward passages in the woodwinds which he considered were dictated more by Beethoven’s deafness than his better musical judgment.

Descriptions of Wagner’s conducting tell us of a man of no more than medium height with a rather still deportment, moderate but decisive movements of the arms, a great vivacity and a habit of fixing a piercing glance on the players of the orchestra which he ruled imperially. Fürstenau, the flutist, related to Felix Weingartner that when Wagner conducted they had no sense of being led and that each player believed himself to be following freely his own feeling. And yet everything was bound together so powerfully by Wagner’s mighty will that everything went with wonderful smoothness and precision.

Wagner’s epoch-making works demanded a new school of conductors, and gradually he was able to train younger men to carry out his ideas and to spread the message of the new art. Chief among these Wagner apostles was Hans von Buelow, a great pianist and a musician who might have been a creator in his own right had he not heeded the call of specialization, demanded of him as an interpreter. He toured Europe with his small but highly-trained Meiningen Court Orchestra, and completely revolutionized the status of orchestral playing. His conducting of “Tristan” and his beautifully clear piano score of the same, testify of his high understanding of the Wagner spirit. And yet, after his tragic break with the Bayreuth master, he was able to espouse the cause of the classic composers and, what is all the more astonishing, become the chief exponent of the anti-Wagner school, of which Brahms was the symbol.

In Bayreuth Wagner had as his conductors men like Hans Richter, Felix Mottl and Hermann Levi and the names of these men are indelibly connected with the glory that was Bayreuth’s. With the advent of these conductors we stand at the threshold of today.

This brief sketch has led us from the time when the conductor was little more than a time-beater functioning in the most mechanical manner, to our own time when the conductor has achieved an importance in the musical world second only to the creator himself, and in some cases even transcending the position of the mere creator of the music. Did not a great conductor of today recently ask a composer: “Have you ever heard me conduct your opera?” “No.” “You should, you wouldn’t recognize it.”

The conductor of today is not merely the time-beater and drill-master who achieves note-perfection, but he is the genius who frees music from all the imperfections of material limitations, his rhythm is no longer the wallpaper pattern of the bar line, but takes on its original meaning in the stressing of the flowing phrase; his gesture is no longer the mere beat but is the pictorialization and visualization of the music itself.

In the new conductor, Liszt’s ideal of the conductor or time-beater who makes himself superfluous is partially realized, but not in the way Liszt thought. The conductor of today has made the old time-beater-drill-master superfluous by supplanting him with a super-being, one who with his wealth of subtle and interpretative gestures has brought into being a new art of chironomy which does not merely indicate the rise and fall of the melody, but indicates that which no composer has ever succeeded in putting on paper—the living soul and spirit of the artwork.

CHAPTER II
THE PHYSICAL ASPECT OF CONDUCTING;
ANALYSIS OF ARM AND HAND MOVEMENTS
USED IN CONDUCTING

This chapter is devoted entirely to the physical aspect of conducting. Analysis of the gestures used in conducting has shown that there are four fundamental movements.

A—Wrist movement in horizontal position. (With palm of the hand facing downward.)

B—Wrist movement in vertical position. (With palm of the hand facing inward.)

C—Fore-arm movement.

D—Full-arm movement.

The diagrams on pages [11] and [13] represent a set of exercises for the acquiring of complete control and suppleness of the wrist and arm in all these four movements. On the opposite pages sets of music examples will be found. Each individual note of these examples represents a movement.

The conscientious study and practice of these exercises will not only fully prepare the conductor for the more complicated beating of time-indications, but will give him that poise and confidence which come only with a consciousness of absolute self-control. This physical self-control is one of the greatest essentials in the art of conducting.

DESCRIPTION OF EXERCISES

There are two series of exercises, each numbering 24 figures. These are to be performed in four different styles, corresponding to the four fundamental movements.

• A—Wrist movement in horizontal position.
• B—Wrist movement in vertical position.
• C—Fore-arm movement.
• D—Full-arm movement.

For each style, there are four different positions which, for practical reasons, have been named after the points of the compass; North, South, East, and West. The drawings contained in this chapter are of the four different positions, for each style of exercise. In the diagram of exercises each of these points is indicated by a letter; N—for North, S—for South, E—for East, and W—for West.

The small letter in the upper left corner indicates the starting point. The other letters indicate the points of arrival.

