PUBLIC OPINION AND THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

SOME RECENT BORZOI TEXTS

THE HISTORY AND PROSPECTS OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
edited by Harry Elmer Barnes

A GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF ENGLISH HISTORY
by William T. Morgan

HISTORY AND SOCIAL INTELLIGENCE
by Harry Elmer Barnes

FACTORS IN MODERN HISTORY
by A. F. Pollard

A HISTORY OF RUSSIA
by Sir Bernard Pares

Public Opinion and
The Teaching of History
in the United States

BY
BESSIE LOUISE PIERCE, Ph.D.
Associate Professor of History, University of Iowa
Head of the Department of Social Studies
University High School

NEW YORK
ALFRED A. KNOPF
1926

COPYRIGHT, 1926, BY ALFRED A. KNOPF, INC.
SET UP, ELECTROTYPED, PRINTED AND BOUND
BY THE PLIMPTON PRESS, NORWOOD, MASS.
PAPER SUPPLIED BY S. D. WARREN & CO.
BOSTON, MASS.

MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

TO
ARTHUR M. SCHLESINGER
IN GRATITUDE

PREFACE

Many influences have conditioned the teaching of history in the public schools—local and national, statutory and constitutional, ephemeral and enduring, religious, educational, racial and patriotic.

It is the purpose of this study to give an historical account of some of the attempts to control the teaching of history in the public schools. The first four chapters trace the legislative control that has been exerted in all periods of our history, beginning with the educational enactments of the early colonies and following the development of the curriculum to the present time.

Such statutory control falls into fairly definite periods. The first embraces the earliest statutes relating to public education. During this period history was introduced into the school curriculum as a separate subject specified by law. The next stage, 1860 to 1900, was characterized by the influences set in motion by the Civil War and the Economic Revolution. In the years from 1900 to 1917, the history curriculum reflected the new interest of the American people in the social and economic conditions that had developed. From 1917 to the present, the dominant note has been a dynamic patriotism growing out of the World War.

Besides the legislative aspects of the subject, I have endeavored to set forth the propagandist influences on textbook-making exerted by religious, patriotic, racial and other organized groups. Within the last five years attention to an unprecedented degree has been focused upon history and its allied subjects. Although much interest has been attached to the agitation carried on since the World War, similar movements marked earlier periods. A chapter on Disloyalty Charges against Teachers since 1917 has been included as pertinent to the discussion in general.

Because of their kinship with history, the other social studies have been considered. The term social studies has been used to embrace history, economics, government and sociology. Geography has not been included, because it but recently acquired a place in the curriculum as a social study. More attention, furthermore, has been paid to the subject of history, since it has been the chief social study in the public school curriculum. There has been no attempt to portray the extent to which laws have been enforced. Throughout it has been my desire to narrate without partiality or prejudice the facts relating to the subject under discussion.

In the preparation of this volume I am indebted to many friends for advice and coöperation in obtaining material. In the search for present-day conditions I have drawn heavily upon many correspondents including school superintendents, textbook authors and publishers, as well as those engaged in criticising school histories. To all who have aided, I would here express my sincere gratitude. I have particularly profited by the guidance and constructive criticism of Professor Arthur M. Schlesinger of Harvard University, who first called the subject to my attention, and who is chiefly responsible for whatever merit there is in this study. I am indebted for many helpful suggestions to Professor Ernest Horn of the University of Iowa, to Professor Carl Wittke of Ohio State University, and to Dr. Richard J. Purcell of the Catholic University of America. These acknowledgments would not be complete without mentioning my obligation to my sister, Anne E. Pierce, for assistance at all stages in the preparation of the manuscript, and to my mother, whose spirit of coöperation has proved a constant source of inspiration.

B. L. P.

CONTENTS

PART I
STATUTORY REGULATION OF THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

“The law is only a memorandum ... and as fast as the public mind is opened to more intelligence, the code is seen to be brute and stammering. It speaks not articulately and must be made to.... The history of the State sketches in coarse outline the progress of thought, and follows at a distance the delicacy of culture and of aspiration.”

Emerson, Essays and English Traits.

