Graded Lessons in English / An Elementary English Grammar Consisting of One Hundred Practical Lessons, Carefully Graded and Adapted to the Class-Room

This eBook was produced by Karl Hagen, Charles Franks,

and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.

** Transcriber's Notes **

Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface; words enclosed in /slashes/ represent underlined words. Words enclosed in ~tildes~ represent a wavy underline.

To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are used:

- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals
signs (==).
- Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (—).
- Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\).
- Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no
horizontal line under them.
- Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..)
- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (')
- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`)
- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this:

——, helping
'————-

- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like
this:

\wai
\ ting
————-
** End Transcriber's Notes **

GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH.

AN

ELEMENTARY

ENGLISH GRAMMAR,

CONSISTING OF

ONE HUNDRED PRACTICAL LESSONS,

CAREFULLY GRADED AND ADAPTED TO THE CLASS-ROOM,

BY

ALONZO REED, A.M.,

FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN

AND

BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN

REVISED EDITION, 1896.

A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH. BY ALONZO REED, A.M., AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.

REED'S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach the correct spelling, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common in current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced, or misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of word-analysis. 188 pages, 12mo.

REED'S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleasing, but methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen.

REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary English grammar, consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and adapted, to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen.

REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on English grammar and composition, in which the science of the language is made tributary to the art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, and adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 386 pages, 16mo, cloth.

REED & KELLOGG'S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully graded and complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based on the natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth.

KELLOGG & REED'S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, Greek, and Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred common derivative words in English; with a brief history of the English language. 122 pages, 16mo, cloth.

KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the grammatical changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on synonyms, prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth.

KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Revised and enlarged edition. Supplementing the development of the science with exhaustive practice in composition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools, academies, and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth.

KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. with copious extracts from the leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as to the method in which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth.

PREFACE.

The plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English" will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this course is brought into competition.

+Method of One Class of Text-books+.—In one class are those that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,—work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method.

+Method of Another Class of Text-books+.—In another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words+.—It is the plan of this course to trace with easy steps the natural development of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as "How many sounds have each of the vowels?" "Five years' interest are due." "She is older than me." He probably would not say "each have," "interest are," "me am." One thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in English.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse+.—Through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the difficulty and the remedy for it.

+The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation+.—The laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts.

+The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.—As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for ideas.

+Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence+.—Teachers familiar with text books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent.

+Sentences in Groups—Paragraphs+.—In tracing the growth of the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the several models presented.

+The Use of the Diagram+.—In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase—to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or in succession.

But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams.

+The Objections to the Diagram+.—The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as the logical relations are kept clear.

The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point.

+The Abuse of the Diagram+.—Analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped.

SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION EXERCISES

The exercises in composition found in the numbered Lessons of this book are generally confined to the illustration and the practical application of the principles of the science as these principles are developed step by step. To break up the continuity of the text by thrusting unrelated composition work between lessons closely related and mutually dependent is exceedingly unwise.

The Composition Exercises suggested in this revision of "Graded Lessons" are designed to review the regular Lessons and to prepare in a broad, informal way for text work that follows. But since these Exercises go much farther, and teach the pupil how to construct paragraphs and how to observe and imitate what is good in different authors, they are placed in a supplement, and not between consecutive Lessons of the text.

To let such general composition work take the place of the regular grammar lesson, say once a week, will be profitable. We suggest that the sentence work on the selections in the Supplement be made to follow Lessons 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 77; but each teacher must determine for himself when these and the other outlined lessons can best be used. We advise that other selections from literature be made and these exercises continued with the treatment of the parts of speech.

For composition work to precede Lesson 30 we suggest that the teacher break up a short story of one or two paragraphs into simple sentences, making some of these transposed, some interrogative, and some exclamatory. The pupils may be required to copy these, to underline the subject and the predicate, and to tell, in answer to suggestive questions, what some of the other words and groups of words do (the questions on the selections in the Supplement may aid the teacher). The pupils may then write out the story in full form. To vary the exercise, the teacher might read the story and let the pupils write out the short sentences.

A TALK ON LANGUAGE.

The teacher is recommended, before assigning any lesson, to occupy the time of at least two or three recitations, in talking with his pupils about language, always remembering that, in order to secure the interest of his class, he must allow his pupils to take an active part in the exercise. The teacher should guide the thought of his class; but, if he attempt to do all the talking, he will find, when he concludes, that he has been left to do all the thinking.

We give below a few hints in conducting this talk on language, but the teacher is not expected to confine himself to them. He will, of course, be compelled, in some instances, to resort to various devices in order to obtain from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested.

LESSON 1.

+Teacher+.—I will pronounce these three sounds very slowly and distinctly, thus: b-u-d. Notice, it is the power, or sound, of the letter, and not its name, that I give. What did you hear?

+Pupil+.—I heard three sounds.

+T.—+Give them. I will write on the board, so that you can see them, three letters—b-u-d. Are these letters, taken separately, signs to you of anything?

+P.—+Yes, they are signs to me of the three sounds that I have just heard.

+T.—+What then do these letters, taken separately, picture to your eye?

+P.—+They picture the sounds that came to my ear.

+T+.—Letters then are the signs of what?

+P.—Letters are the signs of sounds+.

+T+.—I will pronounce the same three sounds more rapidly, uniting them more closely—bud. These sounds, so united, form a spoken word. Of what do you think when you hear the word bud?

+P+.—I think of a little round thing that grows to be a leafy branch or a flower.

+T+.—Did you see the thing when you were thinking of it?

+P+.—No.

+T+.—Then you must have had a picture of it in your mind. We call this +mental picture+ an +idea+. What called up this idea?

+P+.—It was called up by the word bud, which I heard.

+T+.—A spoken word then is the sign of what?

+P.—A spoken word is the sign of an idea+.

+T+.—I will call up the same idea in another way. I will write three letters and unite them thus: bud. What do you see?

+P+.—I see the word bud.

+T+.—If we call the other word bud a spoken word, what shall we call this?

+P+.—This is a written word.

+T+.—If they stand for the same idea, how do they differ?

+P+.—I see this, and I heard that.

+T+.—You will observe that we have called attention to four different things; viz., the +real bud+; your mental picture of the bud, which we have called an +idea+; and the +two words+, which we have called signs of this idea, the one addressed to the ear, and the other to the eye.

If the pupil be brought to see these distinctions, it may aid him to observe more closely and express himself more clearly.

LESSON 2.

+Teacher+.—What did you learn in the previous Lesson?

+Pupil+.—I learned that a spoken word is composed of certain sounds, and that letters are signs of sounds, and that spoken and written words are the signs of ideas.

This question should be passed from one pupil to another till all of these answers are elicited.

All the written words in all the English books ever made, are formed of twenty-six letters, representing about forty sounds. These letters and these sounds make up what is called artificial language.

Of these twenty-six letters, +a, e, i, o, u+, and sometimes +w+ and +y+, are called +vowels+, and the remainder are called +consonants+.

In order that you may understand what kind of sounds the vowels stand for, and what kinds the consonants represent, I will tell you something about the human voice.

The air breathed out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles, stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to vibrate. This vibrating makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other in your fingers, draw it tight and strike it, and you will understand how voice is made.

If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds.

But, if the voice is held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, one kind of consonant sounds is made. If the breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed. Ex. of both: b, d, g; p, t, k.

The teacher and pupils should practice on these sounds till the three kinds can easily be distinguished.

You are now prepared to understand what I mean when I say that the +vowels+ are the +letters+ which stand for the +open sounds of the voice+, and that the +consonants+ are the +letters+ which stand for the sounds made by the +obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+.

The teacher can here profitably spend a few minutes in showing how ideas may be communicated by Natural Language, the language of sighs, groans, gestures of the hands, attitudes of the body, expressions of the face, tones of the voice, etc. He can show that, in conversation, we sometimes couple this Natural Language of tone and gesture with our language of words, in order to make a stronger impression. Let the pupil be told that, if the passage contain feeling, he should do the same in Reading and Declaiming.

Let the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation.

+DEFINITION.—Artificial Language, or Language Proper, consists of the spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+.

+DEFINITION.—English Grammar is the science which teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English Language+.

LESSON 3

Let the pupils be required to tell what they learned in the previous lessons.

+Teacher+.—When I pronounce the two words star and bud thus: star bud, how many ideas, or mental pictures, do I call up to you?

+Pupil+.—Two.

+T+.—Do you see any connection between these ideas?

+P+.—No.

+T+.—When I utter the two words bud and swelling, thus: bud swelling, do you see any connection in the ideas they stand for?

+P+.—Yes, I imagine that I see a bud expanding, or growing larger.

+T+.—I will connect two words more closely, so as to express a thought: Buds swell. A thought has been formed in my mind when I say, Buds swell; and these two words, in which something is said of something else, express that thought, and make what we call a sentence. In the former expression, bud swelling it is assumed, or taken for granted, that buds perform the act; in the latter, the swelling is asserted as a fact.

Leaves falling. Do these two words express two ideas merely associated, or do they express a thought?

+P+.—They express ideas merely associated.

+T+.—Leaves fall.

Same question.

+P+.—A thought.

+T+.—Why?

+P+.—Because, in these words, there is something said or asserted of leaves.

+T+.—When I say, Falling leaves rustle, does falling tell what is thought of leaves?

+P+.—No.

+T+.—What does falling do?