Each figure is to be executed in time with certain music examples of which each individual note corresponds to a point of arrival.

For instance, figure 1 would be executed with [Music Ex. 1] thus:

South position corresponding to the note C.
North position corresponding to the note G.

[[audio/mpeg]]

The sf on a letter indicates a sharp forceful movement as opposed to a more relaxed motion. In the exercises for the wrist, the forearm and upper arm must remain motionless. Likewise, the forearm movement must be executed without moving the upper arm.

Great caution should be taken not to over-tire the wrist and arm, when first practising these exercises.

These exercises are to be practised by the right and left arm alternatively.

It is suggested for the individual practise that the student place the music examples on one side of the music stand and the diagram of the exercises on the other.

Thus he may describe the gymnastic exercises while singing or whistling the music.

MUSICAL EXAMPLES FOR GYMNASTIC EXERCISES

Series 1

Apply these exercises to all figures of series 1.

Series 1

Series 2

Apply these exercises to all figures of series 2

NOTE:—Each individual note corresponds to a gesture indicated in the figures by a N, E, S, W.

Series 2

‘N,’ or North position of Style A

1. Drop arm loosely to side.

2. Raise forearm forward until it forms a right angle with the upper arm.

3. Extend hand and fingers; keep the palm facing downwards.

4. Without moving the arm, raise the hand from the wrist-joint until almost at a right angle with the forearm.

Note.—The forearm maintains this position all through the exercises of Style A.

‘S,’ or South position of Style A

Without moving the forearm, lower the hand from the wrist-joint until at a right angle with the forearm.

‘E,’ or East position of Style A

Without moving the forearm, and always keeping the fingers extended and palm downward, move the hand to the right as far as possible.

‘W,’ or West position of Style A

Without moving the arm, and always keeping the fingers extended with the palm downward, move the hand to the left as far as it will go.

‘N,’ or North position of Style B

1. Drop arm loosely to side.

2. Raise forearm forward until it forms a right angle with the upper arm.

3. The fingers remain extended and the palm is turned so that the thumb is uppermost.

4. Without moving the forearm, raise the hand as far as possible, taking care to keep the fingers extended and palm inward.

Note.—The forearm maintains this position throughout the positions of Style B.

‘S,’ or South position of Style B

Without moving the arm, lower the hand as far as possible, taking care to keep the fingers extended and palm inward (facing to the left).

‘E,’ or East position of Style B

Without moving the arm, point the hand and fingers to the right until almost forming a right angle with the arm.

‘W,’ or West position of Style B

Without moving the arm, point the hand and fingers to the left until almost forming a right angle. The thumb still remains uppermost.

‘N,’ or North position of Style C

1. Drop arm loosely to side.

2. Raise forearm forward until it forms a right angle with the upper arm.

3. The palm is turned down.

4. Without moving the upper arm, raise the forearm upwards until the back of the hand almost touches the shoulder.

Note.—The upper arm maintains this position throughout the exercises in Style C.

‘S,’ or South position of Style C

Without moving the upper arm, lower the forearm until the palm of the hand is about 3 or 4 inches from the thigh.

‘E,’ or East position of Style C

Without moving upper arm, turn the forearm to the right about 40 degrees.

‘W,’ or West position of Style C

Without moving upper arm, turn the forearm to the left about 40 degrees, the palm of the hand facing forward.

‘S,’ or South position of Style D

Lower arm downward until the palm is about 4 inches from the thigh.

NOTE.—All motions in Style ‘D’ are described by the full arm.

‘W,’ or West position of Style D

Turn arm to the left about 40 degrees.

‘E,’ or East position of Style D

Turn arm to the right about 40 degrees.

‘N,’ or North position of Style D

Raise arm upwards with palm forward and fingers extended.

CHAPTER III-A
The General Attitude
of the Conductor

1. The general attitude of the conductor must be one of quiet, but commanding dignity.

2. He must not only know what he wants, but must be able to convey this knowledge to his musicians by a minimum of gesture.

3. His body must be as firm as the proverbial mighty oak which only sways in the fiercest storm. The head, knees and feet must remain quiet.

4. The length of the arm movement varies necessarily with the length of the individual arm. The increase or decrease in the tempo also calls for changes in motion. A quick tempo is conducted with a smaller motion than a slow tempo. Often the contrast of “fortissimo” to “pianissimo” is indicated by changing from large to small motions.