PART I
STATUTORY REGULATION OF THE TEACHING OF HISTORY

CHAPTER I
The Period of Beginnings

Statutory prescriptions of history as a specific subject in the American public school had their beginning in the years between 1827 and 1860; yet the way for such enactments had been charted by earlier educational legislation. For example, in 1642 the Massachusetts Puritans provided that every child be taught enough “to read and understand the principles of religion and the capital laws of the country,”[1] and returning to the subject in 1647, expressed their belief that education would serve to “thwart that auld deluder Sathan” whose “cheife project [was] to keep men from ye knowledge of ye Scriptures.”[2]

In the course of time it was natural that the function of education should enlarge. From the religious conception inevitably sprang a belief in education as a means of imparting an understanding of the principles of “right living.” The individual as a virtuous, polite, and exemplary force in the community became the objective of the lawmaker. Closely allied with this conviction was a faith in education as an instrument for teaching patriotism and for training in the fundamentals of government. Thus, in 1732, New York justified the establishment of her schools on the ground that “good Learning is not only a very great Accomplishment but the properest Means to Attain Knowledge, Improve the Mind, Morality and good Manners and to make Men better, wiser and more useful to their Country as well as to themselves.”[3]

In 1780 Massachusetts took a similar stand,[4] perceiving in her schools a method of directing the masses in the great undertaking of self-government,—a function recognized by Washington, John Adams, Jefferson and other men of the day.[5] Other commonwealths also accepted education as a means to “preserve and perfect a Republican Constitution” and to “secure the blessings of liberty.”[6]

These early laws thus paved the way for those of a later time. They laid the foundation of an education directed toward the development of civic efficiency. Yet their influence was circumscribed by the virtual absence of free, public schools. This lack, however, the second quarter of the nineteenth century was destined to remedy; for such was the democratic awakening of the ’twenties and ’thirties that nearly every field of human activity was transformed. Trade associations attested a quickened consciousness in the laboring man; reform movements bore testimony to a new social point of view; and an aroused electorate chose for the highest office of the land that exponent of democracy, Andrew Jackson.[7]

In the states outside of New England little had been accomplished in the early years of the century toward the establishment of tax-supported schools. With the extension of manhood suffrage, however, came the realization that the functions of government were safe only in the hands of an enlightened electorate—a conviction which had come only after much agitation and bitter argument. Gradually and inevitably the public school, supported by public funds, became the embodiment of the democratic ideal in which “intelligence is the grand condition.”[8]

The year 1827 signalized the entrance of United States history into the school curriculum as a study required by law. At this time both Massachusetts and Vermont made the teaching of national history compulsory. The Massachusetts law provided that “every town, containing five hundred families or householders, shall maintain a school to be kept by a master of competent ability and good morals, who shall ... give instruction in the history of the United States, book-keeping, surveying, geometry, and algebra; and such last mentioned school shall be kept for the benefit of all the inhabitants of the town, ten months at least, exclusive of vacations each year ...; and in every town containing four thousand inhabitants, the said master shall, in addition to all the branches of instruction before required in this chapter be competent to instruct in the Latin and Greek languages, and history, rhetoric and logic.”[9] The Vermont statute, designed for the elementary school, required that “each organized town in this state shall keep and support a school or schools, provided with a teacher or teachers, of good morals, for the instruction of youths in ... the history of the United States, and good behavior.”[10]

Counterparts of these laws presently appeared in other states. In 1846 New Hampshire prescribed history as a subject in high schools,[11] and shortly after it was sanctioned by Rhode Island.[12] In 1857 the Massachusetts legislature placed United States history in her elementary schools, and added general history, the “civil polity” of the commonwealth and political economy to the required subjects for high schools.[13] Three years later, she again committed herself in favor of the social studies in the curriculum. “In every town,” the law read, “there shall be kept for at least six months in each year, a sufficient number of schools for the instruction of all the children ... in orthography, reading, writing, English grammar, geography, arithmetic, the history of the United States and good behavior....” This law further required in every town of five hundred families or householders the maintenance of a school in which instruction in general history and the “civil polity” of the commonwealth and of the United States should be given,[14] and also permitted the teaching of political economy.[15]

The South did not awaken to the needs of public education at this early period because of its institutional and economic development. Virginia was the only state of that section to enact legislation relating to the teaching of history before the Civil War. In 1849 she provided that in district schools “shall be thoroughly taught, ... history, especially that of the United States and of Virginia.”[16]

