Plate 31. Cassell's Book of Birds

PAINTED SPUR-FOWL____GALLOPERDIX LUNULOSA

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CASSELL'S
BOOK OF BIRDS.
FROM THE TEXT OF DR. BREHM.

BY

THOMAS RYMER JONES, F.R.S.,

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AND COMPARATIVE ANATOMY IN KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON.

WITH UPWARDS OF

Four Hundred Engravings, and a Series of Coloured Plates.

IN FOUR VOLUMES.
VOL. IV.

CASSELL, PETTER, & GALPIN,
LONDON, PARIS, AND NEW YORK.

[Pg iii]

CONTENTS.

—♦—

PAGE

[THE STILT-WALKERS] (Grallatores).

HE BUSTARDS (Otides):—The Great Bustard—The Little Bustard—The Houbaras—The Indian Houbara—The African Ruffled Bustard—The Florikin [1]-[9]

THE COURSERS (Tachydromi):—The Cream-coloured Courser—The Trochilus, or Crocodile Watcher—The Pratincoles, or Swallow-winged Waders—The Collared Pratincole [9]-[14]

THE THICK-KNEES (Œdicnemi):—The Common Thick-knee, or Stone Curlew [14], [15]

THE PLOVERS (Charadrii):—The Golden Plover—The Ringed Plover—The Dotted Plovers—The Dotted Plover, or Dotterel—The Shore Plovers—The Little Shore Plover, or Little Ringed Plover—The Lapwings, or Peewits—The Peewit, or Lapwing—The Spur-winged Lapwing—The Lappeted Peewit—The Turnstone—The Pied Oyster-catcher, or Sea Pie [15]-[29]

THE SNIPES (Limicolæ):—The True Snipes—The Woodcock—The Marsh Snipes—The Common Snipe—The Moor Snipes—The Jack Snipe [29]-[35]

THE SANDPIPERS (Tringæ):—The Curlew Sandpipers—The Pigmy Curlew Sandpiper—The Sanderling—The Mud Sandpiper—The Dwarf Sandpiper—The Ruff [35]-[42]

THE PHALAROPES (Phalaropi):—The Hyperborean Phalarope—The Red Phalarope [42]-[44]

THE LONGSHANKS (Totani) [44], [45]

THE TRUE SANDPIPERS (Actitis):—The Common Sandpiper—The Greenshank [45]-[47]

THE GODWITS (Limosa):—The Red or Bar-tailed Godwit—The Black-winged Stilt [47]-[50]

THE SCOOPING AVOCETS (Recurvirostræ):—The Scooping Avocet [50], [51]

THE CURLEWS (Numenii):—The Great Curlew, or Whaap—The Hard-billed Waders—The Ibises—The Falcinels—The Glossy Ibis—The Scarlet Ibis—The White, Egyptian, or Sacred Ibis [Pg iv] [51]-[58]

THE SPOONBILLS (Plataleæ):—The Common Spoonbill. The BOAT-BILLS (Cancromata):—The Whale-headed Stork, or Shoe-beak—The Savaku, or Boat-bill—The Hammer-head, or Shadow Bird [58]-[63]

THE STORKS (Ciconiæ):—The Tantali—The Ibis-like Tantalus—The True Storks—The White or House Stork—The Simbil—The Senegal Jabiru—The Jabiru [63]-[74]

THE ADJUTANTS, ARGALAS, OR MARABOUS (Leptoptilos) The African Marabou—The Indian Adjutant, or Argala [74], [75]

THE CLAPPER-BILLED STORKS, OR SHELL-EATERS (Anastomus):—The African Clapper-bill, or Shell-eater [75],[76]

THE HERONS (Ardeæ):—The Common Heron—The Giant Heron. The WHITE HERONS (Herodias):—The Great White Heron—The Lesser Egret—The Cattle Heron—The Night Heron [76]-[83]

THE BITTERNS (Ardetta):—The Little Bittern—The Common Bittern—The Sun Bittern, or Peacock Heron [83]-[87]

THE MARSH-WADERS (Paludicolæ). The CRANES (Grues):—The Common Crane—The Demoiselle, or Numidian Crane. The AFRICAN CROWNED CRANES (Balearica):—The Crowned African or Peacock Crane. The FIELD STORKS (Arvicolæ). The SNAKE CRANES (Dicholophus):—The Brazilian Cariama, or Crested Screamer [87]-[94]

THE TRUMPETERS (Psophia):—The Agami, or Gold-breasted Trumpeter. The SCREAMERS (Palamedeæ):—The Aniuma, or Horned Screamer—The Chauna, or Tschaja [94]-[98]

THE RAILS (Ralli). The SNIPE RAILS (Rhynchæa):—The Golden Rail, or Painted Cape Snipe—The Water Rail—The ARAMIDES (Aramides):—The Serrakura—The Land Rail, or Corn Crake. The JACANAS (Parræ):—The Chilian Jacana—The Chinese Jacana [98]-[103]

THE WATER-HENS (Gallinulæ). The GALLINULES (Porphyrio):—The Hyacinthine Porphyrio—The Purple Gallinule. The WATER-HENS (Stagnicola):—The Common Gallinule, or Moor-hen [103]-[110]

THE COOTS (Fulica):—The Common Coot—The Finfoots—The Surinam Finfoot, or Picapare [110]-[113]

[THE SWIMMERS] (Natatores).

THE SIEVE BEAKS (Lamellirostres). The FLAMINGOES (Phœnicopteri). The SWANS (Cygni):—The Mute Swan—The Whistling Swan—Bewick's Swan—The Black-necked Swan—The Black Swan [Pg v] [114]-[129]

THE GEESE (Anseres):—The Spur-winged Goose—The Grey, or Wild Goose—The Canada Goose—The Snow Goose. The SEA GEESE (Bernicla):—The Brent Goose. The FOXY GEESE (Chenalopex):—The Nile Goose. The DWARF GEESE (Nettapus):—The White-bodied Goose Teal—The Cereopsis Goose [129]-[143]

THE DUCKS (Anates):—The Ruddy Sheldrake, or Brahminy Duck. The SHELDRAKES (Vulpanser):—The Common Sheldrake. The TREE DUCKS (Dendrocygna):—The Widow Duck—The Wild Duck—The Wood or Summer Duck—The Chinese Teal, or Mandarin Duck—The Shoveler Duck—The Musk Duck. The DIVING DUCKS (Fuligulæ). The EIDER DUCKS (Somateria):—The True Eider Duck, or St. Cuthbert's Duck—The King Eider. The WESTERN or STELLER'S EIDER DUCK (Somateria or Heniconetta Stellerii). The SCOTERS (Oidemia):—The Velvet Scoter. The FEN DUCKS (Aythya):—The Red-headed Duck, Dunbird, or Pochard. The PIN-TAILED DUCKS (Erismatura):—The White-headed Pin-tailed Duck [143]-[170]

THE MERGANSERS, or GOOSANDERS (Mergi):—The White-headed Goosander—The Green-headed Goosander [170]-[174]

[THE SEA-FLIERS] (Longipennes).

THE TERNS, or SEA SWALLOWS (Sternæ). The RAPACIOUS TERNS (Sylochelidon):—The Caspian Tern. The RIVER TERNS (Sterna):—The Common Tern—The Lesser Tern. The WATER SWALLOWS (Hydrochelidon):—The Black Marsh Tern—The White-winged Tern—The White bearded Tern—The White or Silky Tern—The Noddy [175]-[185]

THE SCISSOR-BILLS (Rhynchopes):—The Indian Scissor-bill [185], [186]

THE GULLS (Lari):—The Fishing Gulls—The Great Black-backed Gulls—The Lesser Black-backed or Yellow-legged Gull—The Herring Gull—The Large or Glaucous White-winged Gull—The Lesser White-winged Gull. The ICE GULLS (Pagophila):—The Ivory Gull [186]-[194]

THE KITTIWAKES (Rissa). The BLACK-HEADED GULLS (Chroicocephalus):—The Laughing Gull—The Great Black-headed Gull—The Lesser Black-headed Gull—The Little Gull [194]-[198]

THE SKUAS (Lestres):—The Common Skua—Buffon's or the Parasite Skua—Ross's Rosy Gull [198]-[203]

THE PETRELS, or STORM BIRDS (Procellaridæ).—The ALBATROSSES (Diomedæ):—The Wandering Albatross—The Yellow-billed Albatross—The Sooty Albatross. The TRUE PETRELS (Procellariæ):—The Giant Petrel—The Fulmar Petrel—The Cape Petrel—The Broad-billed Prion, or Duck Petrel. The STORM PETRELS (Oceanides):—The Common Storm Petrel—Leach's Storm Petrel [203]-[217]

THE PUFFINS (Puffini):—The Manx Puffin, or Shearwater [Pg vi] [217], [218]

[THE OAR-FOOTED SEA-FLIERS] (Steganopodes).

THE TROPIC BIRDS (Phaëton):—The White-tailed Tropic Bird. The Red-tailed Tropic Bird. The GANNETS (Sula):—The Common Gannet—The Frigate Bird [219]-[227]

THE CORMORANTS (Haliei). The DARTERS, or SNAKE-NECKS (Plotus):—The Anhinga—Le Vaillant's Snake Bird—The Common Cormorant [227]-[235]

THE PELICANS (Pelecani):—The White Pelican—The Great Tufted or Dalmatian Pelican [235]-[239]

[THE DIVERS] (Urinatores).

THE GREBES (Podicipites):—The Crested Grebe—The Little Grebe. The DIVERS (Colymbi):—The Great Northern Diver—The Black-throated Diver—The Red-throated Diver. The LOONS (Uriæ): The Greenland Dove, or Black Guillemot. The TRUE GUILLEMOTS (Uria): The Common or Foolish Guillemot—The Little Auk or Guillemot [240]-[255]

THE STARIKIS (Phaleres):—The Stariki. The AUKS (Alcæ):—The Razor-bill—The Great Auk—The Coulterneb, or Arctic Puffin [255]-[264]

THE PENGUINS (Aptenodytes):—The King Penguin. The TRUE PENGUINS (Spheniscus):—The Spectacled, or Cape Penguin. The LEAPING PENGUINS (Eudypetes):—The Golden or Crested Penguin [265]-[268]

[Pg vii]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

—♦—

COLOURED PLATES.

PLATE [XXXI.]—PAINTED SPUR FOWL (Galloperdix lunulosa).

" [XXXII.]—THE HOUBARA (Otis Macquenii).

" [XXXIII.]—THE LAPWING (Vanellus cristatus).

" [XXXIV.]—SQUACCO HERON (Buphus Comata).

" [XXXV.]—CHINESE JACANA (Hydrophasianus Sinensis).

" [XXXVI.]—RUDDY SHELDRAKE (Casarca rutila).

" [XXXVII.]—MANDARIN DUCK (Aix galericulata).

" [XXXVIII.]—TERN (Sterna Hirundo).

" [XXXIX.]—GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (Colymbus glacialis).

" [XL.]—PUFFIN (Fratercula Arctica).

WOOD ENGRAVINGS.

[Pg 1]

CASSELL'S
BOOK OF BIRDS.

—♦—

THE STILT-WALKERS (Grallatores).

THE birds belonging to this order have unusually long legs, formed in such a manner as to enable many of them to seek their food at a certain distance in the water; and are further characterised by their long thin neck, slender high tarsi, bare thighs, three or four toed feet, and fully-developed wings; but the construction of the bill, wings, and tail, and the coloration of the plumage is so various, as to render a general description almost impossible. The Grallatores are met with in every portion of our globe, and alike occupy open plains, mountain ranges—even as high as the snow-line—fertile valleys, or arid deserts, contesting possession of the sea-shore or river banks with the True Swimming Birds, and that in such extraordinary numbers, as often to render it a matter of wonder whence a sufficient supply of food can be obtained. During a three days' passage into the White Nile we have seen an almost uninterrupted line of birds of this description, numbering some fifty different species, running, fishing, and bathing, in thousands and tens of thousands, upon each side of the stream, and literally swarming in every lake, pond, or ditch in the vicinity. In Southern Asia and some of the islands of Southern and Central America they are equally numerous, and overspread the sea-shore for miles. Travellers in Southern India tell us that it is not uncommon to see them perched so thickly on the trees as to give these the appearance of being covered with magnificent white blossoms. Insects, worms, spawn, fishes, and various small animals and reptiles, constitute the principal food of these voracious birds; some also consume seeds, leaves, and tender shoots of plants. As regards their powers of locomotion considerable difference is observable, according to the situations which the various species have been created to occupy; for while some run with the utmost swiftness, and fly with an energy scarcely inferior to that displayed by the Raptores, others move but slowly over the surface of the ground, and make their way through the air with comparative labour and difficulty. Some few frequent the branches of trees, and only take to the water in emergencies; but, for the most part, they both dive and swim with extraordinary facility. The vocal powers of the Grallatores are extremely limited; indeed, some species are capable of producing nothing more than a hoarse, hissing note, while others endeavour to make up for their deficiency in this respect by clapping with their mandibles. No less various is the development of the senses, or the peculiarities of disposition observable in the members of this extensive section, and to these we must therefore allude more particularly when describing the different groups under which they have been classified. All such as inhabit the temperate zones migrate, whilst those occupying warmer regions make excursions with great[Pg 2] regularity at certain seasons, but probably do not venture to any great distance from their native haunts. Of the incubation of these birds it is impossible to speak in general terms.

The BUSTARDS (Otides) [Coloured Plate [XXXII.]] are of large size, with a heavy body, thick neck, moderately large head, and a powerful beak, almost as long as the head; this beak is of conical form, but compressed at its base, and slightly arched at the ridge of the upper mandible. The tarsi are high and strong, the feet furnished with three toes, the wings wedge-shaped, and formed of well-developed quills, of which the third is the longest; the tail is composed of twenty broad feathers; and the plumage is thick, smooth, and compact: in some instances, the feathers on the head and nape are prolonged or very brilliantly coloured. The male is recognisable from his mate by his superior size and brighter hues. The young resemble the mother after the first moulting. These birds are represented in every division of our globe, with the exception of America, and are especially numerous in the grassy steppes and barren tracts of Asia and Africa. In Europe they occupy the open cultivated country, but are never so numerously met with as in other parts of the Old World. They entirely avoid large forests, but occasionally take up their abode in woodland districts. Such as occupy warm latitudes do not migrate, whilst the natives of temperate zones either go south at the approach of winter, or at least wander forth and sweep the surrounding country. During the breeding season they live in small parties, but afterwards associate in large flocks, often numbering some hundreds. They are remarkably shy and wary, usually keeping to open ground, and in the summer endeavour to elude pursuers by their wonderful rapidity of foot, which enables them to scud along at a most extraordinary pace. At this season, if alarmed, they run for some distance before rising, but once on the wing, fly with strength and rapidity, always keeping near the ground. In the autumn, on the contrary, they rise with facility, and fly to a great distance. Some species of Bustards are capable of uttering clear resonant notes, while others are so deficient in this respect as to produce nothing more than an occasional dull and toneless sound. As regards the development of their senses, with the exception probably of that of smell, they are highly endowed, and in their intercourse with their feathered companions, or even with man himself, exhibit no slight degree of intelligence and courage.

THE GREAT BUSTARD.

The GREAT BUSTARD (Otis tarda), as it has been called, is distinguishable from all other species of the family by the beard-like tuft of feathers that adorns the chin of the male bird. The head, upper breast, and upper part of the wing, are light grey; the feathers on the back reddish yellow, striped with black; those of the nape rust-red, tipped with white, and decorated with a black stripe, the exterior being almost entirely white. The primary quills are dark greyish brown, with blackish brown tip and outer web, and yellowish white shaft; the secondaries are black with white roots, those at the exterior being nearly pure white. The beard consists of about thirty long, slender, and ragged greyish white feathers. The eye is deep brown, the beak blackish, and the foot grey. This fine and stately bird is from three feet and a quarter to three feet and a half long, and from seven feet and a half to eight feet broad; the wing measures two feet and a quarter, and the tail eleven inches. The female is much smaller than her mate, less striking in colour and without a beard; her length is at most two feet and three-quarters, and the expanse of the wings six feet.

These birds occupy the wild open parts of Europe and Asia, only occasionally visiting North-western Africa during the winter months. In Great Britain they were formerly abundant, but are now quite extinct; in France and Germany they are occasionally met with, and are more or less numerous throughout Southern Europe. Mr. Nicholson, who had an opportunity of studying the habits of the Bustard in the neighbourhood of Seville, where it is still common, tells us that[Pg 3] the stomachs of those he killed were literally crammed with stalks and ears of barley, and with the leaves of a large green weed, and a kind of black beetle. Such as he observed generally flew, when flushed, two miles or more at an elevation of at least a hundred yards. The same gentleman states that they never attempted to escape by running, and that if winged, they showed a disposition to remain and fight rather than to have recourse to their legs. An individual, kept by Mr. Bartley, lived principally upon birds, chiefly Sparrows, which it swallowed whole, feathers and all, with the greatest avidity; it also ate the flowers of charlock and the leaves of rape, as well as mice, and, indeed, any animal substance it casually met with. In disposition these Bustards are so shy and wild that, according to Schomburghk, they can never be approached except whilst eating. On the Continent they are often shot with a rifle. The flesh of the young is much esteemed, and is often exposed for sale in European markets. Like other members of the family, this species is not stationary in one place, but when it does not actually migrate, flies, at certain seasons of the year, to a considerable distance from its native haunts. When about to mount on the wing, it takes two or three springy steps, and then rises with slowly flapping pinions until it has reached a certain height, when it darts away with such rapidity as almost baffles the eye and gun of the sportsman. Whilst in flight the neck and legs are stretched forwards, and the hinder part of the body kept low, thus imparting an indescribable peculiarity to the bird when seen in the air. The voice of the Great Bustard is so low as to be scarcely audible except at a short distance. According to Naumann, during the breeding season it utters a deep dull sound, resembling the syllables "hah, hah, hah." In their habits these birds are strictly terrestrial; the whole day is passed upon the ground; the early morning hours being occupied in fighting, screaming, and feeding; at noon they repose for a time and dust themselves preparatory to going again in search of food before evening closes in. The pairing season is in April, and at that time desperate battles take place among the males. During these engagements the tails of the combatants are raised and spread out in the manner of a fan, the wings hang down to the ground, and they charge each other like Turkey-cocks. The strongest collects about him the largest harem, and pairing takes place in the same amusing way as among the Turkeys. The female lays two or three olive-grey eggs, marked with red and liver-brown spots, in a hole which she scratches in the ground. The period of incubation is said to be twenty-eight days, and as soon as the young are hatched, they are capable of following their mother in search of food.