+P+.—It tells the kind of leaves you are thinking and speaking of.

+T+.—What word does tell what is thought of leaves?

+P+.—Rustle.

+T+.—You see then that in the thought there are two parts; something of which we think, and that which we think about it.

Let the pupils give other examples.

LESSON 4.

Commit to memory all definitions.

+DEFINITION.—A Sentence is the expression of a thought in words+.

Which of the following expressions contain words that have no connection, which contain words merely associated, and which are sentences?

1. Flowers bloom. 2. Ice melts. 3. Bloom ice. 4. Grass grows. 5. Brooks babble. 6. Babbling brooks. 7. Grass soar. 8. Doors open. 9. Open doors. 10. Cows graze. 11. Curling smoke. 12. Sugar graze. 13. Dew sparkles. 14. Hissing serpents. 15. Smoke curls. 16. Serpents hiss. 17. Smoke curling. 18. Serpents sparkles. 19. Melting babble. 20. Eagles soar. 21. Birds chirping. 22. Birds are chirping. 23. Birds chirp. 24. Gentle cows. 25. Eagles are soaring. 26. Bees ice. 27. Working bees. 28. Bees work. 29. Crawling serpents. 30. Landscape piano. 31. Serpents crawl. 32. Eagles clock. 33. Serpents crawling.

LESSON 5.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Illustrate, by the use of a, b, and p, the difference between the sounds of letters and their names. Letters are the signs of what? What is an idea? A spoken word is the sign of what? A written word is the sign of what? How do they differ? To what four different things did we call attention in Lesson 1?

How are vowel sounds made? How are the two kinds of consonant sounds made? What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? What is artificial language, or language proper? What do you understand by natural language? What is English grammar?

What three kinds of expressions are spoken of in Lessons 3 and 4? Give examples of each. What is a sentence?

LESSON 6.

ANALYSIS.

On the following sentences, let the pupils be exercised according to the model.

+Model+.—Intemperance degrades. Why is this a sentence? Ans.—Because it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.—Intemperance. Which word tells what is thought? Ans.—Degrades.

1. Magnets attract. 2. Horses neigh. 3. Frogs leap. 4. Cold contracts. 5. Sunbeams dance. 6. Heat expands. 7. Sunlight gleams. 8. Banners wave. 9. Grass withers. 10. Sailors climb. 11. Rabbits burrow. 12. Spring advances.

You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The parts are the +Subject+ and the +Predicate+.

+DEFINITION.—The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought+.

+DEFINITION.—The Predicate of a sentence tells what is thought+.

+DEFINITION.—The Analysis of a sentence is the separation of it into its parts+.

Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences.

+Model+.—Stars twinkle. This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Stars is the subject, because it names that of which something is thought; twinkle is the predicate, because it tells what is thought.

+To the Teacher+.—After the pupils become familiar with the definitions, the "Models" may be varied, and some of the reasons maybe made specific; as, "Plants names the things we tell about; droop tells what plants do," etc.

Guard against needless repetition.

1. Plants droop. 2. Books help. 3. Clouds float. 4. Exercise strengthens. 5. Rain falls. 6. Time flies. 7. Rowdies fight. 8. Bread nourishes. 9. Boats capsize. 10. Water flows. 11. Students learn. 12. Horses gallop.

LESSON 7.

ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I will draw on the board a heavy, or shaded, line, and divide it into two parts, thus:

|
===========|============
|

We will consider the first part as the sign of the subject of a sentence, and the second part as the sign of the predicate of a sentence.

Now, if I write a word over the first line, thus—(doing it)—you will understand that that word is the subject of a sentence. If I write a word over the second line, thus—you will understand that that word is the predicate of a sentence.

Planets | revolve
============|===========
|

The class can see by this picture that Planets revolve is a sentence, that planets is the subject, and that revolve is the predicate.

These signs, or illustrations, made up of straight lines, we call
+Diagrams+.

+DEFINITION.—A Diagram is a picture of the offices and relations of the different parts of a sentence+.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences.

1. Waves dash. 2. Kings reign. 3. Fruit ripens. 4. Stars shine. 5. Steel tarnishes. 6. Insects buzz. 7. Paul preached. 8. Poets sing. 9. Nero fiddled. 10. Larks sing. 11. Water ripples. 12. Lambs frisk. 13. Lions roar. 14. Tigers growl. 15. Breezes sigh. 16. Carthage fell. 17. Morning dawns. 18. Showers descended. 19. Diamonds sparkle. 20. Alexander conquered. 21. Jupiter thunders. 22. Columbus sailed, 23. Grammarians differ. 24. Cornwallis surrendered.

* * * * *

LESSON 8.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

You have now learned to analyze sentences, that is, to separate them into their parts. You must next learn to put these parts together, that is, to build sentences.

We will find one part, and you must find the other and do the building.

+To the Teacher+.—Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the board, while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be corrected.

Correct any expression that does not make good sense, or that asserts something not strictly true; for the pupil should early be taught to think accurately, as well as to write and speak grammatically.

Correct all mistakes in spelling, and in the use of capital letters and the period.

Call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject.
See Notes, p. 163.

Insist on neatness. Collect the papers before the recitation closes.

+CAPITAL LETTER-RULE.—The first word of every sentence must begin with a capital letter+.

+PERIOD—RULE.—A period must be placed after every sentence that simply affirms, denies, or expresses a command+.

Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates.

Ask yourself the question, What swim, sink, hunt, etc.?

1. —— swim. 2. —— sinks. 3. —— hunt. 4. —— skate. 5. —— jingle. 6. —— decay. 7. —— climb. 8. —— creep. 9. —— run. 10. —— walk. 11. —— snort. 12. —— kick. 13. —— flashes. 14. —— flutters. 15. —— paddle. 16. —— toil. 17. —— terrifies. 18. —— rages. 19. —— expand. 20. —— jump. 21. —— hop. 22. —— bellow. 23. —— burns. 24. —— evaporates.

This exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several subjects to each predicate.

LESSON 9.

SENTENCE-BUILDING—Continued.

Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects.

Ask yourself the question, Artists do what?

1. Artists ——. 2. Sailors ——. 3. Tides ——. 4. Whales ——. 5. Gentlemen ——. 6. Swine ——. 7. Clouds ——. 8. Girls ——. 9. Fruit ——. 10. Powder ——. 11. Hail ——. 12. Foxes ——. 13. Water ——. 14. Frost ——. 15. Man ——. 16. Blood ——. 17. Kings ——. 18. Lilies ——. 19. Roses ——. 20. Wheels ——. 21. Waves ——. 22. Dew ——. 23. Boys ——. 24. Volcanoes ——. 25. Storms ——. 26. Politicians ——. 27. Serpents ——. 28. Chimneys ——. 29. Owls ——. 30. Rivers ——. 31. Nations ——. 32. Indians ——. 33. Grain ——. 34. Rogues ——. 34. Volcanoes ——. 35. Rome ——. 36. Briars ——.

This exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several predicates to each subject.

LESSON 10.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Of what two parts does a sentence consist? What is the subject of a sentence? What is the predicate of a sentence? What is the analysis of a sentence?

What is a diagram? What rule for the use of capital letters have you learned? What rule for the period?

Impromptu Exercise.

Let the pupils "choose sides," as in a spelling match. Let the teacher select predicates from Lesson 8, and give them alternately to the pupils thus arranged. The first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable subjects he can think of, the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping the count. This pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else, on his side or the other, shall have prefixed to his word a greater number of apt subjects. The strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of the match, and which side shall have furnished the greater number of subjects. The exercise may be continued with the subjects of Lesson 9. Each pupil is to be limited to the same time—one or two minutes.

LESSON 11.

ANALYSIS.

The +predicate+ sometimes contains +more than one word+.

Analyze and diagram according to the model.

+Model+.—Socrates was poisoned.

Socrates | was poisoned
============|================
|

This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. Socrates is the subject, because ——; was poisoned is the predicate, because ——. [Footnote: The word because—suggesting a reason—should be dropped from these "+Models+" whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition.]

1. Napoleon was banished. 2. Andre was captured. 3. Money is circulated. 4. Columbus was imprisoned. 5. Acorns are sprouting. 6. Bells are tolled. 7. Summer has come. 8. Sentences may be analyzed. 9. Clouds are reddening. 10. Air may be weighed. 11. Jehovah shall reign. 12. Corn is planted. 13. Grammarians will differ. 14. Snow is falling. 15. Leaves are rustling. 16. Children will prattle. 17. Crickets are chirping. 18. Eclipses have been foretold. 19. Storms may abate. 20. Deception may have been practiced. 21. Esau was hated. 22. Treason should have been punished. 23. Bees are humming. 24. Sodom might have been spared.

LESSON 12.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.—Continue oral and written exercises in agreement. See
Notes, pp. 163,164.

Prefix the little helping words in the second column to such of the more important words in the third column as with them will make complete predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the first column with which they will unite to make good sense.

LESSON 13.

Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 28, 31, 34.

Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or what before this predicate, the subject may easily be found.

+To the Teacher+.—Most violations of the rules of concord come from a failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts are transposed or are separated by other words. Such constructions should therefore receive special attention. See Notes, pp. 164, 165.

Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See "Hints for Oral Instruction."

See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph.

LESSON 14.

CLASSES OF WORDS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—By the assistance of the few hints here given, the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject interesting and highly attractive. By questioning the pupil as to what he has seen and heard, his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened.

Suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or grove, where we may study the habits, the plumage, and the songs of the little birds.

If we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we meet, we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task: but we find that some resemble one another in size, shape, color, habits, and song. These we associate together and call them sparrows.

We find others differing essentially from the sparrows, but resembling one another. These we call robins.

We thus find that, although we were unable to become acquainted with each individual bird, they all belong to a few classes, with which we may soon become familiar.

It is so with the words of our language. There are many thousand words, all of which belong to eight classes.

These classes of words are called +Parts of Speech+.

We classify birds according to their form, color, etc., but we group words into classes, called +Parts of Speech+, with respect to their use in the sentence.

We find that many words are names. These we put in one class and call them
+Nouns+.

Each pupil may give the name of something in the room; the name of a distinguished person; a name that may be applied to a class of persons; the name of an animal; the name of a place: the name of a river; the name of a mountain; the name of something which we cannot see or touch, but of which we can think; as, beauty, mind.

Remind the pupils frequently that these names are all nouns.

NOUNS.

+DEFINITION.—A Noun is the name of anything+.

Write in columns, headed nouns, the names of domestic animals, of garden vegetables, of flowers, of trees, of articles sold in a dry goods store, and of things that cannot be seen or touched; as, virtue, time, life.

Write and arrange, according to the following model, the names of things that can float, fly, walk, work, sit, or sing.

Nouns.
Cork |
Clouds |
+Model+.—Wood + floats or float.
Ships |
Boys |

Such expressions as Cork floats are sentences, and the nouns cork, ship, etc., are the subjects. You will find that +every subject+ is a +noun+ or some word or words used for a noun.

Be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made. Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing.

+Model for Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ——-; cork is the subject, because ——-; floats is the predicate, because ——-.

+Parsing+.—Cork is a noun, because it is the name of a thing—the bark of a tree.

LESSON 15.

Select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, 34.

Tell why they are nouns.

In writing the nouns, observe the following rule.

+CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—Every proper or individual name must begin with a capital letter+.

+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 167-169.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

With respect to what, do we classify words (Lesson 14)? What are such classes called? Can you illustrate this classification? What are all names? What is a noun? What is the first step in parsing? What is the rule for writing individual names?

LESSON 16.

VERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—We propose to introduce you now to another class of words. (The teacher may here refer to the talk about birds.)

You have learned that one very large class of words consists of names of things. There is another very important class of words used to tell what these things do, or used to express their existence.

When I say, Plants grow, is grow the name of anything? +P+.—No. +T+.—What does it do? +P+.—It tells what plants do. It expresses action.

+T+.—When I say, God is, what does is express? +P+.—It expresses existence, or being.

+T+.—When I say, George sleeps, sleeps expresses being and something more; it tells the condition, or state in which George is, or exists, that is, it expresses state of being.

All the words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call
+Verbs+.

Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to give all the words of which they can think, telling what the things named can do. They may be arranged thus:—

Noun. Verbs.
| grow,
| droop,
Plants + decay,
| flourish,
| revive.

Each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body; as weep, sing; an action of the mind; as, study, love; one that expresses being or state of being.

+DEFINITION.—A Verb is a word that asserts action, being, or state of being+.

The office of the verb in all its forms, except two (the participle and the infinitive, see Lessons 48 and 49), is to +assert+. This it does whether the sentence affirms, denies, or asks a question.

+To the Teacher+.—In the exercises of this and the next two Lessons, let the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject. See Notes, pp. 163-165.

Supply, to each of the following nouns, as many appropriate verbs as you can think of.

Let some express being or state of being.

Water ——.
Wind ——.
Pens ——.
Parrots ——.
Vines ——.
Farmers ——.
Trees ——.
Ministers ——.

One verb may consist of two, three, or four words; as, is singing, will be sung, might have been sung.

Form verbs by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs to all the nouns in column 1 with which they appropriately combine.

The examples you have written are sentences; the nouns are subjects, and the verbs are predicates.

As verbs are the only words that assert, +every predicate+ must be a +verb+, or must contain a verb.

Be prepared to analyze and parse five of the sentences that you have written.

+Model+.—Laws are obeyed. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 11.

+Parsing+.—Laws is a noun, because——; are obeyed is a verb, because it asserts action.

LESSON 17.

Select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, 34, and tell why they are verbs.

LESSON 18.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

From the following nouns and verbs, build as many sentences as possible, taking care that every one makes good sense.

Poems, was conquered, lambs, rebellion, stars, forests, shone, were seen, were written, treason, patriots, meteors, fought, were discovered, frisk, Cain, have fallen, fled, stream, have crumbled, day, ages, deer, are flickering, are bounding, gleamed, voices, lamps, rays, were heard, are gathering, time, death, friends, is coming, will come.

+To the Teacher+.—Before this recitation closes, let the teacher open up the subject of Lesson 19. See "Hints for Oral Instruction."

LESSON 19.

PRONOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—We propose to introduce you now to the third part of speech. +T.—+If I should ask who whispered, and some boy should promptly confess, what would he say? +P.—+I whispered. +T.—+Would he mention his own name? +P.—+No. +T.—+What word would he use instead? +P.—+I.

+T.—+Suppose that I had spoken to that boy and had accused him of whispering, how should I have addressed him without mentioning his name? +P.—+You whispered. +T.—+What word would be used instead of the name of the boy to whom I spoke? +P.—+You.

+T.—+Suppose that, without using his name, I had told you what he did, what should I have said? +P.—+He whispered. +T.—+What word would have been used instead of the name of the boy of whom I spoke? +P.—+He.

(Repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl.)

+T.—+If I should tell that boy to close his book, when his book was already closed, what would he say without mentioning the word book? +P.—+It is closed.

+T.—+If I should accuse several of you of whispering, and one should speak for himself and for the others whispering with him, what would he say? We whispered.

+T—+Suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat had whispered, what would he say? +P.—+They whispered.

I, you, he, she, it, we, and they are not names, but they are used instead of names. We call such words +Pronouns+.

+DEFINITION.—A Pronoun is a word used for a noun+.

+CAPITAL LETTERS—RULE.—The words I and O should be written in capital letters+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.—+You will be rewarded.

+Oral Analysis—+This is a sentence, because——; you is the subject, because——; will be rewarded is the predicate, because——.

+Parsing.—+You is a pronoun, because it stands for the name of the person spoken to; will be rewarded is a verb, because——.

1. We think. 2. She prattles. 3. We have recited. 4. I study. 5. You have been seen. 6. It has been decided. 7. He was punished. 8. They are conquered. 9. Thou art adored.

Compose nine similar sentences, using a pronoun for the subject of each, and diagram them.

+To the Teacher.—+Call special attention to the agreement of the verb with I and you. See Notes, p. 164.

Before this recitation closes, explain "Modified Subject." See "Hints for
Oral Instruction."

LESSON 20.

MODIFIED SUBJECT.

+Hints for Oral Instruction.—+The Subject and the Predicate may be considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built. No sentence can be constructed without them.

You have already learned that these parts alone, sometimes make a complete structure; but we are about to show you that they are often used as the foundation of a structure, which is completed by adding other parts.

I hold in my hand several pieces of metal, with letters and other characters stamped on them. What do you say I have in my hand? +P+.—Money. +T.—+Yes. What other word can you use? +P.—+Coin. +T.—+Yes. I will write on the board this sentence: Coin is stamped.

The subject coin is a general name for all such pieces of metal. I will write the word the before this sentence. The coin is stamped. I have now made an assertion about one particular coin, so the meaning of the subject is limited by joining the word the.

I can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word a before it. The assertion is now about one coin, but no particular one. I point to the piece near me and say, This coin is stamped. I point to the one farther from me and say, That coin is stamped.

When words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning, we say that the subject is modified.

The words the, a, this, and that modify the subject by limiting the word to one coin, or to one particular coin.

We can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what kind of coin is meant.

Here is a coin dated 18—. We can say, The new coin is stamped. Here the word new tells what kind of coin is meant. What other words can I use to modify coin? +P.—+Beautiful, bright, new, round, silver. +T.—+These words beautiful, bright, new, round, and silver modify the subject by telling the qualities of the coin.

We call the words the, beautiful, etc., +Modifiers+.

+DEFINITION.—A Modifier is a word or group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.

The +Subject+ with its +Modifiers+ is called the +Modified Subject+.

ANALYSIS.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences.

+Model.—+The genial summer days have come.

days | have come =====================|============= \The \genial \summer |

+Explanation of the Diagram.—+The lighter lines, joined to the subject line, stand for the modifiers, the less important parts.

+Oral Analysis.—+This is a sentence, because——; days is the subject, because——; have come is the predicate, because——; The, genial, and summer are modifiers of the subject, because they are words joined to the subject to modify its meaning. The genial summer days is the modified subject.

+To the Teacher.—+To excite thought and guard against mere routine, pupils may, so far as they are able, make the reasons specific. For example, "The points out some particular clouds, dark tells their color," etc.

Here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to follow "Models." There is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms that require no mental effort.

1. The angry wind is howling. 2. The dead leaves fall. 3. The dark clouds lower. 4. The tall elm bends. 5. All men must die. 6. The lusty bellows roared. 7. A boding silence reigned. 8. Little Arthur was murdered. 9. The mighty oak was uprooted. 10. The fragile violet was crushed. 11. The beautiful marble statue was carved. 12. The turbid torrent roared. 13. The affrighted shepherds fled. 14. The vivid lightning flashes. 15. Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a verb? Give examples of verbs of action. Of being. Of state of being. May a verb consist of more than one word? Illustrate. Verbs are the only words that do what? What must every predicate contain?