5. All gestures must be directed by the hand or forearm. Just as the singer is admonished to produce his tones “forward” so should the conductor place his center of energetic motive power as far into the tips of the fingers as possible. This produces the effect of the hand easily drawing the arm after it rather than pushing the dead weight of the arm by a movement that seems to begin in the shoulder.

6. The baton must not be held stiffly as this would effect the suppleness of the whole arm. The gesture must be described by the very tip of the baton, as if an imaginary brush were attached to it and one were painting the gesture on some imaginary surface. As a rule the palm of the hand should be held downward.

7. It is possible to beat time accurately and still use uneven and unrythmical motions. To avoid this, the greatest rare should be taken to move from one beat to another in a measured and symmetrical manner.

8. In a slow movement, accuracy can be obtained by ending each beat with an added sharp wrist movement in the same direction as the beat.

9. The function of the left arm is difficult to describe. Although it plays a more modest part than the right arm, it is nevertheless of much importance. It must ever be ready with preventive motions, indications of instrumental entrances (cues), and to add force to certain gestures of the right arm. But let it here be said that the habit of conducting constantly with both arms describing the motions is only to be condemned.

10. Although all general rules in conducting are dangerous, it is suggested that the principle of indicating each accent, entrance, sudden “forte” or “piano,” one beat in advance be adhered to.

CHAPTER III-B
Photographs Which Illustrate the Five Fundamental
Positions Used in Actual Conducting

No. 1. Preparatory position. 4/4 time.

Number 2

Position of the first beat in 4/4 time.

Number 3

Position of the second beat in 4/4 time.

Number 4

Position of the third beat in 4/4 time.

Number 5

Position of the fourth beat in 4/4 time.

CHAPTER III-C
Diagrams of Gestures Used in Conducting

The music examples are to illustrate the use of the gesture and have been found practical for class work.

In practising these gestures with the music examples, the movement must always be expressive of the character of the music.

Sharp and energetic movements for music of an accentuated character, and moderate, gentle movements for music of a corresponding nature.

The accent is executed by a sharp, quick arm movement. Great care must be taken to execute each movement, even the most gentle pianissimo, clearly and with authority.

In all the diagrams shown the following principles are adhered to:—

1. The heavy or accented beat is indicated by a dark arrow.

2. The light or unaccented beat is indicated by an unshaded arrow.

3. The semi-accented beat is indicated by a semi-shaded arrow.

4. All subdivisions are indicated by dotted lines.

5. The fundamental beats are described with the arm movement, while subdivisions are performed with the wrist. In this manner, a clear indication of the fundamental beat is always maintained.

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 1

Fundamental method of beating 2/2, 2/4 time.

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 2

Actual method of beating 2/2, 2/4,
and fast 6/8 and 6/4 time.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 1 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 2

[[audio/mpeg]]

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 3

Normal subdivision of 2/2 and 2/4 time.

N.B.The subdivision of each beat is
indicated by the word “and”.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 2 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 3

A

[[audio/mpeg]]

B[1]

[[audio/mpeg]]

[1]

[[audio/mpeg]]

This form of six eight time is
indicated in the above manner.

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 4

Method of beating 6/8, 6/4 time when only 2 beats in a measure are required. To be used also for slow 2/4 time.

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 5

Accented subdivision of 2/2 and 2/4 time.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 3 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 5

[[audio/mpeg]]

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 6

6/4 or 6/8 time. (Modern French Method) 6/4 or 6/8 time is a subdivision of 2/2 or 2/4 time.

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 6a

Old method of beating slow 6/8 time.

The disadvantage of this method is that the 6th beat is out of proportion with the others. In diagram Nᵒ. 6 the long beat comes on the 4th or naturally accented beat of the measure, whereas in 6a the 6th or last beat in the measure is apt to be unduly accented.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 4 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 6 and 6a

[[audio/mpeg]]

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 7

Fundamental method of beating 3/2, 3/4 or 3/8 time.

DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 8

Actual method of beating 3/2, 3/4 or 3/8 time.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 5 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 8

A

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DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 9

Normal subdivision of 3/2, 3/4 or 3/8 time.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 6 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 9

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DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 10

Accented subdivision of 3/2, 3/4 or 3/8 time.

EXAMPLE Nᵒ. 7 for DIAGRAM Nᵒ. 10

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