The methods adopted for capturing the Bustard are various. From its extremely shy nature, and from its habit of keeping to the open country, it is not easy of approach. Of wayfaring people, however, it seems to have little apprehension; the usual plan, therefore, is for the sportsman either to clothe himself like a peasant, or to put on female apparel, and to make up to it with a basket on his back, and holding the gun closely by his side. Sometimes, also, these birds are chased with greyhounds, which are conveyed towards them in covered carts, until such time as they evince symptoms of alarm and begin to move off, when the dogs are slipped from their couplings.[Pg 4]

BUSTARDS (Otis tarda).

In the Catalogue of the Tradescant Museum, preserved at South Lambeth, bearing date 1656, is mentioned: "The Bustard, as big as a Turkey, usually taken by greyhounds on Newmarket Heath;" and Mr. Knox states in his "Systematic Catalogue of the Birds of Sussex," published in 1835, that he met with some very old people who, in their younger days, had seen flocks of these noble birds on the downs. Royston Heath is mentioned by Willughby as frequented by them, and White of Selborne, in his Journal records: "I spent three hours of this day, November 17, 1782, at a lone farmhouse in the midst of the downs, between Andover and Winton. The carter told us that, about twelve years before, he had seen a flock of eighteen Bustards on that farm, and once since only two." The authors of the "Catalogue of the Birds of Norfolk and Suffolk," published in 1827, affirm that Bustards, although much scarcer than formerly, still continue to breed in the open parts of both counties, and Yarrell gives other instances of their occurrence within a comparatively recent period. That they were formerly considered articles of special luxury for the table is evidenced by the price affixed to them in Dugdale's "Origines Judiciales," in an account of the various kinds of game consumed at a feast in the Inner Temple Hall on the 16th of October, 1555, namely: Bustards, 10s.; Swans, 10s.; Cranes, 10s.; while Turkeys are estimated only at 4s.[Pg 5]

THE LITTLE BUSTARD (Otis tetrax, or Tetrax campestris).

THE LITTLE BUSTARD.

The LITTLE BUSTARD (Otis tetrax, or Tetrax campestris) differs from the above species, not only in the inferiority of its size and general coloration, but in the curious prolongation of the feathers on the nape and throat. In the male bird the black throat is enlivened by white streaks, one of which passes from the ear to the gullet, and the other over the crop; the face is dark grey, the top of the head light yellow spotted and marked with black; the edges of the wings, feathers of the tail-covers and entire under side are white, the quills dark brown, and tail-feathers white, marked with two lines at their extremity. The eye is light or brownish, the beak horn-grey tipped with black,[Pg 6] and the foot straw-colour. The length of this species is from eighteen to nineteen inches, its breadth thirty-six inches, the wing measures ten and the tail five inches. The female is smaller than her mate, and has the side of her head of a yellowish hue; her throat is whitish; breast light yellow, striped with black; the spots upon her mantle are more clearly defined than in the plumage of the male; the feathers of her upper wing-covers are white spotted with black; her under side is white. The Little Bustard is met with principally in the southern parts of Europe, extending from the south of France, over Turkey, Greece, Italy, and Spain; it is particularly numerous in Sardinia, and is seen in large flocks upon the steppes of Southern Russia, particularly during the migratory season. According to Yarrell, this bird can only be regarded as an accidental or winter visitor to Great Britain, it having been killed here only between autumn and the middle of spring. The nest or eggs have never been found in the British Islands. In the course of its migrations, it occasionally visits the country round the Altai Mountains, and Syria. During our stay in Egypt, we saw but a single specimen. Unlike the larger species, the Little Bustard is not restricted to flat and open districts, but frequently inhabits mountainous regions; in Spain it principally occupies vineyards, wherever these may be situated. Although closely resembling the species last described in many respects, it yet differs from it considerably in the ease and comparative lightness of its movements. Its gait is more graceful, and its pace extraordinarily rapid; its flight is swift and capable of being long-sustained. In disposition it is cautious, but by no means so shy as the Great Bustard: if disturbed it seeks safety by squatting close to the ground among the grass or brushwood; and its voice is seldom heard except during the period of incubation. Insects, worms, beetles, grasshoppers, larvæ, and occasionally portions of plants or seeds constitute the food of this species; the young probably are reared exclusively on insect diet. The breeding season commences about the end of April, and is inaugurated by violent battles between the male birds; the eggs, from four to five in number, are about the size of those of the Domestic Fowl, and have a glossy yellowish brown or yellowish green shell more or less distinctly spotted with reddish brown; they are deposited in a slight hollow on the ground. The male seldom goes to any great distance from his mate whilst she is brooding, and beguiles the time by making short undulating flights in her immediate vicinity. We are almost without particulars respecting the rearing of the young.

The HOUBARAS (Hubara) constitute a distinct group, comprising but two species, both of which have been found in Europe. The distinguishing characteristics of these birds are their long beak, short foot, the crest upon their head, and the beautiful collar that adorns their neck.

THE INDIAN HOUBARA.

The INDIAN HOUBARA (Hubara Macquenii) is an inhabitant of Southern Asia, and from thence has occasionally visited Central Europe and even England. Upon the brow and sides of the head the plumage is of a reddish grey, powdered with brown; the long crest is black in front and white behind; the feathers on the nape are whitish, striped with brown and grey, and those on the back ochre-yellow delicately pencilled, and in some parts spotted with black; the throat is white above and brown below; the upper breast grey, and the belly yellowish white. The collar is composed of long streaming feathers situated on both sides of the neck; of these the lower ones are white, those higher up white with black tips and base, whilst those at the top are entirely black. The quills have white roots and black tips; the tail is of a reddish shade delicately spotted and decorated with two stripes; the eye is bright yellow; the beak slate-grey; and the foot greenish yellow. According to Jerdon, the length of the male varies from twenty-five to thirty inches, and its breadth from four to five feet; the wing measures from fourteen to fifteen, and the tail from nine to ten inches.[Pg 7] After the breeding season, the male moults his beautiful crest. According to Jerdon, the Indian Houbara is found throughout the plains of the Punjaub and Upper Scinde, occasionally crossing the Sutlej at Ferozepore; but no record exists of its occurrence eastward of Delhi. It is probably a permanent resident in the localities where it is found, as no notice is given of its appearance at any particular season. This bird inhabits open and sandy plains, or undulating sandy districts besprinkled with scattered tufts of grass; it also frequents fields of wheat and other grain, and is generally met with in open ground. Being very wary it is approached with difficulty, except in the heat of the day, when it lies down beneath a thick tuft or other shelter, and is easily secured. The Houbara is much hunted with Hawks both in the Punjaub and Scinde, the Falco sacer being generally employed for this purpose. The bird, however, occasionally baffles the Falcon by ejecting a horrible, stinking fluid, which besmears and spoils the plumage of his enemy; just as in Africa its congener is said to defend itself from the Sakr Falcon. Adams states that the Houbara is very destructive to wheat-fields, as it eats the young shoots; but insects of various kinds doubtless constitute its principal food. The flesh is exceedingly tender, and is often so loaded with fat that the skins are with difficulty dried and preserved. Captain Hutton tells us that this bird is common in the bare and stony plains of Afghanistan, where it is met with in parties of five or six together. It flies heavily, and for a short distance only, soon alighting and running over the ground. The Houbara has been found in Mesopotamia and other parts of Asia, and occasionally, but very rarely, in Europe. The stomach of a specimen killed in a stubble-field in Lincolnshire, in 1847, was filled with caterpillars of the common yellow underwing moth, small shelled snails, and beetles. The eggs of this species are from three to five in number, yellowish, spotted, and oval-shaped, and about the same size as those of the Turkey. Viera informs us that the eggs are deposited in a slight hollow, amongst the grass or corn; that the brood make their appearance within five weeks; and that they at once begin to run about after the manner of young chickens. The following graphic account of hawking the Houbara is given by Sir John Malcolm, in his "Sketches of Persia":—"We went," says that writer, "to see a kind of hawking peculiar, I believe, to the sandy plains of Persia, on which the Houbara, a noble species of Bustard, is found on almost bare plains, where it has no shelter but a small shrub called 'geetuck.' When we went in quest of these birds we were a party of twenty, all well mounted. Two kinds of Hawks are necessary for this sport: the first, the Cherkh (the same which is flown at the antelope), attacks them on the ground, but will not follow them on the wing; for this reason the Bhyree, a Hawk well known in India, is flown the moment the Houbara rises. As we rode along in an extended line, the men who carried the Cherkhs every now and then unhooded them and held them up that they might look over the plain. The first Houbara we found afforded us a proof of the astonishing quickness of sight of one of these Hawks; she fluttered to be loose, and the man who held her gave a whoop as he threw her off his hand, and then set off at full speed. We all did the same. At first we only saw our Hawk skimming over the plain, but soon perceived at the distance of more than a mile the beautiful speckled Houbara, with his head erect and wings outspread, running forward to meet his adversary. The Hawk made several unsuccessful pounces, which were either evaded or repelled by the beak and wings of the Houbara, which at last found an opportunity of rising, when a Bhyree was instantly flown, and the party were again at full gallop. We had a flight of more than a mile, and then the Houbara alighted and was killed by another Cherkh, which attacked him on the ground. This bird weighed ten pounds. We killed several others, but were not always successful, having seen our Hawks twice completely beaten during the two days that we followed the sport." When taken young, the Houbara is susceptible of being tamed, and has been reared among the fowls in a Farm-yard: when thus treated it is, however, very shy and timorous, hiding itself in holes and corners, and refuses to breed.[Pg 8]

THE AFRICAN RUFFLED BUSTARD.

The AFRICAN RUFFLED BUSTARD (Hubara undulata), though of larger size, closely resembles the above species in its general appearance, but has the back and wings of a deeper brown shade, and the crest entirely white.

Although rarely met with in Europe, this Houbara is plentiful in the sandy deserts of Arabia and North Africa, where its exquisitely-flavoured flesh is much prized. We are but imperfectly acquainted with its habits, and have no information respecting its eggs or nidification. Gould is of opinion that the crest of the female is either very small or entirely wanting, and that the male bird only wears his plume during the breeding season.

THE FLORIKIN.

The FLORIKIN (Sypheotidis Bengalensis), one of the most valued game-birds of India, is during the breeding season of a glossy black upon the head, nape, breast, and entire under side; the back, secondaries, rump, and feathers of the lower tail-covers are of a brownish hue, delicately marked with zigzag black lines, and each feather decorated with a black spot in its centre; the shoulder-feathers and quills are pure white; of the latter the three first are black upon the outer web, whilst the rest have black shafts and tips. The tail is black, spotted with brown, and tipped with white. The eye is brown, the beak black above, and yellow beneath; the foot is greenish yellow, and the heel blue. This species is from twenty-four to twenty-seven inches long, and from forty-four to forty-seven broad; the wing measures fourteen and the tail seven inches. After the breeding season the male appears in a different garb, in some degree resembling that of his mate. The head and entire upper portion of the body are, in the female, of a pale red, spotted, striped, and marked with black and brown; the feathers on the upper wing-covers are whitish, and those of the nape lined with black; the quills are striped dark brown and red. The female is from twenty-eight to twenty-nine inches long, and fifty inches broad. This fine bird, according to Jerdon, is found throughout Lower Bengal, north of the Ganges, extending to the south bank above the junction of the Jumna, and thence spreading through the valley of the Jumna into Rajpootana, the Cis-Sutlej States, and parts of the Punjaub; in the east it occurs in Dacca, Tipperah, Silhet, and Assam, and northwards to the foot of the Himalayas. It frequents large tracts of moderately high grass, whether interspersed with bushes or otherwise, grass charrs, or rivers, and occasionally cultivated ground; but it appears to be very capricious in its choice, several often congregating in certain spots to the exclusion of others that seemed equally favourable. From February to April it may be seen stalking about the thin grass early in the morning, and it is observed to be often found about newly-burnt patches; or one or more may be noticed winging their way to some cultivated spot, a pea-field, or mustard-field, to make their morning repast, after which they fly back to some thicker patch of grass to rest during the heat of the day. At this time, as well as during the earlier part of the year, they are usually met with singly, sometimes in pairs, male and female, not far distant from each other; or, as stated previously, three or four will be found in some favoured spot. According to Hodgson, the Florikin is neither monogamous nor polygamous, but the sexes live apart, at no great distance, and this would appear to be very probable. The Florikin breeds from June to August. At this season the cock bird may be seen rising perpendicularly into the air with a hurried flapping of his wings, occasionally stopping for a second or two, and then rising still higher, raising his crest at the same time, puffing out the feathers of his neck and breast, and afterwards dropping down to the ground; he repeats this manœuvre several times successively, humming, as Hodgson asserts, in a peculiar tone. Such females as happen to be near obey this saltatory summons; and, according to Hodgson, when one approaches, he trails his wings, raises and spreads his tail like a Turkey-cock, humming[Pg 9] all the while. At this time the hen Florikin is generally to be found in lower ground and thicker grass, and is flushed with difficulty, as she conceals herself at the first approach of danger. She lays from two to four eggs in some sequestered spot, well hidden by the grass; these are of a dull olivaceous tint, more or less blotched, and covered with dark spots. Two females are said not unfrequently to brood near each other.

Plate 32. Cassell's Book of Birds

THE HOUBARA ____ OTIS MACQUEENII

(one quarter Nat. size)

[[See larger version]]

The Florikin has a steady flapping flight, which is not very rapid, and is seldom prolonged to any considerable distance. When feeding, it is shy and wary, and will often rise at some distance, but speedily takes refuge in a thick patch of grass, and may then be easily approached. It is usually silent, but if suddenly startled rises with a shrill metallic "chik, chik," which is occasionally repeated during its flight. The food of the Florikin consists chiefly of insects, grasshoppers, beetles, and caterpillars; but it also eats small lizards, snakes, centipedes, and similar fare. According to Hodgson, it often consumes seeds and sprouts, but Jerdon is of opinion that these are not taken by choice, but swallowed with the insect diet. This bird is highly esteemed for the table, and by some numbered amongst the most delicate of Indian game. In all parts of India, therefore, the Florikin is eagerly sought for by sportsmen. It is frequently killed during a tiger-chase, and is occasionally taken by the help of the Falcon.

THE TROCHILUS, OR CROCODILE WATCHER (Hyas Ægyptiacus).

The COURSERS (Tachydromi), a group in many respects closely resembling the smaller species of Otides, are slenderly-formed birds, with long legs, large, pointed wings, short tails, and a moderate-sized delicate beak of about the same length as the head, in most instances slightly curved, and[Pg 10] covered with a cere at its base. The leg is slender, the foot furnished with three toes, which are armed with delicately small claws, and almost entirely unconnected. The tolerably thick plumage is usually of a nearly uniform reddish brown colour, or sandy yellow, and varies according to the sex and age. These birds inhabit the arid plains and sandy deserts of Africa and Southern Asia, one species alone frequenting such spots as are in the vicinity of water, into which, however, it does not venture to wade. Their flight is rapid and powerful, and upon the ground they run with almost incredible ease and speed. Insects and larvæ constitute their diet; the seeds occasionally found in their stomachs being only accidentally swallowed in their hasty search for food. Except during the breeding season they live in small parties, and frequently associate with birds of similar habits. It is undetermined whether the Tachydromi should be regarded as stationary birds or not; some species certainly wander over the country, and occasionally appear at great distances from their native haunts.

THE CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.

The CREAM-COLOURED COURSER (Cursorius isabellinus) possesses a slender body and large wings, in which the second quill is longer than the rest; a comparatively short, broadly-rounded tail, composed of from twelve to fourteen feathers; a long, decidedly-curved bill, slender tarsi, and feet furnished with three toes. The thick, soft plumage is of a cream-colour, the upper parts of the body having a reddish and the under side a yellowish tinge; the nape is blueish grey, divided from the rest of the body by a white and a black line commencing at the eyes, and merging into a triangular patch on the nape; the secondaries are sand-yellow, with a black spot near the white tip, and a pale inner web. All the tail-feathers are reddish cream-colour, except two in the centre; these are tipped with white, and striped with black. The eye is brown, the beak blackish, and the foot straw-colour. This species is from eight inches and a half to nine inches long, and nineteen broad; the wing measures six inches, and the tail two inches and a half. The female closely resembles her mate; the young are at once recognised by the mottled and spotted appearance of their somewhat lighter plumage; their primary quills have yellow tips, and the nape is adorned by a whitish stripe bordered by a few black feathers.

The Cream-coloured Courser is a native of Africa, and is met with in Egypt, Nubia, and Abyssinia, being most numerous in the last-mentioned country; it appears in summer along the coast-line from Tangiers to Tripoli, and is seldom found north of the Mediterranean. This bird is one of the rarest visitors to our shores, but three or four specimens have occurred in Great Britain since 1785. Some years ago one was shot in Kent, whilst running over some light land. So little timidity did it exhibit that the gentleman who killed it had time to send for a gun, which did not readily go off, and he in consequence missed his aim. The report frightened the bird away, but after making a turn or two it again settled within a hundred yards, and was dispatched. It was observed to run with incredible swiftness, and at intervals to pick up something from the ground, and was so bold as to render it difficult to make it rise in order to shoot it while on the wing. The note was not like that of a Plover, nor, indeed, to be compared with that of any known bird.

From February to July these Coursers live in pairs, and are usually met with running together over the arid sands of their desert haunts. Travellers tell us that they frequently dart along with such extraordinary rapidity that, like the spokes in a swiftly-turned wheel, their limbs become invisible, so that at a distance they present the appearance of legless bodies darting through the air; if pursued by man, it is not uncommon for them thus to avoid his approach for hours together. If very sorely pressed, they rise upon the wing to a moderate height, and hover for a time before recommencing their wild career. They will allow a rider to come nearer than a man on foot; but even when mounted, it is extremely difficult to get a shot at them, as their many enemies soon render[Pg 11] them very timid. We learn from Bädeker that the eggs of this species are from three to four in number, short and broad, with a sand-coloured glossy shell, marked and dotted with a darker shade. These are deposited in a slight hollow in the ground amongst short grass or stones. We are unacquainted with further particulars respecting the nidification of the Cream-coloured Courser.

THE TROCHILUS, OR CROCODILE WATCHER.

The TROCHILUS, or CROCODILE WATCHER (Hyas Ægyptiacus, or Trochilus), differs in many essential particulars from the above group, to which, however, it is nearly allied. The body of this bird is compact, the neck short, and the head moderately large. The beak is not more than half as long as the head, compressed at its sides, and drawn in at the margins; the upper mandible rises gently from the base, and again curves downwards towards the tip; the lower mandible is straight; the leg is high, bare, and but three-toed; the wing, in which the first quill exceeds the rest in length, is so long, that it extends as far as the tip of the rounded tail. The secondary quills are also unusually developed. In this very beautiful bird, the top of the head, the broad cheek-stripes which unite at the nape, a wide stripe on the breast, and the long slender back-feathers are all black; the eyebrows, throat, gullet, and entire under side are white, shading into pale reddish brown on the sides and breast, and into brownish yellow in the region of the rump; the feathers on the shoulder and upper covers are pale slate-blue or grey; the quills, with the exception of the first (which has only a light border at the base of the outer web) are black in the centre and at the tip, the rest of the feathers being white, thus forming two broad stripes to the wings, which have a very fine appearance when fully spread. The tail-feathers are blueish grey tipped with white, and decorated with a black stripe. The eye is light brown, the beak black, and the foot light grey. The body is about eight inches and a half in length; the wing measures five inches, and the tail two inches and three-quarters. The female is but little smaller than her mate.