What parts of speech are explained in the preceding Lessons? What is a pronoun? Give the rule for writing the words I and 0.

What is the foundation on which every sentence is built? May the subject be modified? What is a modifier? What is the modified subject?

LESSON 21.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

We have here prepared the foundations of sentences which you are to complete by writing two or more suitable modifiers to each subject. Be careful to choose and arrange your material so as to make a neat and appropriate structure.

+Model+.————— eminence was reached. That lofty eminence was reached.

1. —— speaker was applauded. 2. —— difficulties were overcome. 3. —— leaf trembles. 4. —— accident happened. 5. —— books should be read. 6. —— houses are built. 7. —— soldiers perished. 8. —— opinions prevailed. 9. —— leader fell. 10. —— task is completed.

For other subjects and predicates, the teacher is referred to Lessons 7 and 11.

Build sentences by prefixing modified subjects to the following predicates.

1. —— frolic. 2. —— crawl. 3. —— are dashing. 4. —— was caught. 5. —— escaped. 6. —— chatter. 7. —— flourished. 8. —— whistles.

Build, on each of the following subjects, three sentences similar to those in the model.

+Model+ ——————- sun ———————-

The bright sun is shining. The glorious sun has risen. The unclouded sun is sinking.

1. —— snow ——. 2. —— dew ——. 3. —— wind ——. 4. —— landscape ——.

+To the Teacher+.—Please take notice that the next Lesson begins with
"Hints for Oral Instruction."

LESSON 22.

ADJECTIVES.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You are now prepared to consider the fourth part of speech. Those words that are added to the subject to modify its meaning are called +Adjectives+.

Some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words the, and an or a, calling them articles.

I will write the word boys on the board, and you may name adjectives that will appropriately modify it. As you give them, I will write these adjectives in a column.

Adjectives.

What words here modify boys by adding the idea of size? What by adding the idea of color? What by adding the idea of form? What by adding the idea of number? What are such words called? Why?

Let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted.

+DEFINITION.—An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—A fearful storm was raging. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 20.

+Written Parsing+.

+Oral Parsing+.—A is an adjective, because it is joined to the noun storm, to modify its meaning; fearful is an adjective, because ———; storm is a noun, because ———; was raging is a verb, because ——-.

1. The rosy morn advances. 2. The humble boon was obtained. 3. An unyielding firmness was displayed. 4. The whole earth smiles. 5. Several subsequent voyages were made. 6. That burly mastiff must be secured. 7. The slender greyhound was released. 8. The cold November rain is falling. 9. That valuable English watch has been sold. 10. I alone have escaped. 11. Both positions can be defended. 12. All such discussions should have been avoided. 13. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen.

+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 169, 170.

LESSON 23.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns.

Shrubs, wilderness, beggar, cattle, cloud.

Write ten sentences with modified subjects, using in each two or more of the following adjectives.

A, an, the, heroic, one, all, many, every, either, first, tenth, frugal, great, good, wise, honest, immense, square, circular, oblong, oval, mild, virtuous, universal, sweet, careless, fragrant.

Write five sentences with modified subjects, each of which shall contain one of the following words as a subject.

Chimney, hay, coach, robber, horizon.

An and a are forms of the same word, once spelled an, and meaning one. After losing something of this force, an was still used before vowels and consonants alike; as, an eagle, an ball, an hair, an use. Still later, and for the sake of ease in speaking, the word came to have the two forms mentioned above; and an was retained before letters having vowel sounds, but it dropped its n and became a before letters having consonant sounds. This is the present usage.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

A apple; a obedient child; an brickbat; an busy boy.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

A heir; a hour; a honor.

Notice, the first letter of these words is silent.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

An unit; an utensil; an university; an ewe; an ewer; an union; an use; an history; an one.

Unit begins with the sound of the consonant y; and one, with that of w.

+To the Teacher+.—See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph.

LESSON 24.

MODIFIED PREDICATES.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—I will now show you how the predicate of a sentence may be modified.

The ship sails gracefully. What word is here joined to sails to tell the manner of sailing? +P+.—Gracefully.

+T+.—The ship sails immediately. What word is here joined to sails to tell the time of sailing? +P+.—Immediately.

+T+.—The, ship sails homeward. What word is here joined to sails to tell the direction of sailing? +P+.—Homeward.

+T+.—These words gracefully, immediately, and homeward are modifiers of the predicate. In the first sentence, sails gracefully is the +Modified Predicate+.

Let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests them.

Which words indicate the time of sailing? Which, the place? Which, the manner?

The teacher may suggest predicates, and require the pupils to find as many appropriate modifiers as they can.

The Predicate with its modifiers is called the +Modified Predicate+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, verbs, and adjectives.

+Model+.—The letters were rudely carved.

letters | were carved
=========|===============
\The | \rudely

+Written Parsing+.—See Model, Lesson 22.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because——; letters is the subject, because——; were carved is the predicate, because——; The is a modifier of the subject, because——; rudely is a modifier of the predicate, because——; The letters is the modified subject, were rudely carved is the modified predicate.

1. He spoke eloquently. 2. She chattered incessantly. 3. They searched everywhere. 4. I shall know presently. 5. The bobolink sings joyously. 6. The crowd cheered heartily. 7. A great victory was finally won. 8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly. 9. The deafening waves dash angrily. 10. These questions may be settled peaceably. 11. The wounded soldier fought bravely. 12. The ranks were quickly broken. 13. The south wind blows softly. 14. Times will surely change. 15. An hour stole on.

LESSON 25.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs.

+Model+.—The frightened animal fled still more rapidly.

animal | fled
===================|=====================
\The \frightened | \rapidly
\more
\still

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—Notice that the three lines forming this group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word. The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and turned to touch its principal at an angle.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because——; animal is the subject, because——; fled is the predicate, because——; The and frightened are modifiers of the subject, because——; still more rapidly is a modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to limit its meaning; rapidly is the principal word of the group; more modifies rapidly, and still modifies more, The frightened animal is the modified subject; fled still more rapidly is the modified predicate.

1. The crocus flowers very early. 2. A violet bed is budding near. 3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted. 4. Perhaps he will return. 5. We laughed very heartily. 6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down. 7. The wind sighs so mournfully. 8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. 9. The debt will probably be paid. 10. The visitor will soon be here. 11. That humane project was quite generously sustained. 12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is an adjective? What are the words an or a, and the called by some grammarians? When is a used, and when an? Give examples of their misuse.

What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one modifier joined to another.

LESSON 26.

Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates.

Impromptu Exercise.

Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can vary this exercise.

LESSON 27.

ADVERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one part of speech, and are called +Adverbs+.

+T+.—She decided too hastily. What word tells how she decided?
+P+.—-Hastily. +T+.—What word tells how hastily? +P+.—Too.
+T+.—What then are the words too and hastily? +P+.—Adverbs.

+T+.—Too much time has been wasted. What word modifies much by telling how much? +P+.—Too. +T+.—What part of speech is much? +P+.—An adjective. +T+.—What then is too? +P+.—An adverb.

+T+.—Why is too in the first sentence an adverb? Why is too in the second sentence an adverb? Why is hastily an adverb?

Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the questions. He thinks so. So much time has been wasted.

Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate adverbs.

+DEFINITION.—An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences.

+Model+.—We have been very agreeably disappointed. +Diagram+ as in.
Lesson 25.

For +Written Parsing+, use Model, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs.

+Oral Parsing+.—We is a pronoun, because——; have been disappointed is a verb, because——; very is an adverb, because it is joined to the adverb agreeably to tell how agreeably; agreeably is an adverb, because it is joined to the verb have been disappointed to indicate manner.

1. The plough-boy plods homeward. 2. The water gushed forth. 3. Too much time was wasted. 4. She decided too hastily. 5. You should listen more attentively. 6. More difficult sentences must be built. 7. An intensely painful operation was performed. 8. The patient suffered intensely. 9. That story was peculiarly told. 10. A peculiarly interesting story was told. 11. An extravagantly high price was paid. 12. That lady dresses extravagantly.

The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that, in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word. You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class.

LESSON 28.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW.

1. You must diagram neatly. 2. The sheaves are nearly gathered. 3. The wheat is duly garnered. 4. The fairies were called together. 5. The birds chirp merrily. 6. This reckless adventurer has returned. 7. The wild woods rang. 8. White fleecy clouds are floating above. 9. Those severe laws have been repealed. 10. A republican government was established. 11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested. 12. She had been waiting quite patiently. 13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known. 14. So brave a deed [Footnote: Can be commended is the verb, and not is an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended.

LESSON 29.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW.

Build sentences containing the following adverbs.

Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever, seldom, exceedingly.

Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs; and two, adverbs modifying verbs.

1. ———- boat glides ——-. 2. ———- cloud is rising ——-. 3. ———- breezes are blowing ——-. 4. ———- elephant was captured ——-. 5. ———- streams flow ——-. 6. ———- spring has opened ——-.

We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates.

Select the subject and the predicate first.

Nouns and Pronouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs.

LESSON 30.

ERRORS FOR CORRECTION.