Herodotus gives the following quaint account of the supposed strange friendship between this species and the crocodile:—"All other beasts and birds," says that old Greek writer, "avoid the crocodile, but he is at peace with the Trochilus, because he receives benefits from it, for when the crocodile gets out of the water and then opens his jaws, which he does most commonly towards the west, the Trochilus enters his mouth and swallows the leeches which cling to his teeth. The huge beast is so pleased with this service that he never injures the little bird." This well-known account is still current in Egypt, with the addition of another tale traditional among the Nile boatmen concerning this bird, which they call the Zic-zac, in imitation of its call. The crocodile, they say, while reposing on a sandbank, often falls asleep, quite forgetful of his bird friend, who is busy within his large mouth clearing his teeth from their troublesome leech appendages. The Zic-zac, finding the huge door closely shut upon him, gives the crocodile a sharp reminder of his presence by striking his spurs into the mouth of the monster, who immediately sets the prisoner free. The Hyas Ægyptiacus is met with throughout all the country watered by the Nile, and on the shores of all the rivers of Western Africa. It is very doubtful whether any stray specimens have really visited Europe as has been stated; this species, according to our own observations, being strictly stationary in its habits, and only quitting one sandbank for another when compelled to do so by the rising of the water. In all its movements this brisk and pretty little bird displays great ease and rapidity. During the course of its flight, which is never long sustained, it keeps close to the surface of the river, and frequently repeats its shrill whistling cry. Towards every living creature the Trochilus manifests the same utter fearlessness which he exhibits towards his neighbour the crocodile, over and around whose large body he constantly disports himself on the sandbanks, and gleans off the insect parasites that torment him. We can distinctly affirm that we have ourselves repeatedly seen the little creature[Pg 12] performing the tooth-clearing operation the ancients attributed to it, and which many modern writers have declared to be fabulous. Insects of all kinds, worms, small fish, mussels, and, according to some authorities, scraps of meat, and occasionally seeds, form the principal diet of the Crocodile-Watcher. Only once, in spite of all our endeavours, could we discover the carefully-concealed eggs. After many fruitless efforts our attention was attracted whilst looking through a telescope by a pair of birds, one of which was sitting in the sand, and the other running hither and thither in the immediate vicinity. Using every precaution we approached, but were no sooner observed than the brooding parent arose, and after going hurriedly to a short distance, joined its mate, and both together walked slowly from the spot with such a wonderful affectation of indifference, that we were completely taken in, and should not have carried our investigations any further had not a slight unevenness of the ground caught our eye. On removing the sand, two beautiful eggs were brought to light, having a reddish yellow shell, dotted and marked in a variety of ways.

THE COLLARED PRATINCOLE (Glareola pratincola).

The PRATINCOLES, or SWALLOW-WINGED WADERS (Tracheliæ), are recognisable at once by the swallow-like formation of their long wings, in which the first quill exceeds the rest in length; by their long, straight, or forked tail composed of fourteen feathers, and their slender bare legs. The toes, four in number, are very slender, the three in front are connected by a skin, and furnished with narrow, sharp, and almost straight claws. The plumage, which varies but little either in the sexes or at different seasons of the year, is very similar in all the species.

The Pratincoles, or Sea Partridges as they are called on the Continent, inhabit the temperate[Pg 13] and warm portions of the eastern hemisphere, and frequent the borders of lakes and rivers in the vicinity of mountains. Like the Swallow, they seek their insect prey whilst upon the wing, or from the surface of the ground, over which they run with great rapidity. The eggs, three or four in number, are deposited in a slight nest placed among rushes or thick marshy herbage.

THE COMMON THICK-KNEE, OR STONE CURLEW (Œdicnemus crepitans).

THE COLLARED PRATINCOLE.

The COLLARED PRATINCOLE (Glareola pratincola) is a beautiful bird, about ten inches long and twenty-two inches and a half broad, with the wing measuring seven inches, and the tail, at the centre of the fork, two inches and a half. The upper portions of the body are greyish brown, the wings, lower breast, and under side white; the reddish yellow throat is encircled by a brown ring, and the head is brownish grey; the tail-feathers and quills are tipped with black. The eye is dark brown, the beak black, with bright red corners, and the foot blackish brown. The male and female are almost alike in size. This bird inhabits Northern Africa, and the countries watered by the Don, the Volga, and the Caspian and Black Seas; and although it periodically visits France, is rarely seen in Great Britain. Everywhere it occupies the margins of rivers and lakes, equally frequenting the vicinity of fresh and salt water. The Collared Pratincole flies with great ease and swiftness, and indulges in a variety of graceful evolutions whilst on the wing; upon the ground its walk, though rapid, is seldom prolonged, and every step is accompanied by a constant whipping with the tail. Its food consists principally of aquatic insects, but it seizes its prey with equal facility on land, from the surface of the water or in the air; indeed, it is not uncommon to see one of these active little birds dart to a height of several feet into the air, in order to seize a passing fly. It consumes locusts in[Pg 14] great numbers, and, according to Jules Verreaux, is often to be found in the track of the hosts of these creatures that are met with in Southern Africa. The nest consists of a slight hollow in the ground, lined with fibres and blades of grass; the eggs, four in number, have a yellowish brown or greenish grey shell, spotted with grey, and variously marked with light brown and deep black. So great is the attachment of these Pratincoles for their mates and young that we are told, should one of a pair be shot, the other at once runs to its companion's side in utter disregard of its own safety. If the little family are intruded on, the parents frequently feign to be wounded, or by other devices entice the enemy from the nest. The helpless young, if alarmed, crouch to the ground, and are with difficulty detected, owing to the earthy colour of their downy feathers; they grow very rapidly, and soon attain the plumage of the adult birds.

The THICK-KNEES (Œdicnemi) constitute a sub-family whose members are at once recognisable by their comparatively large size, moderately long thin neck, thick head, large eyes, and a straight beak of about the same length as the head, with the culmen slightly depressed and swollen at the tip. The knees are very thick, the toes three in number, and the wings, in which the second quill is the longest, of moderate size; the secondary quills are of unusual length. The tail is wedge-shaped, and composed of from twelve to fourteen feathers. These birds are migratory, and are met with in all parts of the world, with the exception of North America; open moorlands are the localities they prefer, as affording them the largest supply of the small quadrupeds, reptiles, worms, and insects upon which they subsist, and which they seek during the evening or at night. In the daytime the Thick-knees remain closely squatted beneath a stone or any similar shelter, and if disturbed fly to a short distance, before running off rapidly to some place of concealment. The female deposits her two eggs on the bare ground; the young are able to follow their parents as soon as they quit the shell.

THE COMMON THICK-KNEE, OR STONE CURLEW.

The COMMON THICK-KNEE, or STONE CURLEW (Œdicnemus crepitans), is from sixteen to seventeen inches long and from twenty-nine to thirty broad; the wing measures eight inches and half, and the tail about five inches. The feathers upon the upper parts of the body are reddish grey, striped in the centre with blackish brown; the brow, a patch over the eyes and a line above and below the cere are white, the under side and a stripe on the upper wing are yellowish white, the quills black, and the tail-feathers bordered with black and white at their sides. The eye is golden yellow, the beak yellow with black tip, the foot straw-colour, and the eyelids yellow. The plumage of the young is principally of a rust-red. These birds are natives of the desert and barren districts of Northern Africa, Western Asia, and Southern Europe, being especially numerous in Syria, Persia, Arabia, and India. Such as occupy the most northern portions of their habitat go south late in the autumn and return to their former haunts early in spring, whilst such as dwell in the countries watered by the Mediterranean remain throughout the entire year in the same localities. In Egypt, notwithstanding their usual preference for barren tracts, the Stone Curlews not only venture into towns and perch upon houses, but occasionally make their nests on the roofs, always provided that the situation be such as to permit them to have a clear space about them, and an elevated perch from whence they can reconnoitre in order to elude the approach of danger. A nearly-allied species, residing in South Africa, frequents the outskirts of forests, selecting spots thickly covered with brushwood, in which it conceals itself if alarmed. The Common Thick-knee or Norfolk Plover, as it is called in England, is only a summer visitor to our country, appearing in April and departing in September or October. It is most numerous in the south and south-west parts of our island, and does not go north of Yorkshire. Ireland it rarely visits. According to Mr. Salmon, of Thetford, "it is numerously distributed all over[Pg 15] our warren and fallow lands during the breeding season, which commences about the second week in April, the female depositing her pair of eggs upon the bare ground, without any nest whatever; it is generally supposed that the males take no part in the labour of incubation; this I suspect is not the case. Wishing to procure for a friend a few specimens in their breeding plumage, I employed a boy to take them for me, this he did by ensnaring them on the nest, and the result was that all he caught during the day proved upon dissection to be males. They assemble in flocks previous to their departure, which is usually by the end of October; but should the weather continue open, a few will remain to a much later period. I started one as late as the 9th December, in the autumn of 1834. Montague records an instance of this bird being killed in Devonshire as early as February in 1807."

The Stone Curlew is singularly shy and cautious in avoiding observers, and should it be disturbed, at once seeks shelter by crouching to the ground; if still followed, it endeavours to escape by running, and is rarely forced to have recourse to its wings. Its flight is gentle and easy, but seldom long sustained. During the day it usually remains quiet, and in South Africa conceals itself from the presence of man almost after the manner of an Owl. No sooner, however, has night set in, than it appears in quite a new character, darting lightly about on rapid wing in search of food and water, or running swiftly over the surface of the ground. It is not uncommon for a pair of these birds to wander for miles in search of a drinking-place, returning before morning to their usual haunts. Whilst thus actively employed, their clear resonant call of "cur-lui" is constantly heard. Frogs, lizards, mice, and occasionally eggs and small birds form their principal food; field-mice they catch after the manner of a cat, and crunch the bones previous to swallowing their prey; insects they also kill before consuming them; grains of sand and pebbles are employed to assist the process of digestion. At the commencement of spring, battles between the males frequently occur in order to obtain a desired female. The eggs, from two to three in number, are deposited about April in a slight hollow in the sand, these are about the size of Hens' eggs and of the same shape, with a pale yellowish shell, spotted and streaked with deep yellow and blackish brown. The female broods and hatches her family in about sixteen days; during this time she is carefully guarded by her watchful mate. As soon as the young quit the nest, they follow their parent and receive instruction in the art of obtaining food: should danger be at hand, a cry warns them to seek shelter, and they at once conceal themselves by lying close to the ground. The Thick-knee exhibits considerable courage when protecting its family, and has been seen to defend its nest with vigour against the approach of sheep or dogs. One of these birds, kept by Brehm the elder, became extraordinarily tame and ran freely about the house, testifying the utmost attachment to his master, eating from his hand, and allowing himself to be caressed at pleasure.

The PLOVERS (Charadrii) constitute a family of short-necked, large-headed birds, of small size, with moderately long, slender, but thick-jointed legs, three-toed feet, the hinder toe being either entirely wanting or but slightly developed and much raised. The wings are pointed and slender, with the first or second quill longer than the rest, and the secondaries prolonged. The short tail is composed of twelve feathers, and slightly rounded at its extremity. The beak, which is rarely more than half as long as the head, is soft at its base and hard on the raised portion at its extremity. The thick compact plumage varies in the sexes, and according to the season of the year. The Plovers are met with in every quarter of the globe, and while some occupy the interior of the country, frequenting its plains and open grounds, others prefer the vicinity of the sea, or the margins of lakes and rivers, obtaining their food principally from the water; others, again, select desert tracts, marshes, or mountainous districts. During the breeding season all live in pairs, but near together; subsequently they collect together into large parties, which gradually increase in size as the season[Pg 16] for migrating approaches. In their habits the Plovers are usually active; they run and fly with equal facility, and though they rarely attempt to swim, are not altogether unsuccessful in that particular. Almost all the species utter a plaintive whistle, and during the breeding season can produce a few connected, pleasing notes. The three or four pear-shaped variegated eggs are deposited in a slight hollow in the ground, in which a few blades of grass are occasionally placed. Both parents assist in the work of incubation. Reptiles, worms, small quadrupeds, and insects constitute the food of these birds. Their flesh is regarded as a delicacy, and they are therefore objects of great attraction to the sportsman, although they often render themselves extremely troublesome by uttering their shrill cry, and thus warning their feathered companions of the approach of danger. From this habit they have received the name of "tell-tales." "The Charadrius carunculata, an African species," writes Livingstone, "a most plaguey sort of 'public-spirited individual,' follows you everywhere, flying overhead, and is most persevering in his attempts to give fair warning to all the animals within hearing to flee from the approach of danger."

THE GOLDEN PLOVER.

The GOLDEN PLOVER (Charadrius auratus, or pluvialis) is at once recognisable by its slender beak and feet, pointed wings, and golden plumage. The feathers on the upper portions of the body are black, thickly covered with small green or golden yellow spots, the entire under side is black. In the autumn, the throat and breast are spotted with yellowish grey; the belly is white; the black tail-feathers are streaked with white; and the black throat is decorated with a white stripe commencing at the brow and merging into the breast. The eye is dark brown, the beak black, and the foot blackish grey. This species is ten inches long and twenty-two broad; the wing measures seven inches, and the tail three inches and a half.

The Golden Plovers are especially numerous in the cooler portions of the globe, becoming gradually rarer towards 57° north latitude. In England they are generally distributed, but such as occupy the southern parts go northwards to the high hills and swampy ground of Scotland and the northern counties of England during the breeding season. These migrations usually take place at night, the birds flying at a considerable height from the ground. During the day they rest or seek for food, and, strangely enough, select not their usually favourite marshes, but fields and cultivated ground. These Plovers are brisk and nimble, running with great rapidity, and flying, not only swiftly, but gracefully. During the period of incubation they indulge in a variety of elegant gyrations in the vicinity of the nest, and their plaintive, clear whistle is heard to most advantage at that season. Worms, larvæ, beetles, snails, and slugs constitute their principal nourishment, and in order to assist digestion small pebbles are also swallowed. Water would appear to be a real necessary of life to these birds, as they love to wash and cleanse their feathers in it daily. The eggs, generally four in number, have a yellowish, stone-coloured shell, marked and spotted with brownish black. These are deposited in a slight hollow in the ground, lined with a few fibres or blades of grass. The young leave the nest immediately after quitting the shell, and follow their parents for about a month, after which time they are able to fly and seek for food on their own account. It is uncertain whether the father assists in the incubation of the eggs. Macgillivray gives the following graphic description of the parental affection observable in the male birds, as witnessed by himself on some heath-covered mountain. "Presently a breeze rolls away the mist, and discloses a number of these watchful sentinels, each on his mound of faded moss, and all emitting their mellow cries the moment we offer to advance. They are males, whose mates are brooding over their eggs, or leading their down-clad and toddling chicks among the (to them) pleasant peat-bogs that intervene between the high banks, clad with luxuriant heath not yet recovered from the effects of the winter[Pg 17] frosts, and little meadows of cotton-grass, white as the snow-wreaths that lie on the hills. How prettily they run over the grey moss and lichens, their little feet twinkling, and their full, bright, and soft eyes gleaming as they commence their attempts to entice us away from their chosen retreats." The attempts to lure intruders from their nest, above alluded to, consist in a most excellent feigning of being desperately wounded and unable to fly, or by affecting to have lamed a leg, and thus enticing the enemy to follow the cunning bird, as it slowly retreats in an opposite direction to that occupied by its beloved progeny. When the young are able to fly, the Plovers associate in flocks, which remain on the moors till winter begins, when they quit them for pasture lands. As the season advances, and the cold becomes severe, they descend to the coast, and usually remain in the vicinity of the sea during the winter. Occasionally they are so tame that, according to the authority above quoted, they will allow a sportsman to approach within fifteen yards, and even walk around them several times in order to drive them together before taking aim. "In windy weather," continues Macgillivray, "they often rest by lying flat on the ground, and I have reason to think that at night this is the general practice. In the Hebrides I have often gone to shoot them by moonlight, when they seemed as actively engaged as in the day, which was also the case with the Snipes, but I seldom succeeded in my object, it being extremely difficult to estimate the distance at night. The numbers that at this season frequent the sandy pastures and shores of the outer Hebrides is astonishing."

THE GOLDEN PLOVER (Charadrius auratus), AND THE DOTTEREL (Eudromias Morinellus).

[Pg 18]

The Golden Plover is in great request for the table, and is in perfection about September and October.

The specific name of pluvialis has been given to the Golden Plover on account of the extraordinary restlessness it exhibits before bad weather. A very remarkable instance of this characteristic is given by the Rev. R. Lubbock, in his "Fauna of Norfolk." According to that gentleman, he was much struck by the perpetual wheeling, now high, now low, of a large flock of these birds one fine bright day at the end of December. They were not still for a moment, and yet there appeared to be no cause for such unwonted disturbance. All next day they were in the same state of uproar, and on the following morning, which was as calm and mild as the preceding, the Plovers had all departed. About five o'clock in the morning, on the same day, the wind began to howl, signs of a severe tempest set in, and by the evening so much snow had fallen that in some places the drifts were six or seven feet in depth.

THE RINGED PLOVER.

The RINGED PLOVER (Charadrius hiaticula) is light brownish ash-colour on the upper parts of the body; the large wing-covers being tipped with white; the throat and belly are white, the former having a black patch upon its front; the cheeks are black, divided between the eyes by a white line; the quills are dusky, part of the shafts and the web at the base being white. Of the twelve feathers that compose the tail, the two centre ones are brown, with dark tips, the three next black towards the end, the next one only brown on the inner web, and the outer one entirely white. The claws are black, the eyes hazel, and the feet orange, the beak is orange, tipped with black. During the winter these colours are less bright and the black upon the throat comparatively very pale. The female has less white upon the front and more upon the wings, and her plumage generally is of a more cineraceous brown. The young are dusky black and without the white on the front; their bill is dusky, and their foot yellowish brown. The length of this species is seven inches and half, and the span of the wing, sixteen inches; the bill measures one inch and half.