+To the Teacher+.—We here suggest additional work in composition, with particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes, pp. 171,172.

+Caution+.—When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately connected with it.

+To the Teacher+.—We have in mind here those numerous cases where one adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by the first. All ripe apples are picked. Here ripe modifies apples, but all modifies apples limited by ripe. Not all apples are picked, but only all that are ripe.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION.

A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table.
The blue beautiful sky is cloudless.
A young industrious man was hired.
The new marble large house was sold.

+Caution+.—When the adjectives are of the same rank, place them where they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their length—the longest last.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

An entertaining and fluent speaker followed.
An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed.

+Caution+.—Do not use the pronoun +them+ for the adjective +those+.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

Them books are nicely bound.
Them two sentences should be corrected.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.

arouse, o romans
hear, o israel
it is i
i may be Mistaken
you Have frequently been warned
some Very savage beasts have been Tamed

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as a wooden pretty bowl faulty? Why is an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd faulty? Why is them books wrong? Why is i may be Mistaken wrong? Why is hear, o israel, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous Lessons.

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from Darwin.

LESSON 31.

PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the preceding Lessons, you have learned that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: De Soto marched into Florida. +T+.—What tells where De Soto marched? +P+.—Into Florida. +T+.—What is the principal word of the group? +P+.—Florida. +T+.—Is Florida joined directly to the predicate, as rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.—No. +T+.—What little word comes in to unite the modifier to marched? +P+.—Into. +T+.—Does Florida alone, tell where he marched? +P+.—No. +T+.—Does into alone, tell where he marched? +P+.—No.

+T+.—These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above.

Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and they perform a very important function in our language.

Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of a phrase are taken together to perform one distinct office.

A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and, frequently, may be changed into one. The dew of the morning has passed away. What word may be used for the phrase of the morning? +P+.—Morning. +T+.—Yes. The morning dew has passed away.

A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and, frequently, may be changed into one. We shall go to that place. What word may be used for the phrase, to that place? +P+.—There. +T+.—Yes. We shall go there.

Change the phrases in these sentences:—-

_A citizen of America was insulted.

We walked toward home_.

Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: To, from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over.

+DEFINITION.—A Phrase is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.

Model.—The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest water.

trout | are caught
================|================
\The \finest \in \generally \in
\ \
\ lake \ water
——— —————
\the \the \deepest

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will notice that the diagram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word. Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are joined to their principal words by slanting lines.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ———; trout is the subject, because ——-; are caught is the predicate, because ———; the words The and finest, and the phrase, in the lake, are modifiers of the subject, because ——-; the word generally and the phrase, in the deepest water, are modifiers of the predicate, because ———; in introduces the first phrase, and lake is the principal word; in introduces the second phrase, and water is the principal word; the and deepest are modifiers of water; The finest trout in the lake is the modified subject, and are generally caught in the deepest water is the modified predicate.

1. The gorilla lives in Africa. 2. It seldom rains in Egypt. 3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. 4. The wet grass sparkled in the light. 5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. 6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog. 8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything. 9. A gentle breeze blows from the south. 10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed. 11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow. 12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia.

LESSON 32.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers.

To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for vacation, among the Indians, of the United States.

Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases.

—— is situated on the Thames. —— has arrived. —— was destroyed by an earthquake. —— was received. —— has just been completed. —— may be enjoyed.

Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases.

Iron ——.
The trees ——.
Squirrels ——.
The Bible ——.
Sugar ——.
Cheese ——.
Paul ——.
Strawberries ——.
The mountain ——.

Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used as modifiers.

LESSON 33.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases.

+Model+.—A golden image was made.
An image of gold was made.

You will notice that the adjective golden was placed before the subject, but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject.

1. The book was carefully read. 2. The old soldiers fought courageously. 3. A group of children were strolling homeward. 4. No season of life should be spent idly. 5. The English ambassador has just arrived. 6. That generous act was liberally rewarded.

Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and employ the phrases in sentences of your own building.

Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder, joyfully, wintry.

Make a sentence out of the words in each line below.

Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over.
He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to.
Year, night, is dying, the, the, in.
Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with.
Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by.

LESSON 34.

PREPOSITIONS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the preceding Lessons, the little words that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The preposition shows the relation of the idea expressed by the principal word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves also to connect these words.

In the sentence, The squirrel ran up a tree, what word shows the relation of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. Up.

Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times, the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of up, each of the following prepositions: Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to, under, from.

Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, The man went into the house; The ship sailed toward the bay.

+DEFINITION.—A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified+.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.—Flowers preach to us.

For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31.

For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns.

+Oral Parsing+.—Flowers is a noun, because——; preach is a verb, because——; to is a preposition, because it shows the relation, in sense, between us and preach; us is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he speaks.

1. The golden lines of sunset glow. 2. A smiling landscape lay before us. 3. Columbus was born at Genoa. 4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio. 5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson. 6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea. 7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters. 8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. 9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics. 10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood. 11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital letter. 12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate.

Impromptu Exercise.

(The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this exercise.)

Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier. The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud, or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves.

LESSON 35.

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.

When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same predicate, they form a +Compound Subject;+ and, when two or more predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a +Compound Predicate+.

In the sentence, Birds and bees can fly, the two words birds and bees, connected by and, have the same predicate; the same action is asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, Leaves fade and fall, two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, birds and bees form the compound subject; and, in the second, fade and fall form the compound predicate.

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

+Models+.—Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell.

Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump.

rose Frogs
,=,===== ======.=.
/ ' ' \
Napoleon| / X ' reigned antelopes ' X \ | can jump
========|==| '======== ==========' |==|=========
| \and' 'and/ |
\ ' fell kangaroos ' /
`-'====== =========='='

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The short line following the subject line represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the parts of the compound predicate. These three lines are united by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an and is understood.

Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other diagram.

+Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence.

This is a sentence, because ——; Napoleon is the subject, because ——; rose, reigned, and fell form the compound predicate, because they belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon. And connects reigned and fell.

1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. 2. Time and tide wait for no man. 3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence. 4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground. 5. The mob raged and roared. 6. The seasons came and went. 7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house. 8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken. 9. Silver or gold will be received in payment. 10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what?
Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what?
Illustrate.

What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject?
Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate.

LESSON 36.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

The words and and or, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +Conjunctions+.

Conjunctions may also connect words used as modifiers; as,

A daring but foolish feat was performed.

They may connect phrases; as,

We shall go to Saratoga and to Niagara.

They may connect clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as,

He must increase, but I must decrease.

+DEFINITION.—A Conjunction, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+.

The +Interjection+ is the eighth and last part of speech. Interjections are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.

+DEFINITION.—An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling+.

Examples:—

Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw!

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

+Model+.—Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house and up the burning stairs.

Hurrah
———

fireman | has rushed
===================|=======================
\That\ and \ | \ and \
\…..\ \……..\
\ \ \ \up
\cool \fearless \into \stairs
\ —————
\house \the \burning
———
\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The line representing the interjection is not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for the and which connects the two word modifiers; the other, for the and connecting the two phrase modifiers.

+Written Parsing+.

+Oral Parsing+ of the conjunction and the interjection.

The two ands are conjunctions, because they connect. The first connects two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. Hurrah is an interjection, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling.

1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered. 2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. 4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities. 5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land. 6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown. 7. Alas! all hope has fled. 8. Ah! I am surprised at the news. 9. Oh! we shall certainly drown. 10. Pshaw! you are dreaming. 11. Hurrah! the field is won.

LESSON 37.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS.

+COMMA—RULE.—Phrases that are placed out of their natural order [Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

+Model+.—The cable, after many failures, was successfully laid. Upon the platform 'twixt eleven and twelve I'll visit you. To me this place is endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases.

+COMMA—RULE.—Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

+Model+.—Caesar came, saw, and conquered.
Caesar came and saw and conquered.

He travelled in England, in Scotland, and in Ireland.

(The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted; but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.)

A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen.

Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors.

Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after a long ride we came to the end of our journey.

+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER—RULE.—Abbreviations generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period+.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+Model.—+Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M.

gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi, co, va, conn.

+EXCLAMATION POINT—RULE.—All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS.

+Model.—+Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!

Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome.

LESSON 38.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher.—+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167.

Write predicates for the following compound subjects.

Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and
Paris.

Write compound predicates for the following subjects.

The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes.

Write subjects for the following compound predicates.

Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale; expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain or punish.

Write compound subjects before the following predicates.

May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended.

Write compound predicates after the following compound subjects.

Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire;
Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles.

Write compound subjects before the following compound predicates.

Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress.

Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a compound subject and a compound predicate.

LESSON 39.

COMPLEMENTS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—When we say, The sun gives, we express no complete thought. The subject sun is complete, but the predicate gives does not make a complete assertion. When we say, The sun gives light, we do utter a complete thought. The predicate gives is completed by the word light. Whatever fills out, or completes, we call a +Complement+. We will therefore call light the complement of the predicate. As light completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the +Object Complement+.

Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are thoroughly understood.

The officer arrested ——-; the boy found ——-; Charles saw ——-; coopers make ——-.

Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of another kind.

A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In the sentence, Armies march, march is a complete predicate, for it does the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., marching. In the phrase, armies marching, marching expresses the same act as that denoted by march, but it asserts nothing. In the sentence, Chalk is white, is does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted. We do not wish to assert merely that chalk is or exists. What we wish to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective white. As white expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute Complement+.

Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn from the class by means of questions.

Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green.

+DEFINITION.—The Object Complement of a sentence completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act+.

+DEFINITION.—The Attribute Complement of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject+.

The complement with all its modifiers is called the +Modified
Complement+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—Fulton invented the first steamboat.

Fulton | invented | steamboat
========|======================
| \ \
\the \first

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will see that the line standing for the object complement is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the little vertical line only touches this without cutting it.

+Oral Analysis.—+Fulton and invented, as before. Steamboat is the object complement, because it completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. The and first, as before. The first steamboat is the modified complement.

1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon. 2. Morse invented the telegraph. 3. Ericsson built the Monitor. 4. Hume wrote a history. 5. Morn purples the east, 6. Antony beheaded Cicero.

+Model+.—Gold is malleable.

Gold | is \ malleable =====|=============== |

In this diagram, the line standing for the attribute complement, like the object line, is a continuation of the predicate line; but notice the difference in the little mark separating the incomplete[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the verb the predicate, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded as an incomplete predicate.] predicate from the complement.

+Oral Analysis+.—-Gold and is, as before.

Malleable is the attribute complement, because it completes the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold.

7. Pure water is tasteless. 8. The hare is timid. 9. Fawns are graceful. 10. This peach is delicious. 11. He was extremely prodigal. 12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile.

+To the Teacher+—See Notes, pp. 183,184.

* * * * *

LESSON 40.

ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS.

+Caution+.—Place adverbs where there can be no doubt as to the words they modify.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I only bring forward a few things.

Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by
Moses?

We merely speak of numbers.

The Chinese chiefly live upon rice.

+Caution+.—In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the sound of the sentence.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

We always should do our duty.
The times have changed surely.
The work will be never finished.
He must have certainly been sick.

+Caution+.—Adverbs must not be used for adjectives.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I feel badly.
Marble feels coldly.
She looks nicely.
It was sold cheaply.
It appears still more plainly.
That sounds harshly.
I arrived at home safely.

+Caution+.—Adjectives must not be used for adverbs.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

The bells ring merry.
The curtain hangs graceful.
That is a decided weak point.
Speak no coarser than usual.
These are the words nearest connected.
Talk slow and distinct.
She is a remarkable pretty girl.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and the adjective?

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection from Habberton.

* * * * *

LESSON 41.

ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS.

+Caution+.—Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the words they modify.

+To the Teacher+.—For composition exercises with particular reference to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

A fellow was arrested with short hair.
I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose.
He died and went to his rest in New York.
Wanted—A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide.
Some garments were made for the family of thick material.
The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast.
I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye.
A house was built by a mason of brown stone.
A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell.

Punctuate these sentences when corrected.

+Caution+.—Care must be taken to select the right preposition.

+To the Teacher+.—For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged
Dictionaries.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

They halted with the river on their backs.
The cat jumped on the chair.
He fell onto the floor.
He went in the house.
He divides his property between his four sons.
He died for thirst.
This is different to that.
Two thieves divided the booty among themselves.
I am angry at him.

+Caution+.—Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I haven't no umbrella.

Correct by dropping either the adjective no or the adverb not; as, I have no umbrella, or I have not an umbrella.

I didn't say nothing.
I can't do this in no way.
No other emperor was so wise nor powerful.
Nothing can never be annihilated.

LESSON 42.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

1. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 2. Man is an animal. 3. Washington captured Cornwallis. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean. 6. Vulcan was a blacksmith. 7. The summer has been very rainy. 8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World. 9. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams. 11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. 13. Diamonds are combustible. 14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena. 15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown.

The pupil will notice that animal, in sentence No. 2, is an attribute complement, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging to man, but a noun denoting his class. +Nouns+ then may be +attribute compliments+.

The pupil will notice also that some of the object and attribute complements above have phrase modifiers.

LESSON 43.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects, predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers.

—— climb ——; —— hunt ——; —— command ——; —— attacked ——; —— pursued ——; —— shall receive ——; —— have seen ——; —— love ——.

Change the following expressions into sentences by asserting the qualities here assumed. Use these verbs for predicates:

Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is becoming, are.

+Model+.—Heavy gold. Gold is heavy.

Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes; amusing anecdote.

Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and then make complete sentences by asserting the same qualities.

white | Chalk is white.
+Model+.—brittle + chalk. Chalk is brittle.
soft | Chalk is soft.

Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean, valley.

Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements, and two having attribute complements.

LESSON 44.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

+Models+.—

expands
/===========
Learning | / ' \ | mind
=========|=and' \=======
| \ ' elevates / \the
\============

ran
=========
/ ' \forward
He | / '
=======|=== and'
| \ '
\ ' kissed | him
\================

In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two verbs have not a common object.

1. Learning expands and elevates the mind. 2. He ran forward and kissed him. 3. The earth and the moon are planets. 4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque. 5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States. 6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 7. The man stood speechless. 8. Labor disgraces no man. 9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity. 10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. 11. This man seems the leader of the whole party. 12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat. 14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way. 15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of Manhattan for twenty-four dollars.

LESSON 45.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

+Model+.—

wise
/==========
/ ' \in
/ X' \ council
/ ' \————-
Henry IV. | was \ / ' simple
===========|============== '==========
\of | \very \ and' \in
\ House \ ' \ manners
\———— \ ' \————-
\the \of \ ' chivalric
\ Burbon \============
\———- \in
\ field
\———-
\the

The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the complement line which represents the entire attribute complement.

1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in manners, and chivalric in the field. 2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. 3. The diamond is the most valuable gem. 4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World. 6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal. 7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San Salvador. 8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles. 9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists. 10. Columbus was a native of Genoa. 11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth. 13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder. 14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse. 15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian corn.

LESSON 46.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Cotton | is raised
===========|===============
| \ Egypt
\ /'———-
\in / '
\ / X'
\ / ' India
\—/ '————
\ '
\and'
\ '
\ ' United States
\———————-
\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—In this diagram the line representing the principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that the principal part of the phrase is compound. Egypt, India, and United States are all introduced by the same preposition in, and have the same relation to is raised.

1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States. 2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir. 3. The career of Cromwell was short. 4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 6. An able but dishonest judge presided. 7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes. 8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, in 1607. 10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. 11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. 12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar. 13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, weapons, and clothing.

LESSON 47.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Supply attribute complements to the following expressions. (See Caution,
Lesson 40.)

The marble feels ——. Mary looks ——. The weather continues ——. The apple tastes ——. That lady appears ——. The sky grows ——. The leaves of roses are ——. The undertaking was pronounced ——.

Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as attribute complements.

+Model+.—Soldier.—That old man has been a soldier.

Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet, artist, traveler, emperor.

Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple predicate and two or more object complements.

Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers, lawyers, merchant.

Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall contain object complements, and the third, an attribute complement.

+Model+.—Sun.—
The sun gives light.
The sun warms the earth.
The sun is a luminous body.

Moon, oak, fire, whiskey.

LESSON 48.

SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that a quality may be assumed as belonging to a thing; as, white chalk, or that it may be asserted of it; as, Chalk is white. An action, also, may be assumed as belonging to something; as, Peter turning, or it may be asserted; as, Peter turned. In the expression, Peter, turning, said, what word expresses an action as assumed, and which asserts an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn grows, corn growing; geese gabble; geese gabbling.

This form of the verb, which merely assumes the act, being, or state, is called the +Participle+.

When the words growing and gabbling are placed before the nouns, thus: growing corn, gabbling geese, they tell simply the kind of corn and the kind of geese, and are therefore adjectives.

When the or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a preposition after them, thus: The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the geese, they are simply the names of actions, and are therefore nouns.

Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it to express:—

1st, An assumed action; 2d, A permanent quality; 3d, The name of an action.

Participles may be completed by objects and attributes.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.—Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again.

Truth | will rise
==========|=============
\cru | \again
\ shed
————
\to
\ earth
\———-

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—In this diagram, the line standing for the principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle crushed is used like an adjective to modify Truth, and yet retains the nature of a verb, expressing an action received by truth.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a sentence, because ——; Truth is the subject, because ——; will rise is the predicate, because ——; the phrase, crushed to earth, is a modifier of the Subj., because ——; crushed introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase to earth is a modifier of crushed; to introduces it, and earth is the principal word in it; again is a modifier of the Pred., because ——. Truth crushed to earth is the modified subject, will rise again is the modified predicate.

+Parsing+—Crushed is the form of the verb called participle. The action expressed by it is merely assumed.

1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought. 2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack. 3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. 4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. 7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands. 9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed at Trenton. 10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen. Gates. 11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. 12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force. 13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not awaken sincere admiration.

(Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or more words.)

(Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a noun complement.)

LESSON 49.

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—There is another form of the verb which, like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot assert; as, She went out to see a friend; To lie is a disgrace. As this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an +Infinitive+, which means without limit. The infinitive generally follows to; as, to walk, to sleep.

Let each pupil give an infinitive.

The infinitive and the preposition to constitute a phrase, which may be employed in several ways.

+T+.—I have a duty to perform. The infinitive phrase modifies what?

+P+.—The noun duty. +T+.—It then performs the office of what? +P+.—Of an adjective modifier.

+T+.—I come to hear. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.—The verb come. +T+.—What office then does it perform? +P+.—Of an adverb modifier.