The Ringed Plover is abundantly met with in Germany and Holland, and is also found in France and Italy; during the summer it visits Russia and Siberia, whilst in Great Britain it remains throughout the greater part of the year, being especially numerous in all such parts of our coast as are well covered with sand and shingle. This species has, however, been known to breed in the sandy warrens of Norfolk and Suffolk, at a considerable distance from the sea. The food of this Plover consists of insects, worms, and small crustaceans. The four eggs laid by the female are deposited near the sea, in a hole in the sand, above high-water mark; occasionally this cavity is lined with tiny stones, of about the size of a pea, and from this circumstance has been derived the name of "Stone Hatch," by which the bird is known in some parts of England. The eggs have a cineraceous brown shell, spotted with black and greyish blue. If disturbed while brooding, the parents at once feign lameness, and anxiously endeavour to lead intruders away from their little family. The note of the Ringed Plover is a shrill whistle.

The DOTTED PLOVERS (Eudromias) form a distinct group, having their high straight beak compressed in the centre of the upper mandible, and of greater length than their large head. A portion of the wing is much prolonged, and the tarsus covered with horny plates. The dotted plumage is very similar in the various species.[Pg 19]

THE DOTTED PLOVER, OR DOTTEREL.

The DOTTED PLOVER, or DOTTEREL (Eudromias Morinellus), has a garb well suited to the rocky haunts that it frequents. The feathers on the upper parts of the body are of a blackish shade, edged with rust-red; the grey head is separated from the rust-red breast by a narrow white and a black line; the lower breast is black in its centre, and the belly white; a broad light stripe passes over the eyes to the nape. The eye is dark brown, the beak black, and the foot greenish yellow. In autumn the upper portions of the body are deep grey, the feathers on the crown of the head black and rust-yellow, and the stripe over the eyes pale rust-yellow; the upper breast is grey and the rest of the under side white. The female resembles her mate, but is less beautifully coloured. This species is from eight inches and three-quarters to nine inches long, and eighteen broad; the wing measures five inches and three-quarters; and the tail two inches and three-quarters. The Dotterels inhabit the mountainous tracts of the northern portions of the globe, and are occasionally seen at an altitude of ten thousand feet above the level of the sea. During the winter they wander south; rarely, however, going beyond the countries bordering the Mediterranean. These migrations take place in August, and are carried on in flocks, which travel both by day and night. The homeward journey is not commenced earlier than April. The Dotterel visits Great Britain during the summer, appearing first in the south-eastern part of England. It seldom goes far west, but takes a northern course, and always inhabits high ground. Mr. Heysham, of Carlisle, gives the following account of the habits of this bird, drawn from his own observation:—

"In the neighbourhood of Carlisle, Dotterels seldom make their appearance before the middle of May, about which time they are occasionally seen in different localities in flocks which vary in number from five to fifteen, and almost invariably resort to heaths, barren pastures, fallow lands, &c., in open and exposed situations, where they continue, if unmolested, from ten days to a fortnight, and then retire to the mountains and the vicinity of lakes to incubate. The most favourite breeding haunts of these birds are always near to, or on the summits of, the highest mountains, particularly those that are densely covered with the woolly fringe-moss (Tricostomum lanuginosum), which, indeed, grows more or less profusely on nearly all the most elevated parts of this alpine district. In these lonely places they constantly reside the whole of the breeding season, a considerable part of the time enveloped in clouds, and daily soaked with rain or the drenching mist so extremely prevalent in these dreary regions. The Dotterel is by no means a solitary bird at this time, as a few pairs usually associate together, and live to all appearance in the greatest harmony. These birds do not make any nest, but deposit their eggs, which seldom exceed three in number, in a cavity on dry ground covered with vegetation, and generally near a moderate-sized stone or fragment of rock. In early seasons old females will occasionally lay their eggs about the 26th of May, but the greater part seldom commence before the first or second week in June; they appear, however, to vary greatly in this respect. The male assists in the incubation of the young.

"A week previous to their departure," continues the same observer, "they congregate in flocks, and continue together until they finally leave this country, which is sometimes during the latter part of August, at others not before the beginning of September. A few birds are, no doubt, occasionally seen after this period, but they are either late broods, or birds that are returning from more northern latitudes."

With regard to their manners, Mr. Heysham says:—"On the 3rd of July we found two or three pairs near the most elevated portion of this mountain; and on all our visits thither, whether early in the morning or late in the afternoon, the greater part were always seen near the same place, sitting on the ground. When first discovered, they permitted us to approach within a short distance without[Pg 20] showing any symptoms of alarm, and frequently afterwards, when within a few paces watching their movements, some would move slowly about and pick up an insect, others would remain motionless, now and then stretching out their wings, and a few would occasionally tug with each other, at the same time uttering a few notes which had some resemblance to those of the Common Linnet. In short, they appeared to be so very indifferent with regard to our presence, that at last my assistant could not avoid exclaiming, 'What stupid birds these are!' The female that had young nevertheless evinced considerable anxiety for their safety, whenever we came near the place where they were concealed, and as long as we remained in the vicinity, she constantly flew to and fro above us, uttering her note of alarm. As soon as the young birds were fully feathered, two were killed for the purpose of examining their plumage in this state, and we found that after they had been fired at once or twice they became more wary, and eventually we had some little difficulty in approaching sufficiently near to effect our purpose. The stomachs I dissected were all filled with the elytra and remains of small coleopterous insects, which in all probability constitute their principal food during the breeding season."

The pear-shaped eggs of the Dotterel are three or four in number, and have a smooth lustreless shell, of a pale yellowish brown or greenish hue, irregularly spotted with white. Upon one occasion we accidentally disturbed a brood, and having taken the young in our hand and shown them to the mother, she at once boldly ruffled her feathers, shook her wings, and endeavoured to excite pity by a variety of gesticulations. No sooner were the prisoners released than she uttered a cry of delight, and gathered them under her wings, after the manner of a Barn-door Fowl. The flesh of this Plover is extremely delicate.

The SHORE PLOVERS (Ægialites) occupy the sandy or gravelly shores of rivers on the sea-coast, and are characterised by their comparatively small size, delicate beaks, long pointed wings, and the uniform hue of the sandy plumage on the upper parts of the body. The under side is white, and the neck encircled by a band.

THE LITTLE SHORE PLOVER, OR LITTLE RINGED PLOVER.

The LITTLE SHORE PLOVER, or LITTLE RINGED PLOVER (Ægialites minor), as the best known species is called, scarcely exceeds a Lark in size; the length of the body being about six inches and a half, and the span of the wing eighteen inches. The wing measures four inches and one-third, and the tail three inches and one-third. In this bird the cheeks, crown of the head, and upper portions of the plumage are earthy grey, the under side is white as far as the throat, round which passes a black band; the quills, bridles, and a streak on the brow are also black. The latter is bounded by a white line, which is again edged with black. The eye is dark brown, with a circle around it of King's yellow; the beak is black, and the foot reddish grey. All these colours are paler in the female. The young are without the black collar on the neck. This species is met with throughout Europe, almost the whole of Asia, and a great portion of the African continent. It, however, only visits the more southern countries during the course of its migrations, which extend from August and September to March or April. Southern Europe is, we believe, the farthest point at which it is known to breed. In the northern portions of the globe it almost exclusively frequents the rush-covered banks of marshy water at some distance from the sea, but occasionally, during the winter journeyings, which they make in large flocks, these birds are seen upon the coast.

The Little Ringed Plover is rare in Great Britain. Mr. Gould says, "We are indebted to our friend Mr. Doubleday, of Epping, for the loan of an example of this elegant little Plover, which he informs us was taken at Shoreham, in Sussex. From the extreme youth of the specimen[Pg 21] transmitted to us, it is clear that it must have been bred on the spot. The food of this species consists of various insects, larvæ, mussels, and similar fare. They drink much, bathe freely once or twice a day, and frequently obtain their prey from under stones in or near the water." In their habits they closely resemble such of their brethren as we have already described.

THE LAPWING, OR PEEWIT (Vanellus cristatus).

The four pretty little pale reddish-yellow eggs have a delicate lustreless shell, marked and dotted with grey and blackish brown, and are deposited in a slight hollow on a gravelly or pebbly bank, at such a height as to be in no danger from the rising of the water. During fine days, the parents leave the brood exposed to the rays of the sun, but in rainy weather and at night they share the labour of incubation, and sit constantly. The young are hatched in sixteen or seventeen days, and leave the nest as soon as their plumage is dry, and in a few days begin to pick food. In a few days more they are able to support themselves, but remain with their parents during the first migration.

The LAPWINGS, or PEEWITS (Vanelli), represent a family of birds characterised by their size, the strength of their beak, and the height of the tarsi. The foot is, in many instances, furnished with four toes. In some species the head is adorned with a crest; some have spurs on the wings, and others a remarkable development of skin at the corners of the beak. The sexes are nearly alike, and the young speedily attain the plumage of the adult bird.[Pg 22]

The Peewits occupy every latitude, and are met with in the most diverse situations, for whilst some species exclusively seek the vicinity of water or marshy ground, others frequent arid plains or the burning sands of the desert. In disposition they are lively, and possess such a restless curiosity concerning every object around them as frequently renders them most troublesome to the sportsman, whose insidious approach they at once proclaim to all their feathered companions. All the members of this family, though social in their habits, live almost constantly in pairs, which remain together even during the winter migrations; indeed, it is probable that at this season even the young have each a chosen companion. Insects, worms, and similar fare afford them the means of subsistence; but they also occasionally consume seeds, young leaves, and shoots. The nest is merely a hollow in the ground more or less slightly lined, and contains four eggs. The flesh of these birds is hard and indigestible.

THE PEEWIT, OR LAPWING.

The PEEWIT, or LAPWING (Vanellus cristatus), represents a division of the above group having four toes upon the foot, blunt wings, and a crest upon the head. The crown, fore part of the throat, upper breast, and half the tail, are glossy black; the mantle-feathers deep green, with a blue or purple gloss; the sides of the neck, lower breast, body, and lower half of the tail are white, and some of the feathers on the upper and lower tail-covers dark rusty yellow. The crest is composed of long narrow feathers. The female has a smaller crest, and the fore parts of the throat spotted black and white. The young resemble the mother, but are duller in their tints, and have broad rust-yellow feathers on the upper portion of the body. In all the eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot dirty red. This species is thirteen inches long and twenty-seven broad; the wing measures eight inches and a half, and the tail four inches. (See Coloured Plate XXXIII.)

The Lapwing occupies a wide range, extending from 61° north latitude, as far as Northern India and North Africa. In some parts of China it is as common as in Great Britain. Some writers are of opinion that this Peewit breeds in Spain, but, according to our own observations, it only appears in that land at the end of October, and leaves again to go north at the beginning of March. Radde mentions having seen it on the Amur, being particularly numerous at Tarai-Noor; strange to say, such as he observed did not remain in the vicinity of the water during the summer, but occupied dry and barren steppes throughout the whole season of incubation. In India, according to Jerdon, this species is only found in the Punjaub, where it breeds. The Peewit is especially numerous in Holland, and is generally distributed over the British Isles, except in the extreme north of Scotland and the Hebrides, everywhere occupying moorlands, downs, and swampy lands, and depositing its four eggs in a slight hollow, which is lined with a few straws or blades of grass. The eggs are pyriform, and have a pale brownish yellow or olive-coloured shell, prettily spotted and marked with brownish black. The young leave the nest as soon as they are hatched, and if alarmed, at once take refuge in the moss or grass. Both parents exhibit great affection and anxiety for their young, and should a stranger venture to approach the nest, fly around him, and use every endeavour to lure him from the spot, sometimes running as if lame, or fluttering as though with a broken wing to tempt pursuit; nevertheless, in spite of all her arts, the Lapwing's nest is frequently rifled, and numbers of eggs are sent to the London market. According to Mr. Selby, the trade of collecting them continues about two months, and great expertness in the discovery of the nests is shown by those accustomed to it. They generally judge of their situation pretty accurately by the conduct of the female birds, who, upon being disturbed, invariably fly from the nest, and then run near the ground for a short distance without uttering any alarm cry. The males on the contrary are very clamorous, and fly round the intruder, endeavouring by various instinctive arts to divert his attention. So expert, says another observer, have some men become, that they will not only walk straight[Pg 23] to a nest which may be at a considerable distance, but tell the probable number of eggs it may contain, generally judging of the situation and number of eggs by the conduct of the female bird.

When the young are reared, the Lapwings associate in flocks which, at the end of autumn, exchange the higher moorlands for lower ground, and frequent the ploughed fields. When going to a distance, they fly with speed often in an irregular body, but sometimes in lines, alighting in silence after various evolutions. About the middle of March they return to higher ground, again to resume their family duties.

The Lapwing feeds on worms, insects, slugs, and larvæ, and on this account is frequently kept in gardens; but when thus domesticated, it needs a supply of food, when wintry frosts debar it from its usual diet.

The two English names of this bird have been derived from its most striking peculiarities, the one, Peewit, from its singular cry, and the other, Lapwing, from the strange, remarkable flapping of its wings during flight.

THE SPUR-WINGED LAPWING.

The SPUR-WINGED LAPWING (Hoplopterus spinosus) is characterised by a spur-like appendage on its wings, its long legs, three-toed feet, a blunt crest upon the head, and its comparatively pointed wing, in which the second quill exceeds the rest in length. In this species the mantle is greyish brown, part of the head and the under side are black; the sides of the head, throat, belly, and the nape and region of the wings are all white; the primary quills and tail-feathers are principally tipped with black, some of the largest feathers on the wing-covers and two entire tail-feathers being white. The sexes are alike in plumage, and do not vary in their tints at any season of the year.

This bird is very common in Egypt, where it usually occupies the vicinity of water; nevertheless it entirely avoids the sea-coast, but occasionally sojourns near lakes of brackish water. In the northern portion of Central Africa it is constantly seen, but is rare in Nubia, Eastern Soudan, and Habesch. During the spring and autumn it sometimes wanders as far as Greece, and, according to Lindermayer, is occasionally met with there on the sea-coast. Whether it also breeds in Greece, is at present uncertain. This bird, called "Siksak" by the Arabs, in imitation of its peculiar cry, is sometimes erroneously supposed to be the bird alluded to by Herodotus, as clearing the parasites from the teeth of the crocodile. This mistake has no doubt arisen from the fact that it frequently occupies the sandbanks on which these monsters repose, and is often seen running fearlessly over and about their huge bodies. Like the rest of their brethren, these Lapwings render themselves most obnoxious to the naturalist or sportsman, by the pertinacity with which they warn all their companions of the approach of danger, and by thus constantly annoying him, destroy the impression of pleasure that the grace and ease of their movements would otherwise excite. Day and night this restlessness continues, and has given rise to a legend among the Arabs that this tormenting little bird received the curse of perpetual sleeplessness, together with the spur upon its shoulder, as a punishment for former indolent habits. Towards its feathered associates it exhibits the same irritable demeanour, frequently attacking even such as are larger than itself with astonishing boldness, and often inflicting serious damage with its armed wing. Insects, worms, mussels, and sand, are usually found on dissection in its stomach. Its flesh is very unpalatable. The period of incubation commences about the middle of March. In Egypt a moist field is usually selected by a breeding pair, whilst on the Upper Nile sandbanks are preferred. The eggs are smaller than those of the European Lapwing, and are coloured with mixed green, yellow and grey, marked with blackish brown spots, which do not extend over the narrow end. We have found as many as six eggs in one nest, but possibly they were deposited by more than one female. Occasionally we have seen earth strewn on the nest, but whether this was the result of accident or design we could not ascertain. When first hatched the young are covered with greyish[Pg 24] down, but soon acquire plumage similar to that of the adults, and leave the nest very shortly after quitting the shell. Like others of their kind, they run with astonishing rapidity, and conceal themselves with great dexterity at the approach of danger. As regards their movements and habits, these Lapwings resemble such species as we have already described.

The LAPPETED PEEWITS (Sarciophorus) are recognisable by the skin-like appendages at the base of the beak, and by a horny excrescence at the joint of the wing; the powerful bill is moderately long and the foot rather large; the hinder toe is but slightly developed.

THE SPUR-WINGED LAPWING (Hoplopterus spinosus).

THE LAPPETED PEEWIT.

The LAPPETED PEEWIT (Sarciophorus pileatus) is reddish grey on the upper parts of the body and white on the nape and under side; the head, throat, tips of the quills and tail-feathers are black. The eye is a beautiful golden yellow, the beak blood-red at its base and black at the tip, and the foot red. The length of this species is ten inches and two-thirds, and the breadth twenty-four inches; the wing measures six inches and three-quarters, and the tail three inches and a half.

These birds occupy barren plains and live in pairs or small families. During our travels through Bahiuda and Cordofania we saw them daily, and upon one occasion met with them in the Samchara, seeking for insects among the droppings of the cattle. In their habits they resemble both the Common and Spurred Peewit, their flight being similar to that of the latter bird. In disposition they are shy and wary. We were unable to obtain further particulars concerning them.

THE TURNSTONE.

Plate 33. Cassell's Book of Birds

THE LAPWING ____ VANELLUS CRISTATUS

(about one half Nat. size)

[[See larger version]]

[Pg 25]

The TURNSTONE (Strepsilas interpres) is the representative of a sub-family, characterised by their powerful body, short neck, comparatively large and high-browed head, and long pointed wing, in which the first quill is the longest, some of the feathers being of unusual length. The tail, composed of twelve feathers, is scarcely of medium size, and has a gently-rounded tip; the conical beak is shorter than the head, curves slightly upwards, and is flattened at its culmen; the short legs are powerful; the foot furnished with four toes; and the brightly-coloured plumage thick and compact. During summer the adult male has the brow, cheeks, a broad collar on the nape, the lower part of the back, the throat, feathers of the lower wing-covers, and a stripe above the wings of a pure white; a line commencing near the brow and passing near the eyes to the throat, the fore part and sides of the neck and breast is black; the mantle-feathers are spotted black and red, and those on the crown striped black and white; the feathers of the wing-covers are chestnut-brown, spotted with black, the quills blackish, and the tail-feathers white at the roots and tip, with a broad black stripe near the extremity; the rump also shows a broad brown stripe. The eye is brown, the beak black, and foot orange-yellow. This species is nine inches long and eighteen across the span of the wing; the wing measures six inches and the tail six inches and a half. In the young the plumage is a mixture of blackish brown and rust-yellow, the fore part of the body being greyish black.

THE TURNSTONE (Strepsilas interpres).