+T+.—To lie is base. What is base? +P+.—To lie. +T+.—He attempted to speak. What did he attempt? +P+.—To speak. +T+.—To lie is a subject, and to speak is an object. What part of speech is used as subject and object? +P+.—The noun.

+T+.—The +Infinitive+ phrase is used as an +adjective+, an +adverb+, and a +noun+.

Infinitives may be completed by objects and attributes.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.—David hasted to meet Goliath.

David | hasted
==========|===========
| \to
\ meet | Goliath
\————————

+Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase+.—To introduces the phrase; meet, completed by the object Goliath, is the principal part.

+Parsing of the Phrase+.—To is a preposition, because ——; meet is a verb, because ——; Goliath is a noun, because ——.

1. I come not here to talk. 2. I rejoice to hear it. 3. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies. 5. To retreat was impossible.

(To is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.)

\to
\ retreat
\————-
|
|
/ \ | was \ impossible
==========|======================
|

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—As this phrase subject cannot, in its proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line. The phrase complement may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest on the complement line.

6. The hands refuse to labor. 7. To live is not all of life. 8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom. 9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer themselves. 10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida. 11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose. 12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in 1829.

LESSON 50.

POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.)

Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.)

A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables.
The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane.
We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule.
Here is news from a neighbor boiled down.
I found a cent walking over the bridge.
Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain.

Punctuate the following exercises.

Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army.
Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution.
Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified.
My friend seeing me in need offered his services.
James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall.
The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them.

+To the Teacher+.—See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from George Eliot.

LESSON 51.

REVIEW.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and 41.)

There never was such another man.
He was an old venerable patriarch.

John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look.
He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow.

Pass me them potatoes.

Put your trust not in money.
We have often occasion for thanksgiving,

Now this is to be done how?
Nothing can justify ever profanity.

To continually study is impossible.

(An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition to and the infinitive.)

Mary likes to tastefully dress.
Learn to carefully choose your words.

She looks queerly.
Give me a soon and direct answer.

The post stood firmly.
The eagle flies highly.
The orange tastes sweetly.

I feel tolerable well.
The branch breaks easy.
Thistles grow rapid.
The eagle flies swift.
This is a miserable poor pen.

A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family.
A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments.

Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen.
He went out attended with a servant.
I have a dislike to such tricksters.
We have no prejudice to foreigners.
She don't know nothing about it.
Father wouldn't give me none.
He hasn't been sick neither.
I won't have no more nohow.

+To the Teacher+.—Let the reason be given for every correction.

LESSON 52.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as modifiers.

Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running; having been running.

Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the participial form of the verb as a participle, in the first; the same form as an adjective, in the second; and as a noun, in the third.

+Model+.—The stream flows. The stream, flowing gently, crept through the meadow. The flowing stream slipped away to the sea. The flowing of the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide ebbs.

Form infinitive phrases from the following verbs, and use these phrases as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns, in sentences of your own building.

Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try.

+To the Teacher+.—For exercises to distinguish the participle from the predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182.

LESSON 53.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—In the sentence, The robin's eggs are blue, the noun robin's does what? +P+.—It tells what or whose eggs are blue. +T+.—What word names the things owned or possessed? +P+.—Eggs. +T+.—What word names the owner or possessor? +P+.—Robin's.

+T+.—The noun robin's is here used as a modifier. You see that this word, which I have written on the board, is the word robin with a little mark (') called an apostrophe, and the letter s added. These are added to denote possession.

In the sentence, Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire, the noun statesman modifies the subject Webster by explaining what or which Webster is meant. Both words name the same person.

Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of +Noun
Modifiers+—the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—Julia's sister Mary has lost her diamond ring.

sister (Mary) | has lost | ring
===============|============'=============
\Julia's | \her \diamond

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—Mary is written on the subject line, because Mary and sister both name the same person, but the word Mary is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that sister is the proper grammatical subject.

In oral analysis, call Julia's and Mary modifiers of the subject, sister, because Julia's tells whose sister, and Mary explains sister by adding another name of the same person. Her is a modifier of the object, because it tells whose ring is meant.

Julia's sister Mary is the modified subject, the predicate is unmodified, and her diamond ring is the modified object complement.

1. The planet Jupiter has four moons. 2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 3. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever.

mother
========
\wife's
\Peter's

4. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. 5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne. 6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind. 7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. 8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the world. 9. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the Ishmaelites. 10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: Alexander the Great may be taken as one name, or Great may be called an explanatory modifier of Alexander.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle. 11. Friends tie their purses with a spider's thread. 12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. 13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. 14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword.

LESSON 54.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to equivalent phrases; as, Arnold's treason = the treason of Arnold. Here the preposition of indicates possession, the same relation expressed by the apostrophe (') and s. Change the following possessive nouns to equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

+Model+.—The earth's surface. The surface of the earth is made up of land and water.

The earth's surface: Solomon's temple; England's Queen; Washington's Farewell Address; Dr. Kane's Explorations; Peter's wife's mother; George's friend's father; Shakespeare's plays; Noah's dove; the diameter of the earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the moon.

Find for the things mentioned below, other names which shall describe or explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

+Model+.—Ink.—Ink, a dark fluid, is used in writing.

Observe the following rule.

+COMMA-RULE.—An Explanatory Modifier, when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma+.

+To the Teacher+.—See Notes, pp. 176, 177.

New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln,
Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare.

Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in the use of possessive modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183.

LESSON 55.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW.

1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state. 2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind. 3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames. 4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean. 5. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all vegetables. 7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator. 8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again. 9. Aesop, the author of Aesop's Fables, was a slave. 10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air. 12. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size the half of the state of New York.

LESSON 56.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW—CONTINUED.

1. We are never too old to learn. 2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense. 3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally admitted. 4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking display of Almighty power. 5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, must ever be the surest means of prosperity. 6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans. 7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children. 8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first president of the Jamestown colony. 9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry VII. of England, discovered the continent of America. 10. True worth is modest and retiring. 11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh.

LESSON 57.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded into a phrase or into an expression that asserts.

+T+.—A wise man will be honored. Expand wise into a phrase, and give me the sentence. +P+.—A man of wisdom will be honored. +T+.—Expand wise into an expression that asserts, join this to man, as a modifier, and then give me the entire sentence. +P+.—A man who is wise will be honored.

+T+.—You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways—A wise man, A man of wisdom, A man who is wise.

Let the pupils give similar examples.

+T+.—In the sentence, A man who is wise will be honored, the word who stands for what? +P+.—For the noun man. +T+.—Then what part of speech is it? +P+.—A pronoun.

+T+.—Put the noun man in the place of the pronoun who, and then give me the sentence. +P+.—A man, man is wise, will be honored.

+T+.—I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words—A man will be honored. Man is wise. Is the last sentence now joined to the first as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? +P+.—They are two separate sentences.

+T+.—Then you see that the pronoun who not only stands for the noun man, but it connects the modifying expression, who is wise, to man, the subject of the sentence, A man will be honored, and thus there is formed what we call a +Complex Sentence+. These two parts we call +Clauses+. A man will be honored is the +Independent Clause;+ who is wise is the +Dependent Clause+.

Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called +Adjective Clauses+.

+DEFINITION.—A Clause is a part of a sentence containing a subject and its predicate+.

+DEFINITION.—A Dependent Clause is one used as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun+.

+DEFINITION.—An Independent Clause is one not dependent on another clause+.

+DEFINITION.—A Simple Sentence is one that contains but one subject and one predicate, either or both of which may be compound+.

+DEFINITION.—A Complex Sentence is one composed of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—

man | will be honored
=========|==================
\A ` |
`
`
who ` | is \ wise
———-|——————
|

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—You will notice that the lines standing for the subject and predicate of the independent clause are heavier than those of the dependent clause. This pictures to you the relative importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun who is written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by slanting lines, to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that who is wise is a modifier of man.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence, because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. A man will be honored is the independent clause; who is wise is the dependent clause. Man is the subject of the independent clause; will be honored is the predicate. The word A and the clause, who is wise, are modifiers of the subject. A points out man, and who is wise tells the kind of man. A man who is wise is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. Who is the subject of the dependent clause, is is the predicate, and wise is the attribute complement. Who connects the two clauses.

1. He that runs may read. 2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. 3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. 4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion. 5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole. 6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock. 7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates. 8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. 10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit. 11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate. 12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to mend them.

The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun complement.

+COMMA—RULE.—The adjective or the adverb clause, when it does not closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the comma+.

LESSON 58.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following adjectives into

1. A phrase; 2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own construction.

| who has energy,
+Model+.—Energetic; of energy; + or
| who is energetic.

An energetic man will succeed. A man of energy will succeed. A man who has energy (or who is energetic) will succeed.

Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy.

Expand each of the following possessive nouns into

1. A phrase; 2. A clause;

and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences.

+Model+.—Saturn's rings; the rings of Saturn; the rings which surround Saturn.

Saturn's rings can be seen with a telescope. The rings of Saturn can be seen with a telescope. The rings which surround Saturn can be seen, with a telescope.

Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the participial phrases into clauses.

The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard around the world.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

LESSON 59.

COMPLEX SENTENCES.

THE ADVERB CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was carefully read = The book was read with care.

We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an +Adverb clause+. In the sentence, We started at sunrise, what phrase is used like an adverb? +P+.—At sunrise. +T+.—Expand this phrase into an equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.—We started when the sun rose.