These birds are met with in all parts of the world, everywhere occupying the sea-coast. In Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland, they appear at the end of April or beginning of May and leave again about the end of the last week of August, at which time they occur on the shores of the Mediterranean. They visit England regularly, remaining during the winter and going north to breed. They are restless and active birds, and run rapidly, with wings lowered, but usually only for a short[Pg 26] distance, pausing from time to time, for a few moments, in the course of their swift career; their flight is easy, and accompanied by a variety of graceful evolutions. Their cry, which is shrill and penetrating, is uttered with such various degrees of rapidity, as to produce very different effects. In disposition they are cautious and usually shy. Audubon states that he had ocular demonstration of the fact, that, as its name imports, this species actually turns over stones and other objects to search for food, and gives the following interesting account of the proceedings of four of these birds, which he observed on the beach of Gaveston Island, whilst he was engaged together with a sailor in carrying the carcase of a deer to be washed:—"They merely," he says, "ran a little distance out of our course, and on our returning came back immediately to the same place; this they did four different times, and after we were done remained busily engaged in searching for food. None of them were more than fifteen or twenty yards distant, and I was delighted to see the ingenuity with which they turned over the oyster-shells, clods of mud, and other small bodies left exposed by the retiring tide. Whenever the object was not too large, the bird bent its legs to half their length, placed its bill beneath it, and with a sudden, quick jerk of the head pushed it off, when it quickly picked up the food which was thus exposed to view, and walked deliberately to the next shell to perform the same operation. In some instances when the clusters of oyster-shells or clods of mud were too heavy to be removed in the ordinary manner, they would not only use the bill and head, but also the breast, pushing the object with all their strength, and reminding me of the labour which I have undergone in turning over a large turtle. Among the seaweeds which had been cast on the shore they used only the bill, tossing the garbage from side to side with a dexterity extremely pleasant to behold. In this manner I saw these four Turnstones examine almost every portion of the shore, along a space of from thirty to forty yards; after which I drove them away, that our hunters might not kill them on their return."

Upon the coast of Cape May and Egg Harbour this species is known by the name of the "Horsefoot Snipe," from the fact that it subsists during a portion of the summer almost entirely on the spawn and eggs of the great "king crab," called by the common people the "horsefoot." This spawn may often be seen by bushels in the hollows and eddies on the coast.

During the breeding season these birds retire to high northern latitudes, so that their mode of nidification was long a mystery, until Mr. Hewitson, who made diligent search for the Turnstone's nest on the coast of Norway, was at last successful. "We had," he writes, "visited numerous islands with little encouragement, and were about to land upon a flat rock, bare, except where here and there grew tufts of grass or stunted juniper clinging to its surface, when our attention was attracted by the singular cry of a Turnstone, which in its eager watch had seen our approach and perched itself upon an eminence of the rock, assuring us by its querulous oft-repeated note and anxious motions that its nest was there. We remained in the boat a short time, until we had watched it behind a tuft of grass, near which, after a minute search, we succeeded in finding the nest, in a situation in which I should never have suspected to meet with a bird of this sort breeding; it was placed against the ledge of the rock, and consisted of nothing more than the drooping leaves of the juniper-bush, under a creeping branch of which, the eggs, four in number, were snugly concealed and admirably sheltered from the many storms by which these bleak and exposed rocks are visited, allowing just sufficient room for the bird to cover them. We afterwards found more nests with little difficulty. All the nests contained four eggs each. The time of breeding is about the middle of June. The eggs measure one inch and two lines in breadth, and are of an olive-green colour, spotted and streaked with ash-blue and two shades of reddish brown."

The parents are much attached to their offspring. The habits of the latter resemble those of young Plovers. Audubon mentions an instance in which one of these birds was reared by a lady, who fed it on boiled rice and bread soaked in milk.[Pg 27]

THE PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, OR SEA PIE.

The PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, or SEA PIE (Hæmatopus ostralegus), possesses a compact body, large head, long straight beak, which is much compressed and of conical form; moderately high, powerful feet, furnished with short broad toes connected by a skin; medium-sized and pointed wings, in which the first quill is the longest; and a short straight tail, composed of twelve feathers. The plumage on the upper portions of the body is of a glossy black; the neck, crop, and rump, a patch under the eye and the belly are white; the primary quills and tail-feathers black, with white roots. The eyes are bright blood-red, edged with orange. The broad rings that surrounds the eyes and the beak are vermilion, the latter tipped with a lighter shade; the feet are dark flesh-red. The length of the male is sixteen inches; its breadth across the wings thirty-one inches and a half; the wing measures nine inches and a half, and the tail fully four inches. The female is smaller than her mate, and has less black upon her breast. During the winter this species has a crescent-shaped white patch upon the throat.

The Pied Oyster-catchers are met with along almost the entire coast of the Old and New Worlds (being especially numerous on the more rocky portions). They are also found in Greenland and on the islands of the Northern and Arctic Oceans. During the winter they appear in Southern Europe, but are by no means common. The migrations of these birds vary considerably with the climate of their native haunts; such as inhabit shores warmed by the Gulf Stream remaining in the same localities from one year to another; whilst in those latitudes where the seas are covered with ice during the cold season, they are compelled to go south in order to obtain the requisite supply of food. During the course of these enforced wanderings the mainland is rarely traversed, the fugitive keeping as near as possible to the shore, or, when necessary, crossing even large tracts of water without any inconvenience. Occupants of the shores of the eastern and northern seas seek their winter quarters principally in France and the north of Spain, whilst those occupying the coast of China appear regularly in Southern India. In Great Britain the Pied Oyster-catchers are permanent residents, and never extend their flight to any great distance, but after the breeding season assemble in flocks, and in winter betake themselves to estuaries and promontories. In April these flocks disperse in pairs, and rove about the sandy beach in small parties. While searching for food they usually keep apart from other birds, but are occasionally seen in company with the Curlew, Turnstone, and Redshank. At high-water they retire to rocky headlands or similar places of safety, where they remain until the turn of the tide has left their hunting-grounds again exposed. While reposing, according to Macgillivray, the Sea Pies stand with their legs quite straight, or on one leg only, the other being drawn up; the body is held in a horizontal position; the neck retracted; the head either directed forward or with the bill buried among the feathers of the back. In this attitude they present a very curious appearance when seen in a high wind, as each bird directs its breast towards the quarter from which it blows. On a sandy beach they often follow each other in long lines, or crouch to the ground. Their flight is strong and steady, performed by regular beats of the extended wings, with the neck drawn in, and the feet directed backwards. When going to sleep they rest on one leg only. Over the surface of the sandy shore they run with great rapidity, and wade with ease in muddy places, their short, flat-soled feet being well adapted for that purpose. During the period of incubation the Sea Pies utter a great variety of pleasing notes, whilst at other times their cry is not particularly agreeable. Of all the many feathered occupants of our shores, these birds are by far the most restless and pugnacious, though apparently without malice. Towards all their larger companions they exhibit an incessant desire to resent intrusion, and at once dart upon a bird of prey with loud cries, and drive the unwelcome visitor away from the spot. Should no foreign foe appear, and thus[Pg 28] afford them an opportunity for venting their exuberant spirits, the males will harry and annoy each other until their fury rising, the strife that apparently began in sport terminates in a real battle, during which the antagonists strike each other most mercilessly with their wings and beak. Towards men they exhibit extreme shyness, and, except during the breeding season, scarcely permit his approach. In this particular, however, they show much intelligence, and readily distinguish the shepherd or fishermen from their enemy the sportsman. "After the breeding season," says Macgillivray, "the Sea Pies, especially plentiful in the Scottish Isles, form flocks that are frequently very numerous, being composed of from twenty to one hundred individuals or more. At this period they are met with chiefly on the low rocky shores, or at the mouths of rivers, where at low water they obtain their food, which consists of limpets, barnacles, small bivalve shells swallowed entire, young crabs, and other marine animals. Although frequently seen on extensive low sands, they seem rather to betake themselves thither for security than for the purpose of looking for food. On low, pebbly, muddy, or sandy shores they always prefer the edge of the water, in which they wade, although they search the exposed parts. Limpets and barnacles form their chief food; but, although they have been said to eat oysters and large bivalve mollusca, I have not found such animals in their stomach. The bivalve shells found in their gizzard or œsophagus are generally, when of small size, either entire or merely crushed, but when large, are deprived in a greater or less degree of their testaceous envelopes. Along with their food they swallow particles of gravel, frequently of considerable size. I have found some a quarter of an inch in diameter."

THE PIED OYSTER-CATCHER, OR SEA PIE (Hæmatopus ostralegus).

[Pg 29]

Bivalve shells, when closed, are usually opened by these birds by striking them at the hinge, while cockles are obtained by holding the shell with the foot and wrenching with the bill as with a crowbar. When the shores are flat and the surface thus remains covered with a shallow stratum of water, after the tide has ebbed, the Oyster-catchers find their prey more readily, as the shells are then partially opened, and they can easily insert their wedge-shaped bill and force them asunder; but where the sand soon dries and there are no rocks from which the limpet can be obtained, they follow the line of the advancing and retreating waves. Such of these birds as are stationary during all seasons commence the business of incubation as early as the middle of April, while such as migrate do not lay until somewhat later in the spring; at this season, after the usual rivalry between the males, the pairs keep apart from each other, but frequently remain in the immediate vicinity of some of their weaker feathered associates, with whom they live in the utmost harmony. The nest of the Sea Pie is a mere hollow in the shore, and is usually situated amongst the tangled weed thrown above high water mark, or on grassy spots in the immediate vicinity of the sea. The eggs, two or three in number, are large and of an oval form with a pale brownish shell, spotted, streaked, and very variously marked with light violet, deep greyish brown and greyish black. The female, who alone broods, does not sit during the noonday hours, and hatches her little family in about three weeks. The young at first conceal themselves if alarmed, but even at a very early period can run, swim, and dive with considerable facility. Whilst in charge of their offspring, the parents exhibit unusual courage and foresight, and should the mother perish, the father at once undertakes all her duties. The flesh of the Sea Pie is unpalatable, but by many the eggs are much esteemed. Gadamer states that a pair of Oyster-catchers reared by him from the nest became so tame that they knew his voice and greeted his appearance with loud cries. These birds were allowed to run freely about the poultry-yard, and rendered excellent service to its more timid occupants by warning the Fowls of the approach of a Hawk, or any other feathered marauder.

The SNIPES (Limicolæ) form a second division of the Stilt-walkers, which embraces several minor groups, all characterised by having the hinder part of the body of cylindrical form, a moderately long neck, a medium-sized and much-arched head, and a long slender beak; the latter is curved or straight throughout its length, with the sides compressed and grooved to the tip, which is obtuse and in some instances flexible, of a much softer texture than in most birds, and frequently covered with a highly sensitive membrane. The long slender tarsi are usually more or less high; the toes generally long, the lateral ones sometimes united to the middle toe by a membrane; the hind toe short, resting on the ground, or entirely wanting; the long pointed wing is more or less sickle-shaped; and the short tail composed of from twelve to twenty-six feathers. The plumage varies considerably in thickness and coloration, both in the various groups and at different seasons of the year; the sexes are, however, very similar to each other. The members of this section usually inhabit marshy land, the borders of swampy lakes, and the sea-coast. In the breeding season they live in pairs, but congregate in large flocks during the autumn or winter, and are more or less migratory. Fruits, worms, slugs, and aquatic mollusca, afford them their principal means of existence; some few also eat seeds. Both sexes assist in the process of incubation, and generally construct a slight nest upon the ground. The eggs are pear-shaped and from two to four in number.

The TRUE SNIPES (Scolopaces) are characterised by their powerful but comparatively short body, moderately long neck, which is compressed at its sides, a very high-browed head, and large, prominent eyes. The long slender beak is straight on the side and rather turned down near the tip, which is obtuse and bent over that of the lower mandible; the extremity of the bill is thickened, soft, and very[Pg 30] tender at its extremity, so that this part, which is richly supplied with nerves, serves as a delicate organ of touch, and is used for searching in the soft ground for the insects and worms that constitute the food of these birds. The more or less long tarsi are covered in front with narrow transverse scales, the anterior toes are long, that in the middle being of unusual length, the hinder toe is short, elevated, and reaches to the ground, the wings are broad, but comparatively short, and the short broad tail, composed of from twelve to twenty-six feathers, is rounded at its extremity. The plumage of this group, which is soft and thick, varies in its coloration according to the situations occupied by its possessor.

The Snipes must be regarded as natives of the north and temperate portions of the earth, although they also visit its warmest latitudes. Many species frequent swampy woods, but for the most part they seek their food in marshes and morasses, remaining concealed during the day and searching for their food principally early in the morning or during the evening hours. Although by no means of social disposition, they are occasionally seen congregated together in considerable numbers; these assemblages are, however, owing apparently to the attraction of a suitable locality, as each bird lives, as it were, for itself and pays but little heed to its companions. Early in spring, the males exhibit a very pugnacious disposition, and have many fierce encounters with their rivals before obtaining a mate. The movements of the Snipes, both on the ground and in the air and water, are extremely active and easy, and the facility with which they seize and extract their insect prey from the mud and ooze, must be regarded as truly astonishing. Their voice is usually monotonous and harsh, but during the period of incubation the male indulges in a variety of gesticulations and peculiar notes. When alarmed, these birds generally lie close to the ground or among the herbage, or suddenly starting on wing escape by a flight which is short, elevated, rapid, and irregular. The four moderate-sized and pear-shaped eggs have a dirty yellow or greenish shell spotted with brown, and are deposited in a slight hole in the ground. The young, when they are hatched, are clad in a downy chequered garb of black and brown, and quit the nest on the day they escape from the shell. The Snipes are migratory in their habits and generally breed in high northern latitudes, but some are indigenous in this country, in all parts of which they rear their young, being especially numerous towards the north of Britain. Their flesh is much esteemed.

THE WOODCOCK.

The WOODCOCK (Scolopax rusticola) possesses a comparatively strong beak, rounded at the tip, and short stout feet with a very small claw upon the hind toe. The wing is blunt, and the tail composed of twelve feathers. Upon the forehead the plumage is grey, the sides of the head and nape are striped brown and reddish yellow; the rest of the upper portions of the body are spotted with various shades of brown, grey, and black. The large eye is brown, and the beak and foot horn-grey. This species is twelve inches long and twenty-two broad; the wing measures three, and the tail three inches and a half.

The Woodcock is met with throughout the whole of Europe, with the exception of its most northern islands, and throughout Northern and Central Asia. It also visits North-western Africa and India, as far south as Madras, and, according to "Mountaineer," breeds immediately beneath the snow line of the Himalayas. In Sweden, Great Britain, and the northern part of Germany, some frequently remain throughout the entire year, while those occupying colder latitudes invariably wander south at the approach of autumn. By far the greater number, however, of the birds that appear in England and Scotland are merely winter residents, arriving about October, and leaving for more northern regions in March. Mr. Selby, who resided near the eastern coast of Northumberland, and thus had ample opportunities for observing the arrival of flocks of Woodcocks, says:—"I[Pg 31] have found that they always come over in the greatest abundance in hazy weather with little wind, and that blowing from the north-east; and it is probable that they then find the upper region of the atmosphere in which they fly freer from the counter currents of air, than in more open weather. After a night of this description, I have frequently met with great numbers upon the edges of plantations, in hedges, and even in turnip-fields, and enjoyed excellent sport for the day; but, on seeking for a renewal of success, I have not found a single bird, the whole flight having proceeded on their course during the intervening night. It is during this time that Woodcocks, like most migratory birds, perform their journeys; and it seems probable that those which halt upon the eastern coast of Scotland, and the northern counties of England have completed their task from shore to shore, between sunset and sunrise, as they appear but little fatigued on their arrival, provided the weather has been calm. The distance of the coasts of Norway and Sweden, from whence these visitors are supposed to come, offers no objection to this supposition, as a continued flight of eight or ten hours, even at a rate inferior to what I conceive they are capable of accomplishing, would suffice for the transit. "A respectable person who lived upon the coast," continues the same observer, "and who, being a keen pursuer of wild fowl, was in the habit of frequenting the sea-shore at an early hour in the morning, assured me that he had more than once noticed the arrival of a flight of Woodcocks coming from the north-east just at day-dawn. His notice was first attracted by a peculiar sound in the air above his head; this, upon attending to it, he found proceeded from birds descending in an almost perpendicular direction which, upon approaching the shore, separated and flew toward the interior; these he pursued and shot, and they proved to be, as he had surmised, Woodcocks." The first flocks of these birds that arrive upon our coast, according to Yarrell, consist for the most part of females which only remain for a few days and then journey further south, while the later flocks, some of which remain to breed, are principally composed of male birds. So numerously are Woodcocks met with in Greece at some seasons, that we are told, three Englishmen on a sporting tour in the Peloponnesus shot no less than 500 brace in the course of three days; during the actual winter they are far less common in that country, and by February have generally commenced leaving Southern Europe and North-western Asia for Morocco, or the regions around the Altai Mountains. Taking one year with another in Europe, March may be regarded as the month in which these birds commence their migrations, the exact date for setting forth depending, according to the testimony of an observer who studied their habits for seventeen years, not as is usually supposed on the actual state of the weather, but on signs of approaching cold, to which the keen instinct of these birds renders them peculiarly susceptible. Like many of their feathered brethren, they usually travel against the wind, and do not continue their journey on dark or very windy nights: if thus compelled to descend, they prefer seeking shelter in some wood or forest, but if traversing an open country, often take refuge in a well-planted garden or hedge-row. During the course of their flight, however, they keep as much as possible over wooded localities, and unless alarmed, do not rise to any great height in the air, through which they sweep rapidly, ascending, descending, or making their way through the branches of the forest with equal ease and dexterity. When endeavouring to attract the attention of their females, the motions of these birds are entirely different; at such times the plumage is inflated, and the aspirants for admiration fly heavily along with slowly flapping wings, in a manner resembling that of the Owl. Should two rival males encounter each other when thus engaged, they at once commence hostilities, and after a merciless attack with beak and wings, often end by falling together into the trees beneath them. The strangest circumstance connected with these exhibitions of jealousy is, that they occur amongst the flocks during the migratory season, and not, as is generally the case, only at the period of incubation. Upon the ground the Woodcocks are less expert in their movements; they walk slowly, with a somewhat tripping step, and never[Pg 32] venture any distance on foot. In their native woods they usually remain comparatively quiet during the day, and only exhibit their full activity and briskness towards evening. In disposition they are extremely shy, and invariably prefer shady and retired situations, only penetrated by a kind of twilight. If chance should lead them across an open space during the day, they generally crouch flat on the ground, and, owing to the sombre hue of their feathers, are not easily detected; in this position they will often remain until almost trodden upon, when they suddenly rise and endeavour to elude the sportsman by darting through the trees and bushes, always taking care to keep well on the side opposite to the enemy. In their intercourse with each other, Woodcocks are by no means social, every individual going its own way without any reference to its companions. In their demeanour towards men, and birds of a different species, they usually exhibit the utmost timidity. Instances, however, are recorded of their having been reared from the nest, and rendered so tame that they would come at their owner's call, and greet his approach with every indication of delight. The call of the male consists of a sort of humming note, while the female only utters a gentle piping cry. The food of these birds consists of worms, larvæ, and insects, which are sought for by means of the long bill beneath dry leaves and cattle droppings, or are obtained by probing the surface of moist and marshy localities.

THE WOODCOCK (Scolopax rusticola).

"The Woodcock," we are told, in the notes to the "Lays of the Deer Forest," "breeds to a[Pg 33] considerable extent in most parts of the forest, and also in other woods of Morayshire, the Aird of Inverness, and on the Dee, the Don, the Spey, and other parts of the Highlands, but within our knowledge nowhere so numerously as in Tarnaway. Without any search, and merely on the accidental occasions of roe-hunting, we have found in one season nineteen nests with eggs. It would, however, be more proper to say beds than nests; for, like those of the Plover, they are merely slight hollows formed by the nestling of the birds in dry soft spots, or on the fallen leaves. As the nests are on dry ground, the old ones will sometimes carry their young in their claws to the nearest spring or green strip. Several times when the hounds, in beating the ground, have come upon a brood, we have seen the old bird rise with a young one in her claws, and carry it fifty or one hundred yards away, and, if followed to the place where she alighted, she has repeated the transaction until too much harassed. One morning, while sitting on a grey stone, I saw a dark eye which was fixed upon mine from the bed of dead leaves before me, when suddenly the little brown head of a young Woodcock peeped out from the feathers of the old one's breast, uttering that plaintive cry for which language has no sign. There were two more young Woodcocks, and to relieve the anxiety of the madre, I left her. Near the place where I found her there was a soft green strip such as Woodcocks love. I had no doubt that the family would be there next day, and as I passed I turned aside to see what they were doing. Upon a dry bank, half down the brae, I almost stumbled over a bird which rose at my feet, and as it started through the trees I saw that it had something in its claws, and at the same time I heard the plaintive cry of little Woodcocks just under my feet. I looked down, there were two, and I thought a Hawk had carried off the third, and perhaps killed the mother. This, however, I found, on following the bird, was the old Woodcock, which, being flushed again suddenly, after a low flight of only a few yards, dropped what she was carrying—her own young Woodcock. I gave her a little time to find him, which was not difficult, as he called to her as loud as his tiny bill could pipe. In a few moments I ran forward, and she rose with him in her feet, her long legs dangling and swinging with her little burden like a parachute. I left her to pursue her flight in peace, and went on my way, but I have no doubt she went back for the other two, for several times afterwards I saw them all together in the soft green glade." The three or four eggs laid by the female are large, broad, and short in shape, with a smooth, lustreless, light reddish yellow shell, very variously marked with different shades of red and brown. The mother alone broods and hatches her little family in about seventeen or eighteen days. If disturbed whilst sitting, she allows the intruder to approach quite close before quitting her charge, and after flying to a short distance almost immediately returns; even should she be deprived of an egg she still continues to brood. Whilst thus engaged the female receives little or no attention from her mate, but the young are no sooner hatched than the male at once undertakes his share of parental duties, and exhibits equally with the mother a most touching anxiety and devotion in their behalf. Should an enemy intrude upon them, the old birds employ every effort to attract attention to themselves, while the young immediately crouch beneath the long grass or moss, in which they can rarely be discovered without the aid of a dog. When three weeks old the fledglings begin to use their wings, but are capable of seeking food before they can fly. Until lately it has been supposed that Woodcocks lay but once in the year, or at most only produce a second supply of eggs if the first has been stolen or destroyed. Recent observations, however, tend to prove this idea to be erroneous. Hoffmann, in particular, after long and careful investigation, is of opinion that in favourable seasons each pair of these birds rears two broods.

The MARSH SNIPES (Gallinago) are characterised by their comparatively long, flat beak, moderately long, bare foot, and long, thin toes, which are entirely unconnected; the wing is much incised, and the short tail composed of from fourteen to twenty-six feathers.[Pg 34]

THE COMMON SNIPE.

The COMMON SNIPE, or BECASSINE (Gallinago scolopacinus), has the upper portion of the body brownish black, and is decorated with a broad, rusty yellow stripe upon the centre of the head, and four long lines of the same colour on the back and shoulders; the under side is white, the fore part of the throat grey, while the upper parts of the breast and sides are spotted with brown. The tail is formed of fourteen feathers. The eye is dark brown, the beak black, and the foot deep grey. This species is eleven inches long and seventeen broad, the wing measures five inches, and the tail two inches and a quarter.

The Common Snipe is met with principally in the north of Europe and Asia, but also probably breeds in the southern portions of the former continent and in North Africa; in some parts of Europe it is extremely common, and in England and Scotland breeds not only in the northern counties, but along the whole southern coast. Large flocks also come to the British Isles from Scandinavia during the winter, and leave again about the month of April. Recent observations have proved that the species of Marsh Snipes met with in North America are not identical with the Gallinago scotopacinus. During the course of its migrations the Common Snipe wanders over all lands between forty-five and thirteen degrees north latitude; they appear in India at the beginning of October in numerous flocks, and at certain seasons occupy the shores of the Nile and Ganges with great regularity. This species frequents marshy grounds, moist rush-covered localities, or wet meadows, and usually avoids the extremes of heat and cold by keeping to the moors in summer and seeking the shelter of the valleys during the winter. In severe frosts, or storms of snow, it takes refuge near springing rills or the immediate vicinity of flowing streams. Insects, worms, or slugs afford its principal means of subsistence; and for these it searches by probing the moist ground with its long bill. Although frequently associated in flocks during their migrations, these birds always exhibit the same unsocial disposition, each individual pursuing its own course, or seeking its provender in entire disregard of its companions. As with the Woodcock, this species goes in quest of food principally after twilight; but, unlike that bird, is also active during the day, and at most reposes for a few hours at noon. Upon the ground the Common Snipe moves leisurely but easily, keeping the head erect; its flight is rapid, and usually takes a zigzag course immediately after the bird has risen into the air. Generally when about to fly it suddenly takes an upward direction; and after rapidly pursuing an undulating path, returns almost immediately to the spot from whence it started; and then, drawing in its wings, falls obliquely to the ground. If alarmed, it frequently springs high, and takes flight beyond reach of the gun, turning nimbly, in a zigzag direction, for 200 or 300 paces, and sometimes soaring out of sight. This Snipe swims well, and occasionally takes to the water when not compelled to do so; if hotly pursued by a bird of prey or other enemy, it sometimes endeavours to save itself by diving. At the commencement of the breeding season, the males indulge in most arduous endeavours to attract the attention of their desired mates, whose admiration they essay to excite by soaring rapidly into the air, describing a variety of evolutions, and then darting earthward with closed wings. All these active exertions, which often continue for half an hour at a time, are accompanied by a most strange humming sound, respecting which naturalists are not yet agreed, some considering it to be produced by the rapid action of the powerful pinions, while others have supposed it to be occasioned by the long tail-feathers. Whilst engaged in these animated manœuvres, the male birds not only so far forget their usual timidity as to perch freely on the projecting branches of trees, but entirely lay aside their usual indifferent demeanour towards their companions, and frequently vent their jealous rivalry in fierce and sharp encounters. The female forms her loosely-constructed nest of withered leaves, heath-grass, and a few feathers, in some retired spot, generally beneath the shelter of[Pg 35] the stump of an alder-tree or willow. The eggs, which are comparatively large, and usually four in number, are lustreless, and of yellowish or greenish white, spotted with grey and various shades of brown. The young are hatched by the mother in fifteen or sixteen days, and when they quit the shell are covered with chequered down; this is moulted in about eight or ten days, and in a few weeks they are able to fly. The parents tend their little family with great care, and feed them until their bills are strong enough to enable them to provide for themselves. Sir Humphry Davy states that if the young are molested, the old birds at once commence a loud drumming sound over the head of the intruder, as though to divert his attention from their beloved charge, and thus allow the latter time to seek concealment; which they at once do, hiding themselves completely from view with most admirable instinct.

The MOOR SNIPES (Philolimnos) are recognisable by their short high beak, with narrow culmen and broad tip; their graduated tail, composed of twelve feathers, and pointed at its centre; their very muscular stomach; and the brilliant metallic gloss upon the plumage of the back.

THE JACK SNIPE.

The JACK SNIPE (Philolimnos gallinula) is only about nine inches long and fifteen broad; the wing measures four inches, and the tail about one inch and two-thirds. In this species, the bridles, a stripe below the cheeks and the head, are brown, with two lines above and below the eyes of reddish yellow; the blackish blue mantle-feathers have a beautiful green and purple sheen, and are decorated with four reddish yellow stripes. The throat, breast, and sides are grey, lined and spotted with brown; the rest of the body is white. The quills and tail-feathers are pale black; the latter edged with reddish yellow. The sexes are almost alike in colour; during the spring the plumage of the female is of a reddish hue upon the wings, and that of the young less resplendent and glossy.

Russia and Western Siberia may be regarded as the strongholds of this small bird, which makes its appearance later and departs earlier than the Common Snipe. It breeds in the northern parts of Europe and Asia, and is very generally diffused throughout India. In England it is but rarely seen in the summer, and appears in one particular spot year after year. The Jack Snipe prefers thick coverts, and compared with those of its kind already described is usually but seldom seen, although in some localities it is occasionally tolerably numerous. At the commencement of March, it generally quits its winter quarters, and returns under cover of the night to its native haunts. This Snipe is usually found in pairs, and seeks its food on marshy ground; but at other times conceals itself among the neighbouring long grass and rushes. If disturbed, it delays taking wing until the enemy is almost treading upon it, and has actually been caught when just rising, by having a hat put over it. When flushed, the Jack Snipe does not utter any note.

The SANDPIPERS (Tringæ) are known by their slender body, moderately long neck, small head, long pointed wings, in which the first quill exceeds the rest in length, and a moderate tail, either rounded or doubly incised at its extremity. The beak is either longer than, or as long as, the head, slender, compressed at the sides, with the culmen near the tip slightly depressed and enlarged. The slender bare foot is furnished, in most instances, with four toes; of these the three placed in front are long and entirely disunited, while the very small and delicate hind toe is raised too high to reach the ground. The thick compact plumage is principally a mixture of greyish brown and reddish yellow, but varies considerably according to the season, and age or sex of the bird; in the winter it is ashy grey above, white shaded with grey beneath. The colour of the sexes is nearly alike. Sandpipers are met with in all portions of the globe, but principally frequent its northern parts.[Pg 36] Marine marshes on the sea-shore, or the borders of lakes and rivers, are the situations they prefer, visiting the temperate climates during the winter, and returning to the colder latitudes to spend the summer months. Their migrations take place in large parties, which fly by night or early in the morning. During the recess of the tide, they may be seen upon the sea-shore, seeking their food from the refuse of the ocean, or quietly and intently probing the sands in search of worms and shell-fish, and sometimes retreating rapidly before the advancing surge, and profiting by what the wave leaves on its retreat. In all their movements they display great activity, either when running rapidly and lightly on the fore part of their toes over the surface of the moist sand, when swimming in the water, or when winging their way with a varied, graceful, and rapid flight through the air. The voice of these birds is clear, piping, and resonant. All the various species are social and peaceful in their habits, and it is probable that the encounters in which they indulge at certain seasons of the year are as much in sport as in rivalry. The food of the Sandpiper consists of worms, small molluscs, insects, larvæ, and similar fare, but occasionally of delicate seeds. The four pear-shaped eggs are deposited in a dry hollow on the ground, which is slightly lined with a few blades of grass. The female alone broods; the young come forth covered with down, they at once leave the nest, and grow with great rapidity.

The CURLEW SANDPIPERS (Limicola) have a compact body, short neck, and small head; the beak is longer than the head, and only soft and flexible at its tip, which is broad, and curves slightly downward. The low, stout, bare foot is furnished with four toes. The wings are pointed, and have the first and second quills of equal length, and longer than the rest; the tail is short and pointed towards its centre.

THE PIGMY CURLEW SANDPIPER.

The PIGMY CURLEW SANDPIPER (Limicola pygmæa) has the crown blackish brown, decorated with reddish yellow stripes; the mantle-feathers are black lined with reddish yellow; the upper wing is ash-grey; the feathers on the lower throat, crop, and sides of the breast are reddish yellow, spotted with brown and tipped with white; the under side is white. The eye is brown, the beak reddish grey at its base and black at its extremity, and the foot dark greenish grey. During the autumn the upper parts of the body are dark grey, and the feathers have a somewhat mottled appearance, as their shafts are of a dark and their edges of a light shade. This bird is six inches long and thirteen broad, the wing measures four inches and one-third, and the tail one inch and a half.

The Pigmy Curlew is met with principally in the northern parts of Asia and America, and also, though more rarely, in Europe. In England it has been known to breed occasionally. Moist river-banks or marshy localities are the situations it prefers, and from these it obtains the insects, larvæ, and worms upon which it principally subsists. Unlike the rest of the family, it does not associate with other birds. The Pigmy Curlew flies well and rapidly, walks with short interrupted steps, and, if disturbed, crouches flat to the ground, and allows the enemy to approach quite close before taking wing. The voice resembles that of the Common Sandpiper. Keitel tells us that in its habits this species does not differ from the rest of the family. The eggs found by that gentleman in Lapland were long and pear-shaped, with a dull olive-yellow shell, marked with greyish brown.

THE SANDERLING.

The SANDERLING (Calidris arenaria) has the hinder toe entirely undeveloped. This small bird is only seven inches long and fifteen broad. In spring the upper parts of the body are black, or brownish red, spotted with yellow and white; the blackish brown upper wing is marked with zigzag rust-red spots, and striped with white. The under side, as far as the white breast, is reddish grey, the[Pg 37] feathers having dark spots on the shafts and white edges. The five outer tail-feathers are whitish grey, with white roots; the eyes are deep brown; the beak and the foot deep grey. During winter the feathers on the upper portions of the body are light grey tipped with white, darkly spotted on the shafts, and the under side is pure white.

THE SANDERLING (Calidris arenaria).

This elegant little bird occupies the coasts of all the northern portions of the globe. During the course of its migrations it visits Southern Europe, keeping near the shores even while journeying from one country to another, and but rarely crossing the mainland. This species is met with on most of the sandy shores of Great Britain and Ireland, and is occasionally found near large pieces of fresh water; it is not supposed to breed in this country, but has been seen in January and February, April, June, August, and October. Like other Sandpipers, it associates in more or less numerous flocks while in winter quarters, but lives in pairs throughout the summer. In disposition it is gentler and more confiding than other members of its family, but closely resembles them in its general habits. Upon the ground it runs with grace and agility, and exhibits the utmost dexterity in its beautiful and rapid movements through the air, during which it frequently joins company with parties of other shore birds. With so little timidity does the Sanderling regard man, that it is not uncommon for it to permit his close approach, and even if shot at it often only moves a few paces from the spot. Naumann mentions that upon one occasion, after watching the proceedings of five of these birds that were standing almost close to him in most evident disregard of his presence, the thought struck him that he would arrange some snares he had in his pocket and take the whole party prisoners. This he accordingly did, the intended victims quietly watching his arrangements, and finally walking amongst, and entangling themselves in the treacherous strings.

[Pg 38]

The MUD SANDPIPERS (Pelidna) are comparatively slender birds, with a straight or curved beak, of about the length of the head, and slightly widened at its tip; slender bare feet, furnished with four toes, moderate-sized wings, and a rounded or doubly incised tail. The plumage is moulted twice in the year.

THE MUD SANDPIPER.

The MUD SANDPIPER (Pelidna subarquata) is about seven inches long and ten broad. The wing measures five inches, and the tail one inch and two-thirds. In spring the entire under side is rust-red of various shades; the feathers on the crown of the head are blackish, with reddish grey edges; the nape rust-red streaked with white; and the rest of the upper parts of the body covered with deep black feathers, spotted with light rust-red, and edged with light grey or rust-yellow. The tail-feathers are ash-grey, those in the centre being the darkest; all have white shafts and edges. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot blackish brown. In autumn the feathers on the head and nape are blackish grey, varied with white and dark edges; those on the back and upper wings are deep blackish grey with black shafts; and the feathers on the under side whitish grey, shaded, spotted, and shafted with a deeper tint; the bridles are brown; a whitish line passes above the eye. In young birds the feathers of the head are greyish brown with rusty grey edges; those of the back and shoulders of a blackish shade with reddish yellow edges; the under side and rump are white, gullet and crop reddish grey. The sexes are almost alike in colour.

These birds are met with in all the northern portions of our globe, and during the course of their winter migrations appear with great regularity in North Africa, where they are very common; they also visit the shores of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Atlantic, and the Dead Sea, and have been seen about the Cape of Good Hope. In Europe they especially resort to the coasts of France and Holland, where they arrive about the middle of April, and leave again from the end of July to October; their migrations are always carried on at night. Flat muddy shores are the localities they principally frequent, and over these they disport themselves with great activity, moving lightly about in pursuit of food throughout the entire day, only pausing to indulge in a short sleep at noon. If disturbed they at once rise rapidly into the air, and after darting to some little distance, return immediately to the spot whence they were driven. In disposition they are social and naturally fearless, but frequently learn to imitate the timidity exhibited by most of their companions on the sea-shore. According to our own observations, they are often seen associated with other birds, and apparently under the guidance of one of the largest members of the party, whose movements and example they obey in a manner most amusingly resembling a game at follow-my-leader, running wherever he runs, and flying where he flies, as though actuated by one spirit; these gambols usually terminate by all the males uttering a warning cry, and the whole flock swooping in a compact mass for some few hundred paces over the water, and then returning to the shore, there to resume their animated sport. It is improbable that this species breeds in the southern parts of our globe; such nests as we have found in northern regions were nothing more than a slight hollow in the ground, and contained four pear-shaped eggs, having a greenish shell shaded with dark grey, and spotted with deep brown.

The DWARF SANDPIPERS (Actodroma) are small birds, with short beaks, either quite straight or curving gently towards the tip; the moderate-sized feet are slender and bare, with the toes almost entirely unconnected.

THE DWARF SANDPIPER.

The DWARF SANDPIPER (Actodroma minuta), the smallest of all the tribe, is only five inches and a half long and eleven inches and a half broad; the wing measures three inches and a half, and the[Pg 39] tail one inch and a half. During spring the feathers on the crown of the head are black, edged with rust-red, those on the nape grey marked with a darker shade, and those on the sides of the neck and upper breast light rust-red spotted with brown; a whitish stripe passes over the eyes, and between the latter and the beak a dark brown line. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot greenish black. In autumn all the feathers on the upper portions of the body are deep grey, with brown lines on the shafts; the gullet, sides of the head, and lower breast are reddish grey, the rest of the under side is white.

This species principally inhabits the northern portions of the globe, but during the course of its extensive wanderings is met with at certain seasons on almost every coast. In England it usually occupies the shores of the eastern and southern counties. During its migrations, which are carried on by night and in large flocks, it visits Egypt in vast numbers, and is frequently to be seen associated with a great variety of other species. Moist muddy coasts and shores are the situations it prefers, though it by no means avoids sandy localities. In disposition the Dwarf Sandpipers are lively and active, graceful and easy in all their movements. With their own kind they live in the utmost harmony, and exhibit but little fear towards man; in other respects they resemble the members of the family already described. It is probable that the Dwarf Sandpipers breed in the extreme north of Europe, but as yet their nests have only been found in Greenland and the most northern parts of the American continent. The four smooth glossy eggs are placed in a slight depression in the earth, and have a dull, greyish yellow shell, clouded with grey, and spotted and dotted with brown of various shades at the broad end.