+T+.—You see that the phrase, at sunrise, and the clause, when the sun rose, both modify started, telling the time of starting, and are therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb Clauses+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model.—+

We | started
=========|=============
\
` when
sun \ rose
=======|=========
\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—The line which connects the two predicate lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part shows that when modifies started; the lower part, that it modifies rose; and the dotted part shows that it connects.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence, because ——; We started is the independent clause, and when the sun rose is the dependent clause. We is the subject of the independent clause, and started is the predicate. The clause, when the sun rose, is a modifier of the predicate, because it tells when we started. Started when the sun rose is the modified predicate.

Sun is the subject of the dependent clause, and rose is the predicate, and the is a modifier of sun; the sun is the modified subject. When modifies rose and started, and connects the clause-modifier to the predicate started.

+Parsing+ of when.—When is an adverb modifying the two verbs started and rose, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by showing that the two actions took place at the same time.

1. The dew glitters when the sun shines. 2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. 3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. 4. Ah! few shall part where many meet. 5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send. 6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. 7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes. 9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies within me. 10. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 11. He died as the fool dieth. 12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.

LESSON 60.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

ADVERB CLAUSES.

Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this clause into a sentence of your own building.

+Model+.—At sunset; when the sun set. We returned when the sun set.

At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs; after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with my friend.

To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause, and so make complex sentences.

—— Peter began to sink. The man dies ——. Grass grows ——. Iron —— can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ——. —— a nation mourns. Pittsburg stands ——. He dared to lead ——.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional composition exercises with particular reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177.

See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from the Brothers
Grimm.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what? Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers. Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate.

LESSON 61.

THE NOUN CLAUSE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—That stars are suns is taught by astronomers. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—What then is the subject of is taught? +P+.—The clause, That stars are suns. +T+.—This clause then performs the office of what part of speech? +P+.—Of a noun.

+T+.—Astronomers teach that stars are suns. What do astronomers teach?
+P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—What is the object complement of teach?
+P+.—The clause, that stars are suns. +T+.—What office then does this
clause perform? +P+.—That of a noun.

+T+.—The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns. What does is assert of teaching? +P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—What then is the attribute complement? +P+.—That stars are suns. +T+.—Does this complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same thing that the subject names? +P+.—It names the same thing that the subject names. +T+.—It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.—To a noun.

+T+.—You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject or the complement of a sentence.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.—

That
———
'
stars | are '\suns
=======|============
| |
|
/ \ | is taught
================|============
| \by
\ astronomers
———————

You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram in Lesson 49.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence takes the place of the independent clause. That stars are suns is the dependent clause. That stars are suns is the subject of the whole sentence, etc. ——. That simply introduces the dependent clause.

In parsing, call that a conjunction.

1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged. 2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and girls. 3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. 4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept. 5. I know that my Redeemer liveth. 6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. 7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. 8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move. 9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without representation is unjust. 10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done. 11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved. 12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the dead.

* * * * *

LESSON 62.

COMPOUND SENTENCES.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

+DEFINITION.—A Compound Sentence is one composed of two or more independent clauses+.

+Model+.—War has ceased, and peace has come.

War | has ceased
=======|=============
| '
' and
'…..
'
peace | has ' come
=========|===============
|

+Explanation of the Diagram+.—These two clause diagrams are shaded alike to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between the predicates simply for convenience.

+Oral Analysis+.—This is a compound sentence, because it is made up of two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ——.

1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. 2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens. 3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. 4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness. 5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them. 6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. 7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets move in orbits around the sun. 8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of his mother. 9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old. 10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. 11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their calumniators. 12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.

LESSON 63.

SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—You have already become acquainted with three kinds of sentences. Can you name them?

+P+.—The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound.

+T+.—These classes have been made with regard to the form of the sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their meaning.

Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings! Here are four simple sentences. Do they all mean the same thing?

+P+.—They do not.

+T+.—Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command, and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+.

+DEFINITION.—A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to affirm or to deny+.

+DEFINITION.—An Interrogative Sentence is one that expresses a question+.

+DEFINITION.—An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a command or an entreaty+.

+DEFINITION.—An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling+.

+INTERROGATION POINT—RULE.—Every direct interrogative sentence should be followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.—See Notes, pp. 178, 179.]

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative sentences, and tell how the change was made.

+Model+.—Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What girls can skate? You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built.

Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that independent words are set off by the comma.

+Model+.—Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo. George plays the flute. Birdie stands on one leg.

Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences.

+Model+.—You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are!
You are so happy!

Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics.

Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sentence on each of the following topics.

Weather, lightning, a stage coach.

LESSON 64.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.

In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their form, and then with reference to their meaning.

1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit. 2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. 3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. 4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. 5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. 6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden. 7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow. 8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. 9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. 10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: Cassius is independent, and may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of be deceived is thou, or you, understood.] 11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man! 12. Which is the largest city in the world?

LESSON 65.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW—CONTINUED,

1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society. 2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! 3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst husbandry in the world. 4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. 5. Make hay while the sun shines. 6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. 7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing? 8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones, pointing towards the throat. 9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I raise!" 10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean. 11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. 12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill.

LESSON 66.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW.

I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood. We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. In correcting the position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson 41. He was an independent small farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough. That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer lived on the hudson.

LESSON 67.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow.

+Model+.—An able man was chosen.
A prudent man was chosen.
An honorable man was chosen.
An able, prudent, and honorable man was chosen.

Pure water is destitute of color.
Pure water is destitute of taste.
Pure water is destitute of smell.

Cicero was the greatest orator of his age.
Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age.

Daisies peeped up here.
Daisies peeped up there.
Daisies peeped up everywhere.

Expand each of the following sentences into three.

The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States.
The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi.

Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three explanatory modifiers.

+Model+.—Elizabeth was the daughter of Henry VIII.
Elizabeth was sister of Queen Mary.
Elizabeth was the patron of literature.
Elizabeth defeated the Armada.
Elizabeth, the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the
patron of literature, defeated the Armada.

Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.
Boston is the Athens of America.
Boston is the "Hub of the Universe."
Boston has crooked streets.

Expand the following sentence into four sentences.

Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still live," on his lips.

LESSON 68.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher+.—For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp. 176-180.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adjective clauses.

+Model+.—People living in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.

Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food.
A house built upon the rock will stand.
The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson.
Wellington was a man of iron will.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adjective clauses into phrases.

Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported.
The house which was built upon the sand fell.
A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever.
Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners.

Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding the phrases into adverb clauses.

+Model+.—Birds return in the spring.
When spring comes, the birds return.

The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail.

Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting the adverb clauses into phrases.

The ship started when the tide was at flood.
When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped.

By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following expressions.

—— is a well-known fact. The fact was ——. Ben. Franklin said ——.

LESSON 69.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the three following words: letters, name, sound. Into what classes are letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What is the difference between the two expressions, ripe apples and apples are ripe? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech? How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun? What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes called articles? When is a used? When is an used? Illustrate. Give an example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8, 15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63).

LESSON 70.

GENERAL REVIEW.

What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence? What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence? What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What different offices may a noun perform? Ans.—A noun may be used as a subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently. Illustrate each use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? Ans.—Pronouns, phrases, and clauses. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses? Ans.—Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.) Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41).

+To the Teacher+.—For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185.

If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters, and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish matter.

See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement—Selection from
Beecher.

PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.

LESSON 71.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.—Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk.

The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds, and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the animal kingdom. So, after grouping words into the eight great classes, called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes. For instance, take the two nouns city and Brooklyn. The word city is the common name of all places of a certain class, but the word Brooklyn is the proper or particular name of an individual of this class. We have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+.

Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil to classify them and give the reasons for the classification.

To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it necessary to explain why such words as music, mathematics, knowledge, etc., are common nouns. Music, e. g., is not a proper noun, for it is not a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of the same class. There are no other things of the same class—it forms a class by itself. So we call the noun music a common noun.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun I instead. In speaking to a person, we often use the pronoun you instead of his name. In speaking of a person or thing that has been mentioned before, we say he or she or it. These words that by their form indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, "Hints."

Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve these sentences by substituting pronouns.

When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in another clause, and at the same time to connect the clauses, we use a class of pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using the pronouns who, which, and that. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral Instruction."

When we wish to ask about anything whose name is unknown, we use a class of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, Who comes here? What is this?

Both men were wrong. Let us omit men and say, Both were wrong. You see the meaning is not changed—both is here equivalent to both men, that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the office of the adjective pronoun by using the words each, all, many, some, such, etc.

DEFINITIONS.

CLASSES OF NOUNS.

+A Common Noun is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.

+A Proper Noun is the particular name of an individual+.

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.

+A Personal Pronoun is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.

+A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to some preceding word or words, and connects clauses+.

+An Interrogative Pronoun is one with which a question is asked+.

+An Adjective Pronoun is one that performs the offices of both an adjective and a noun+.

LESSON 72.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule,
Lesson 15.

webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld.

george washington commander army revolution president united states westmoreland state virginia month february.

san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships
sandwich islands japan china australia.

Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal pronouns: I, thou or you, he, she, and it.

Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative pronouns: who, which, that, and what.

What is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express the antecedent, we use which or that. I shall do what is required; I shall do the thing which is required, or that is required.

Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three interrogative pronouns: who, which, and what.

Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective pronouns: few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those.