THE RUFF.

The RUFF (Philomachus pugnax) has a straight beak of about the same length as the head, or a little longer, and slightly depressed at its tip; the high slender feet are bare, and furnished with four toes: of these the three placed in front are connected by a skin; the hind toe is short and much raised. The moderate-sized pointed wing has the first quill longer than the rest, and the short tail is slightly rounded; the plumage is soft and thick. The male bird is about a third larger than his mate, and has during the spring his face covered with warts, and his neck adorned with a strange and beautiful collar; both these peculiarities, however, disappear towards autumn. So varied and changeful is the coloration of the plumage, that a detailed description is almost impossible. The collar above alluded to is composed of harsh feathers, about three inches long, and so wonderfully different in their hues that scarcely two males are exactly like each other; black and brown, and white feathers of various shades, spotted, striped, and marked in every conceivable way, appear indifferently on this part of the plumage. The upper wing is deep brownish grey, and the blackish grey tail is spotted with black; the belly is white, and the rest of the body very variously coloured and marked. It has, we believe, been ascertained that each male exhibits the same hues and markings every succeeding year. The eye is brown, the beak generally greenish or greenish yellow, and the foot reddish yellow. This species is from eleven inches to twelve inches and a half long, and from twenty-three inches and a half to twenty-four inches across; the wing measures from seven inches to seven inches and a half, and the tail about three inches. The plumage of the female, which does not vary as does that of her mate, is principally reddish grey, darkly spotted upon the upper portions of the body. The face and brow are light grey, the crown is grey, striped with brownish black; the nape-feathers are grey, those on the back and shoulders blackish brown, edged with rust-red. The throat and gullet are grey, and the belly-feathers of a whitish hue. The female is ten inches long, and twenty-one inches and a half broad.

[Pg 40]

THE RUFF (Philomachus pugnax). MALE IN FULL PLUMAGE.

RUFFS FIGHTING.

The Ruffs were originally natives of the northern portion of the Eastern Hemisphere, but are now occasionally met with in North America. During their migrations they not only visit every country of Europe and Asia, but the entire African continent, usually taking up their abode on extensive bogs or marshy plains, and frequently appearing in the immediate neighbourhood of the sea, where they often mingle with the busy hosts that are ever ready to seize upon the rich and varied store of food left behind by the receding tide. Naumann asserts, however, that this species never remains near or ventures into the water, but after joining in the busy scene for a short time, always returns to its usual haunts. Unlike other Sandpipers, these birds are met with far inland, where they not only dwell upon the banks of rivers, but wander into the plains and cultivated districts. In Central Europe they usually arrive in flocks, about May, and begin to leave about July and August, travelling by night, and pursuing their course in long lines that sometimes assume a wedge-like arrangement, the males journeying apart from the females. The extensive parties seen by us in the Soudan consisted almost exclusively of females, from which fact we concluded that the males do not often migrate so far south as Africa. The females are the first to seek and the last to leave the winter quarters, and yet strange to say, they generally return to their last summer's abode in company with their former mates. Before and after the breeding season, male and female are scarcely distinguishable, either in appearance or demeanour; but during that period the former exhibit an excitement that is quite without a parallel. Water insects, beetles, and worms, with seeds of many kinds, afford them the means of subsistence, and for these they seek principally at early morning or evening, visiting certain spots with great regularity, and keeping strictly within a limited hunting ground. Whilst thus engaged they move leisurely, and with conscious dignity, keeping steadily and quietly at work, and only betraying their presence by a weak hoarse cry, as they rise with light and hovering wing into the air. At the approach of night they become somewhat more lively, and indulge in sportive flights in company with their feathered brethren.[Pg 41] No sooner, however, has the period of incubation set in than the pacific disposition of these birds appears to undergo a complete change, and the males commence a series of fierce encounters, arising not merely from a feeling of rivalry or jealousy, but respecting such trifles as the possession of a worm or the choice of a resting-place. Whether in their native haunts or confined in a cage, and whether females be concerned in the matter or not, the same restless desire to attack and injure each other takes possession of the male birds, who, in their wild state, carry on their battles in regular fighting-grounds, employed year after year for the same purpose. Moist and rather elevated spots are usually preferred, and to these a certain number of combatants resort daily, each as a rule having his own peculiar place, whereon to take his stand till an enemy appears. Naumann states that until the collar of the males has attained its full beauty they are not privileged to appear in the lists. No sooner has a willing adversary come forward, than the excited couple rush upon each other, and struggle on till one or both are exhausted, when they pause and return to their former standing-places, to recover strength and breath for a second encounter. These strange battles are strictly duels, although from the fact of two or three couples engaging at the same time, and that often in such a limited space as to compel them to attack across each other, an ordinary spectator would often imagine that he was witnessing a general mêlée, instead of the entirely distinct settlement of individual wrongs and grievances. A more ridiculous sight could scarcely be imagined than the appearance of the[Pg 42] furious combatants, as they stand ruffling and swelling out their plumage, with collar and breast feathers erect, literally trembling with rage, and darting backwards and forwards towards their adversary; rapidly ducking their wart-covered heads, and keeping the hinder part of the body much raised, as they snap and probe the enemy in a very ecstasy of blind fury. At the conclusion of the fray, the combatants again stand trembling before each other, shaking themselves, and tossing up their heads in defiance; after which demonstration, if not too much fatigued, they resume their standing-places, and again look out for a willing and equally excited foe. Owing to the soft construction of the bill, serious injuries never result from these encounters; the loss of a few feathers, or the chance of being caught and pulled about by the collar, being the worst evils to which the apparently bloodthirsty duellists are exposed. Naumann is of opinion that the knobs and excrescences often seen on the beaks of the birds are attributable to blows or twists received in these violent affrays. Occasionally a female appears and takes up her post in the fighting-ground, but never does more than indulge her curiosity, by mingling with the combatants, and watching their proceedings for a short space; after which she retires, sometimes accompanied by one of the males, who, however, almost immediately returns to the field of action, without further reference to her proceedings. When the period for depositing the eggs arrives, the males separate, each in company with two females, or vice versâ, and make their nest of dry grass and stubble on some high point in a marshy locality. The eggs, four, or occasionally only three, in number, are of unusual size, with a greenish or brownish shell, more or less faintly spotted with reddish brown or pale black. The mother, who alone broods and hatches her young in from seventeen to nineteen days, is much attached to her charge, and in every respect conducts herself like a female Snipe; whilst her spouse does not concern himself in the least about the rising generation, but fights incessantly throughout the whole breeding season, after which he flies about regardless of his family, until the time comes for seeking his winter quarters. These birds are only summer visitors to England, appearing in April and taking leave in autumn; formerly, however, many Ruffs remained throughout the warm season, to breed in the fenny districts, and were caught in considerable numbers in Lincolnshire. Since the draining of the fens they have become comparatively scarce. Some years ago they were regularly procured and fattened for the table. Montagu tells us that he visited the room at Spalding where the captives were kept, and that his entrance drove them from their stands, compelling some to trespass on the premises of others, and thus producing many battles. "It is," he says, "a remarkable character of these birds that they feed most greedily the moment they are taken. No sooner is a basin of bread and milk put before them than it is instantly contended for; and so pugnacious is their disposition, that they would starve in the midst of plenty if several dishes of food were not placed among them at a distance from one another." The capture of these birds was formerly effected by means of clap-nets, with stuffed birds as decoys, placed around the hills where they assembled in the spring previous to incubation, and placed in such a manner as to be movable by means of a long string, thus producing a jerk resembling the jump so common among the Ruffs (who, at the sight of a wanderer flying by, will leap or flit a yard off the ground), and by that means induce those on the wing to alight.

The PHALAROPES (Phalaropi) possess a moderate-sized, delicate beak, which is slightly curved at its tip. In some species the bill is not broader than it is high, in others it is somewhat flattened in front. The weak low feet are bare, and furnished with four toes, of which the three anterior are united at the base, and more or less lobed on the sides as far as the tips; the hind toe is short, elevated, and margined slightly by a narrow membrane. The wing is long and pointed, with its first quill longer than the rest; the short rounded tail is composed of twelve feathers. In their mode of life these birds differ from all other members of the feathered creation. Their plumage is thick and[Pg 43] closely set; and the toes being united at the base by a web, besides being bordered by a continuation of that membrane, make the feet efficient as paddles, although they are equally adapted for progression on dry land. The accomplishments of the Phalarope are, therefore, very varied—they fly rapidly, like the Snipes; run, after the fashion of the Sandpipers; and swim, not only with all the facility of Ducks, but venture out upon the surface of the ocean even in the midst of the roughest waves. During the breeding season they repair to the coast, where they build a neat nest, composed of grass and weeds, upon the sea-shore, or in some slight hollow on the ground. The eggs are four in number. The usual habitat of the Phalaropes is in the Arctic and Northern Seas, from whence they but rarely wander far, their migrations usually being confined to the surface of the ocean.

THE HYPERBOREAN PHALAROPE.

The HYPERBOREAN PHALAROPE (Lobipes hyperboreus, or Phalaropus hyperboreus) resembles the Sandpipers in some respects, but differs from them in the comparative shortness of its tail and slenderness of its beak. Upon the upper portions of the body the feathers are blackish grey, and on the lower back and shoulders black edged with reddish yellow; the sides of the nape are rust-red, the throat and under parts grey, shading into white on the sides and crop. The eye is brown, the beak black, and the foot lead-grey, with the web and projecting edges yellowish and grey. The male is from six inches and three-quarters to seven inches long, and from twelve inches and two-thirds to twelve inches and three-quarters broad; the wing measures four, and the tail two inches. The female is about a line longer, and one inch broader than her mate.

These birds inhabit the north-eastern portions of Europe and Northern Asia, and are numerous upon the extensive lakes and rivers of Siberia and North America; their range, however, probably does not extend far south, even during the course of their migrations. With us they frequent the Orkney Islands, where they arrive about July, and depart again as winter approaches. In its habits this species is essentially aquatic. It swims with the utmost buoyancy and ease, though it is not known to dive even when hard pressed; and, according to Audubon, indulges in the remarkable habit of alighting whilst at sea, even at a distance of one hundred miles from shore, on beds of floating seaweed, over which its lobed feet enable it to run with great lightness and rapidity. Its flight is strong and swift, but when on the ground its movements are inferior in agility to those of the Tringas. Insects, worms, and minute mollusca form its principal means of subsistence, these it obtains from among tangled beds of floating seaweed, or as it moves lightly over the surface of the water. The call is a sharp clear "tweet, tweet." Audubon mentions having seen little parties of these birds living in pairs upon the small fresh-water lakes in Labrador, near which they also breed. The nest, which is usually made in a hollow in marshes, or on the islands of fresh-water lakes, is formed principally of grass, and covered with a few bits of hay or moss. The eggs, from one to four in number, have usually a dark olive-coloured shell, thickly spotted with black. The young grow rapidly, and are anxiously tended by their parents, who employ a variety of artifices to lure strangers from the nest.

THE RED PHALAROPE.

The RED PHALAROPE (Phalaropus rufus) represents a group of the above birds recognisable by their superior length of tail and the construction of the beak, which is as long as the head, and flat and curved at its extremity. This species is larger than the Phalaropus hyperboreus, being fully eight inches long, and nearly fourteen broad; the wings measure five inches, and the tail two inches and three-quarters. Upon the crown, back, and shoulders, the feathers are black, edged with rust-red; the lower back, upper wing-covers, and sides of the tail are dark grey; and the under side is of a beautiful brownish red. The female is jet-black upon the crown and nape, and exhibits two greyish[Pg 44] black stripes which pass down the sides of the head, the back and shoulder feathers are blueish grey, darkly shafted, and those on the under parts of the body white, edged with grey at the sides.

The native haunts of these birds, according to Gould, are the regions within the Arctic Circle, where they live during summer, migrating as winter approaches to more temperate climes, and dispersing singly or in pairs throughout most of the countries of Europe, being especially numerous in the British Isles. This species is abundant in many parts of Asia and America. "Although its powers of wing are very great," says the above writer, "we cannot look for its periodical visits with any certainty; and the places, moreover, which it selects are sometimes very extraordinary. For instance, it will continue for weeks, if unmolested, about a puddle in a farmyard, manifesting a familiar and unsuspecting disposition, and allowing itself to be approached with freedom. It does not, however, confine itself to one spot, but after remaining at a certain place from three to four weeks, suddenly departs; if on the approach of spring, towards the north, and in autumn towards the south. Every European country is visited, though at uncertain and often long intervals." The Red Phalarope swims well, and takes its food in the surface of the water with the utmost agility and address; indeed it seeks its nourishment there alone, and whilst thus engaged displays a great variety of graceful attitudes and manœuvres. Even if closely approached it exhibits no fear, but quietly continues its search for the aquatic insects and small thin-skinned crustaceans on which it subsists. Audubon gives the following account of a large flock of these birds that he met with on the shores of the Ohio. "They swam beautifully and played lightly about as they picked up substances floating in the water, dispersed again and again, until at length coming opposite to a small sand-bar, stretching out from the shore to the distance of a few yards, they directed their course towards it, and waded out. When just landing they were so close to each other that I could not withstand the temptation, and so levelled my gun, pulled both triggers, and saw that I had made considerable havoc among them. Those which had not been hit flew in a compact body, while the birds that had been but slightly wounded made for the water and swam away so fast that they seemed to be running on the surface." The four eggs laid by this species have a stone-coloured shell, spotted and speckled with dark brown.

The LONGSHANKS (Totani) constitute a group possessing light slender bodies, moderately long necks, and small heads. The wings are long and pointed, with the first quill exceeding the rest in length; the short tail is composed of twelve feathers, and is either graduated, wedge-like, or rounded at its extremity. The beak is either as long as, or longer than, the head, and furnished with a pointed tip; this difference in the construction of the bill enables these birds to seize their food among gravel or stones on the shores of lakes and rivers, or on the coast, instead of seeking it by probing soft sand and mud. The foot is variously formed, being in some instances high and thin, and in others short and powerful; the toes are three or four in number. The short compact plumage, which is moulted twice in the year, is of sombre hue; male and female are almost alike, both in their coloration and size.

These birds principally frequent the northern portions of the globe, and from thence wander forth into warmer latitudes, where they not only live, but breed. River-banks, marshes, and the shores of fresh-water lakes, are their usual haunts; whilst some few occupy the sea-coast, and others frequent moist woods. During the winter they associate with many varieties of their feathered brethren, whose society they appear to prefer to that of their own species. They walk well, fly rapidly and easily, and for the most part dive with facility, remaining under water for a considerable time, and coming up at a distance from the place where they went down. While thus progressing they are supposed to move by the agency of their wings. Under ordinary circumstances, however, they merely stand while fishing,[Pg 45] keeping only their head and neck below the surface as they explore the ground beneath. In all the various species the voice is high, flute-like, and resonant. The food of the Totani consists of insects, worms, small molluscs, and fishes, and is obtained, not by probing the earth, a process to which their hard sharp bill is not adapted, but from the surface of the ground, or from amongst stones and gravel. Shortly after the snow has melted, these birds commence the duties attendant on incubation, and resort to their favourite fresh-water marshes or moist woods for the purpose of breeding. The nest, which is usually situated on the ground among the grass, is a mere depression, made smooth and neat within, and lined with grass or any similar materials. In some instances, however, the Totani build upon low trees, stones, or branches, either making a small abode for themselves with moss and other vegetable matter, or using a deserted nest as a repository for their young family. The large pear-shaped eggs are four in number, and have an olive-green shell, marked with brownish grey. The female alone broods, whilst her mate busies himself in anxious endeavours to protect her and her charge by flying around with troubled cries should they be disturbed. The young can leave the nest as soon as they quit the shell, and, if alarmed, at once conceal themselves with much adroitness upon the ground or in the grass. When fledged they usually fly about to very considerable distances over the country, until the season arrives for commencing their winter migration.

The TRUE SANDPIPERS (Actitis) are small, delicately-formed birds, with straight, flexible, but hard-tipped beaks; the moderate-sized, crescent-shaped wing is rather pointed at its extremity; and the long graduated tail composed of twelve feathers. The soft compact plumage is peculiar both in its coloration and markings, and varies but little at different seasons. The females are somewhat smaller than their mates.

THE COMMON SANDPIPER.

The COMMON SANDPIPER (Actitis hypoleucos) is of a yellow-brown on the upper portion of the body, shaded with green and purple, and marked with black. The feathers on the side of the crop are of a brownish hue, with shafts and oval spots of a deeper shade. Those on the under side are white; the primaries are brownish black, delicately bordered with whitish grey towards the tips, and from the third quill decorated with white spots, which gradually increase in size as they approach the body. The lower secondaries are pale blackish brown, with white roots and tips; the centre tail-feathers brownish grey, shafted with black, and spotted and edged with reddish yellow; the rest white, more or less striped with black. The eye is brown; the beak greyish black, with lighter base, and the foot lead-grey. The length of this species is from seven inches and three-quarters to eight inches, and from twelve inches and a half to thirteen inches broad. The wing measures four inches, and the tail two inches and a half.

The Common Sandpipers are abundantly met with on all the streams, lakes, and sea-coasts of the northern portions of both hemispheres, and both live and breed in the temperate latitudes, remaining in the latter from one year to another, while such as occupy the colder regions wander as far as Southern Europe and Northern Africa. Great Britain and Ireland are regularly visited during the summer by these birds, but they do not, we believe, resort to the Orkney or Shetland Isles. A correspondent, quoted by Yarrell, who writes from the vicinity of Clitheroe, says, "The Common Sandpiper breeds with us, and this year I started an old one from her nest at the root of a fir-tree. She screamed out and rolled about in such a manner, and seemed so completely disabled, that although perfectly aware that her intention was to allure me from her nest, I could not resist my inclination to pursue her, and in consequence I had great difficulty in finding the nest again. It was built of a few dried leaves of a Weymouth pine, and contained three young ones just hatched, and an egg through the shell of which the bill of the young chick was just making its way; yet, young as they[Pg 46] were, on my taking out the egg to examine it, the little things, which could not have been out of their shells more than an hour or two, set off out of the nest with as much celerity as if they had been running about for a fortnight."

The Common Sandpipers appear in Central Europe towards the middle of April or beginning of May, and by July have reared their young, and commenced flying about the country previous to leaving it, which they do about the second or third week in September. Their migrations are carried on in small parties of from six to twenty individuals, and take place at night; the birds descending, when day breaks, to seek for food upon a river-bank or similar locality, and usually sleeping for a few hours at noon. Should the chosen spot prove attractive, it is not uncommon for these parties to remain for several days before resuming their journey. Sandy localities, covered with bushes or reeds, are the favourite resorts of these birds; the latter affording a safe retreat in case of danger or alarm, to which their timid, cautious disposition renders them peculiarly susceptible. Naumann mentions that a garden-seat placed about four feet above the surface of a pond in his garden, and thickly overhung with branches and surrounded by bushes, was regularly selected as a sleeping-place by all the Sandpipers that crossed his grounds during their migrations. The movements of this species are in many respects unlike others of its kind; it stands erect, walks with an active tripping step, and constantly whips its tail while in motion. The flight is swift and easy, but, unlike that of most other Sandpipers, is seldom carried on at any great height in the air, the bird usually sweeping so close over the surface of the water as almost to wet its wings; only when finally quitting a spot does it rise far from the earth, and rapidly seeks another hunting ground. If much alarmed, it betakes itself to the water, and either swims or dives to a safe distance from the place of danger. Although remarkably shy, this species appears readily to distinguish those who are likely to molest it; and exhibits such adroitness in seeking concealment as frequently to escape even from the clutches of a Sparrow-hawk. It seldom associates with other shore birds; and the breeding season once over, the pairs usually separate, and, like their companions, go their own way, only joining their fellows if the chosen spot be favourable for food, without any reference to each other's presence. As the season for incubation approaches, the male birds exhibit much excitement, and display themselves to the greatest advantage, darting through the air in zigzag lines, and trilling forth their call in the hope of attracting the attention of their desired mates. This call, which commences in a low tone, gradually swelling and dying away, is exchanged at other times for a high, clear, resonant, piping note. The nest is formed of twigs, reeds, stubble, or dry leaves, and is placed at a safe distance from the water, beneath a sheltering shrub or bush. The pear-shaped eggs vary somewhat in size and form, and have a delicate, glossy, reddish yellow shell, marked and spotted with various shades of brown. Both sexes brood, and exhibit great uneasiness when disturbed; should they be deprived of an egg they at once desert their post. The young are hatched in about a fortnight, but remain a little longer under the mother's wing, after which they are led forth to seek their own food, and in four weeks are fully fledged and self dependent. The parents display much anxiety for the safety of their little family, and, if molested, express their alarm by loud cries; whilst the young at once hurry to a place of concealment, and remain so quiet as to render their discovery almost impossible without the aid of a dog. Insects, larvæ, and worms form the usual fare of the Common Sandpipers, and in search of these they often display most amusing dexterity, gently approaching such active-winged prey as flies and gnats, with every sign of extreme caution, and then snapping up the desired morsels by an almost unerring stroke.

THE GREENSHANK.

The GREENSHANK (Glottis chloropus) represents a group distinguished by their long, slender, hard beak, which curves decidedly upwards, and their high green feet, which have the toes connected[Pg 47] by a skin. The species we have selected as a type of the rest is the largest of all, being from twelve to thirteen inches long, and from twenty-one and a half to twenty-two inches across the wings. The wing measures seven and the tail three inches. The feathers on the upper portions of the body are black, edged with white; the lower back, rump, and under side are pure white as far as the breast, which is striped and spotted with black; the tail is grey in the centre, and spotted white and black at its sides. During the autumn the head, nape, and sides of the throat are striped greyish-black and white, and the mantle-feathers deep grey, spotted and shafted with black, and edged with white; those on the lower web and crop are striped and shafted with black. The eye is brown, the beak blackish green, and the foot greyish green.

The Greenshank principally inhabits the northern portions of the Eastern Hemisphere, and from thence wanders as far as India, Southern China, and Africa. In Australia these birds are not seen, and it is still doubtful whether they visit the American continent. In some parts of Siberia they are remarkably numerous during the summer months. Such of this species as appear in Central Europe arrive about the end of July, and wander about over the face of the country till August or September, when they commence leaving in order to winter further south. In April and May they return to the north, travelling by night, and only rarely performing even a short part of the journey during the day. The Greenshank is a summer visitor to Great Britain, and is principally seen during its spring and autumnal migrations. "In the Hebrides," says Macgillivray, "it is met with in early spring, and generally departs in October, although I have observed individuals there in November. Previous to the commencement of the breeding season, and after the young are fledged, it resorts to the shores of the sea, frequenting pools of brackish water at the head of the sand-fords, and the shallow margins of bays and creeks. Its habits are very similar to those of the Redshank, with which it associates in autumn. It is extremely shy and vigilant, insomuch that we can very seldom shoot it unless after it has deposited its eggs. Many individuals remain during the summer, when they are to be found by the lakes in the interior; indeed, the number of them in Uist, Harris, and Lewis is astonishing. At that season it is very easily discovered, for when you are perhaps more than a quarter of a mile distant it rises into the air with clamorous cries, alarming all the birds in its neighbourhood, flies round the place of its nest, now wheeling off to a distance, again advancing towards you, and at intervals alighting by the edge of the lake, when it continues its cries, vibrating its body all the while. I once found a nest of this bird in the Island of Harris. It was at a considerable distance from the water, and consisted of a few fragments of heath and some blades of grass, placed in a hollow cavity scraped in the turf, in an exposed place. The nest, in fact, resembled that of the Golden Plover, the Curlew, or the Lapwing. The eggs, placed with their narrow ends together, were four in number, pyriform, larger than those of the Lapwing, and smaller than those of the Golden Plover, equally pointed with the latter, but proportionately broader, and more rounded at the larger end than either."

The high clear cry of this bird has been compared by Yarrell to the sound of the syllables "chio, chio." Insects, larvæ, young frogs, and small fishes are all devoured by the Greenshank; but it is at present undecided as to what may be regarded as its principal means of subsistence, nor are we much better informed concerning its habits during the period of incubation, except that it breeds in the north-eastern portions of the globe, and forms a slight nest of blades of grass, upon a green knoll, usually beneath the shelter of a tree. The four large eggs are deposited in June, and have a pale greenish yellow shell, marked with brownish grey and reddish brown spots of various sizes. The eggs of the Greenshank are regarded as among the greatest rarities of oological collections.

The GODWITS (Limosa) are recognisable by their large powerful body, moderate-sized neck,[Pg 48] and small head. The high slender foot is four-toed, and the wing long and pointed, with the first quill longer than the rest; the short, somewhat rounded tail, is composed of twelve feathers. The smooth thick plumage is of very uniform hue, and varies according to the season of the year. The birds of this sub-family have some resemblance to the Snipes, and also to the Tringæ; but their legs are longer and somewhat stouter in proportion to their size. The chief difference, however, is in the bill, which in birds that as far as regards their haunts are such close neighbours, is the most important. The beak of the Godwits is very long, soft, and flexible; its whole length is rather compressed, and triangular at the base, depressed in the rest of the length, and dilated and obtuse at the tip. It has been described as, "not a snapping bill, nor a boring bill, neither is it a scooping bill, nor a dabbling bill; indeed, it is difficult to find a single epithet descriptive of the function it performs, or rather of the manner in which it performs its functions. It is not shovelling or scooping, for these birds do not remove from its place the sludge and sediment of the water among which they seek their food; and they do not dabble and wash the mud as Ducks do, till they find the substance of which they are in quest. 'Poking' is the nearest epithet, but does not express the action exactly, as they 'try about' and select their food by the sense of touch, and not by sight." These Godwits are more of a wading habit than the Snipes, yet their food is not found in the water, but in the ooze; and if the ooze is soft enough to be penetrated by the bill, the fact of its being with or without a small stratum of water over it is of little consequence. Their food consists chiefly of mud-worms, mud-insects, and mud-larvæ, and the places which they frequent are the localities in which these most abound. The banks of the eddies of slow-running streams, or the accumulation of sludge that is left bare in the estuaries and creeks upon the shores of low rich land, on the ebbing of the tide, and especially the streams of mud from the richer ground into the pools of fens, are the favourite resorts of these birds. They breed in the fens, at a considerable distance inland, if the ground is suitable, but they descend nearer to the sea in winter. In their inland haunts they hide themselves during the heat of the day among the long grass where they have their nests; but when near the sea, their resting-time varies with that at which the tide leaves their feeding-places in the best condition. Godwits run very fast, and make their escape to a considerable distance before taking wing, at which time they utter a very loud, harsh, and somewhat bleating note. These birds were formerly much more common with us than they are now, and were regarded by our forefathers as the daintiest dish in England. They were sometimes valued as high as four nobles the dozen, after they had been fattened for the market on bread and milk.

THE RED OR BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

The RED or BAR-TAILED GODWIT (Limosa rufa) is on the crown and nape of a light rust-red, striped with brown. The feathers on the back and shoulders are black, spotted and edged with rust-red; those of the wing-covers grey with white borders. The rump is white, spotted with brown. The eyebrows, throat, sides of neck, and lower parts of the body are bright, dark rust-red; the sides of the breast and lower tail-covers spotted with black. The quills are black, veined with white; and the tail grey, striped with white. The eye is brown, the beak reddish, tipped with blackish grey, and the foot black. In the plumage of the female all these colours are duller. During the autumn the coat is principally of a greyish shade, the upper portions of the body being grey, spotted with blackish brown; the centre of the beak, rump, and lower tail-covers are white. This species is fifteen inches and a half long and twenty-six broad; the wing measures two inches, and the tail two inches and three-quarters.

Great numbers of these birds visit England both during their spring and autumnal migrations, but they have never been known to breed in our island, though some few remain throughout the winter. In Holland and the level parts of France they are far more common, and are annually killed[Pg 49] in great numbers for the London market. The Red Godwits are usually met with in small parties, and generally occupy the muddy banks of river mouths or the oozy shores of sea inlets, as such spots afford a rich supply of the worms, small molluscs, and aquatic animals upon which they subsist. In April the males acquire their full beauty of plumage, and at once retire as far north as Iceland, Lapland, and Sweden to breed. Upon the wing their movements are powerful, though not very rapid. If disturbed they utter a cry somewhat resembling the bleat of a goat. We are almost entirely without reliable particulars respecting the incubation of this bird.

THE BLACK-WINGED STILT.

The BLACK-WINGED STILT (Hypsibates himantopus, or Himantopus melanopterus) has a small slight body, slender neck, moderate-sized head, and a long, weak, straight bill, which is broad and soft at its base, rounded at the culmen, and curved at its slender tip; the high, weak, and unusually long foot is unfeathered, and furnished with three toes; these are connected by a short skin, and armed with small, slender, sharp claws. The long, pointed wings have the first quill very considerably longer than the rest; the medium-sized tail is composed of twelve feathers. The short compact plumage, which is of an almost fur-like texture on the under side, varies much in appearance, according to the season or age of the bird. In spring, the back of the head, the nape, and a narrow stripe across the mantle are black, the latter is shaded with green; the tail is ash-grey; and the rest of the plumage white, delicately tinted with rose-red on the fore parts of the body. In the female the hues are less clearly defined, and the white less pure; the tail is lustreless, and the dark stripe on the nape paler but broader than in the male bird. In winter the head and nape are of a greyish shade. The young have the under side greyish white, the nape grey marked with white, and the shoulder-feathers grey. In all the eye is of a beautiful carmine-red; the beak black, and the foot pale carmine or rose-red. This species is fourteen inches and a half long, and twenty-seven broad; the wing measures nine and the tail three inches.

The Black-winged Stilt inhabits Southern and South-eastern Europe, Central Asia, and Northern Africa; and during the course of its migrations visits India, the region of the large salt lakes in Central Asia, and the countries watered by the Upper Nile. In Southern Russia and Egypt it is remarkably numerous, and remains throughout the entire year; in Hungary it is also extremely common; whilst in Spain, Greece, and Southern Italy it only appears when journeying to or from its winter quarters. Such of these birds as occupy Southern Europe usually frequent the vicinity of extensive lakes, and lead a most retired life; but in Egypt, on the contrary, flocks numbering some two hundred or three hundred individuals, venture boldly into and about the villages, wherever small pieces of water are to be found, and allow a man to approach them within a few paces without any demonstration of alarm. These winter guests remain almost stationary throughout the cold season, and during that time become very fat. Towards April most of the flock disappear, while some few remain to breed. In England, according to Yarrell, this bird is an accidental though not unfrequent visitor. "On the 9th of June, 1822," says the Rev. R. Lubbock, "I was returning in the evening from fishing upon Hickling Broad, in Norfolk, when a bird of this species flew past the boat within thirty yards. The legs were extended behind, even more in proportion than those of a Heron; the wings were very much arched; the flight vigorous and regular. The colour and the length of limb made me guess what it must be. We searched for it early next morning, and found it precisely in the same place as the evening before, but it was standing in a shallow pool of water, mid-leg deep, apparently snapping at the insects as they buzzed around it."

Although the Black-winged Stilts cannot be regarded as sea-birds, they prefer salt water, and occasionally appear on the actual coast, in company with several of its regular occupants. Salt lakes[Pg 50] and ponds are, however, their favourite resorts, except during the breeding season, when they seek the vicinity of fresh or brackish water. These birds are eminently social in their habits, and usually live in small companies of from six to twelve individuals, only keeping apart in pairs during the period of incubation, and again assembling, but in large flocks, throughout the winter months. Insects of various kinds, principally flies, gnats, beetles, and larvæ, form their principal means of subsistence, and these they seize with equal address from the surface of the water, in the air, or from amidst the mud and slime. In Egypt this species breeds in April, and in May constructs a careless nest of coarse grass. Wilson tells us that a nearly-allied bird inhabiting America merely places a bed of dry grass upon the marshy ground to receive the eggs when first deposited, but afterwards constructs a regular nest of a variety of dry materials, which are heaped together till they frequently form a mass weighing two or three pounds. The eggs, which are generally four in number, resemble those of the Peewit in form and size, but have a far more delicate shell, of a brownish, olive, or greenish yellow, marked with grey and reddish brown spots of various shapes and sizes, which are most thickly strewn over the broad end. In Hungary the flesh of the Black-winged Stilt is eaten during the winter, but even at that season is not very palatable.

The SCOOPING AVOCETS (Recurvirostræ) are recognisable by their powerful body, moderately long, thin neck, large head, and long slender beak, grooved on its sides to the middle, and compressed towards its acute tip, which is curved either upwards or downwards. The margins are sharp and entire, the bill hard and smooth. The long slender tarsi are covered with scales; and the very long powerful foot furnished with four toes; the latter are sometimes united by a web in front, the hind toe being either extremely short or undeveloped. The long, pointed wings have the first quill longer than the rest. The short rounded tail is composed of twelve feathers. The plumage of the back is close and compact, and that of the under side of downy texture. These birds inhabit most countries of our globe, and frequent the swampy margins of rivers, or salt marshes, where they are usually seen in pools of shallow water, fluttering their wings, and shaking their half-bent legs, an action which causes them to appear as if they would tumble over, while at the same time they utter a sharp note like the syllable "click" often repeated. Occasionally they are seen collected in small groups, on open downs covered with grasses and other kinds of vegetation, when, if alarmed, they frequently run off in a straight line, or fly very close to the ground. Their mode of feeding is by scooping, or as it were beating the soft soil with their flat upturned bill; and when thus engaged they are generally seen wading up to their breasts in the pools left by the receding tide. They never swim voluntarily, although furnished with feet so extensively palmated as to have induced the early systematists to place them among the swimming birds; nevertheless, this structure is an admirable provision to enable them to traverse the soft and yielding mud in which they find their food. The nest is generally formed of dry grasses, seaweeds, and small twigs, heaped up to the thickness of several inches, and placed among thick tufts of grass, in the neighbourhood of shallow water. The eggs are four in number.

THE SCOOPING AVOCET.

The SCOOPING AVOCET (Recurvirostra avocetta) is black upon the top of the head, nape, shoulders, and a large portion of the wings; the rest of the latter and the remainder of the entire plumage is white. The eye is reddish brown, the beak black, and the foot greyish blue. In the female, these colours are less distinct; in the young the black feathers have a brownish shade, and those on the wings are edged with reddish grey. The upcurved bill of this bird is most remarkable, and entirely unsuited to probe the ground or break the shell of ordinary-sized molluscs. The slightest frost, therefore, drives the Avocet to the oozy muddy flats of estuaries, bays, and similar situations, where it can[Pg 51] patter about with its wide-webbed feet, and gather small crustaceans and sea-worms. Those who have seen a Stork or a Crane with a frog at the tip of its long mandibles, and watched it, as, with an upward movement of the head, it dropped the victim into its throat, will have a good idea of the action of the Avocet when it has captured a small shrimp, a marine insect, or any other of the objects upon which it lives, and at once perceive that, with such a peculiarly-formed beak, it could not feed in any other manner. The Scooping Avocets are numerously met with throughout the Eastern Hemisphere, even as far south as the Cape of Good Hope; in Central Europe they appear in April, and commence leaving again about September. A century ago, before the English fens were drained, they were common in the marshes of Norfolk and Lincolnshire; but are now rarely seen. These birds only frequent the immediate vicinity of salt water, and are almost exclusively met with on shallow muddy sea-coasts, or the slimy banks of brackish lakes. When occupying the shores, they follow the advance and recess of the tide in search of food, and are often seen half a mile out upon the sands when the waves have retired. Among the many varieties of sea-birds that frequent the sea-shore, the Scooping Avocets are always conspicuous, as they move slowly along, with body erect and slender neck gracefully curved, or fly rapidly through the air, with broadly-flapping wings, and their long legs stretched directly out. In the water they exhibit great skill, and frequently venture out to a very considerable depth. The piping note uttered by this species has a somewhat melancholy but not unpleasing tone, and is replaced during the period of incubation by a plaintive call, which is constantly and rapidly repeated. In disposition the Avocets are unsocial, and only rarely keep company with their feathered companions; whilst towards man they exhibit much timidity, and considerable intelligence in discerning such persons as are likely to prove dangerous. At the commencement of the season for incubation, the pairs seek a suitable spot whereon to breed, and usually prefer grass-covered flats, or fields, in the immediate vicinity of the sea. The nest is a mere hollow, slightly lined with dry blades of grass, or fibres, and contains from two to four pear-shaped eggs, about as large as those of the Peewit, with a thin, lustreless, greenish yellow shell, more or less marked with blackish grey or violet spots. Both sexes brood, and tend the young (which are hatched in about eighteen days) with great affection, leading them at first about the fields, then near large pools, and only venturing with them to the open sea when they begin to use their wings.

The CURLEWS (Numenii) are very beautifully-formed birds, with a slender body, long thin neck, small head, and a very long, slightly-curved, and soft beak, which is broad at its base, and horny at its tip. The upper mandible is a trifle longer than, and bends somewhat over, the lower portion of the bill; the slender, high, broad-soled feet are bare, and furnished with four toes, connected by a decided web; the wings are long and pointed, with the first quill longer than the rest; the moderate-sized tail is composed of twelve feathers. The close compact plumage does not vary in the sexes, or at different seasons of the year. The members of this group include about a dozen species, and are met with in almost every portion of the globe.

THE GREAT CURLEW, OR WHAAP.