None of the states of the Middle West followed the example set by Massachusetts and Vermont in 1827; but California, still in a pioneer stage of development, required instruction in the federal and state constitutions in her grammar schools, as well as political economy in the high schools.[17] This provision constitutes one of the first attempts by statute to place the subject of government in the curriculum, although several of the older states had at an early time emphasized the necessity of a knowledge of the state law.[18] In fact, such was the lack of systematic instruction in “political morals” at this time, that foreign travelers commented upon it, and Harriet Martineau stigmatized it as “an enormous deficiency in a republic,” where participation in government was a birthright of all.[19]

By 1860, only six states had passed laws requiring the teaching of the social studies. To the east lay Massachusetts, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island; to the south, Virginia; and to the far west, California. To the first requirement of United States history had been added provisions necessitating the presentation of general history, political economy and civil government, and Virginia had prescribed a study of the history of the state.[20] It was not until after the Civil War that history acquired a real place in the public school curriculum.

THE CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS

The interest awakened in public education led also to the passage of laws for the certification of teachers. Often legislation of this type indirectly describes the character of the curriculum, for, in general, the teacher was examined in those subjects which he was expected to teach. At an early time, the chief qualifications for teachers seemed to be “good morals” and “competency,” but with the expansion of the curriculum, there were added, in many cases, specifically named subjects.[21]

Thus a Connecticut law of 1841 provided that “the board of visitors [of the schools] ... shall ... examine all candidates for teachers ... and shall give to these persons with whose moral character, literary attainments, and ability to teach, they are satisfied, a certificate, setting forth the branches he or she is found capable of teaching; provided that no certificate shall be given to any person not found qualified to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, and grammar, thoroughly, and the rudiments of geography and history.”[22] In 1857 in the Revisions of their laws, Maine and Rhode Island specified a knowledge of history as a necessary qualification for a teacher.[23] Illinois, in her Revised Statutes of 1845, included a law which made it the duty of the school commissioner to examine “any persons proposing to teach a common school, in any township in his county,” on the candidate’s ability to teach the usual branches, including “the history of the United States.”[24]

In 1846, during the period of her earliest legislation, Iowa prescribed the history of the United States as a requirement for a teacher’s license. This state is an example of those states which have passed little legislation defining the content of the curriculum, but have secured the same end by specifying subjects for the examination of their teachers. The law appeared again in the Code of 1851, but history was dropped from the required list of subjects in 1858.[25] Legislation in Nebraska took much the same course as had that in Iowa. In 1855, the territorial laws placed United States history among the subjects required in a teacher’s examination, but the laws of 1856 ignored it as a prescribed subject.[26]

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Shurtleff, N. B., ed., Records of the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England, 5 v. (Boston, 1853), Vol. II, p. 6.

[2] Ibid., p. 203. Connecticut in 1650 expressed a similar purpose for the establishment of her schools. The Code of Connecticut, 1650, p. 90.

[3] Laws of the Colony of New York, 1720-1737, Vol. II, p. 813.

[4] “Wisdom and knowledge, as well as virtue, diffused generally among the body of the people being necessary for the preservation of their rights and liberties; and as these depend on spreading the opportunities and advantages of education in the various parts of the country, and among the different orders of the people, it shall be the duty of legislatures and magistrates, in all future periods of this commonwealth, to cherish the interests of literature and the sciences, and all seminaries of them; ... especially public schools and grammar schools in towns; ...” Thorpe, Francis Newton, editor, The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and other Organic Laws of the States, Territories, Now or Heretofore Forming the United States of America. 7 v. (Government Printing Office, Washington, 1909), Vol. II, p. 1907. Similar statements were placed in the constitutions of neighboring New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine. Indiana, Arkansas, Mississippi, Missouri, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee, Kansas and North Dakota have likewise pinned their faith to “knowledge and learning” as an agent for democratizing the government as well as for the encouragement of “the principles of humanity, industry, and morality.” Ibid., Vol. IV, p. 2487; Vol. II, pp. 1069, 1086; Vol. I, pp. 283, 322, 353; Vol. IV, p. 2080; p. 2212; Vol. VI, p. 3233; p. 3373; p. 3469; Vol. II, p. 1232; Vol. V, p. 2872. In constitutions adopted at a much later time the same purposes of education are often expressed. In 1789 a Massachusetts law charged “instructors of youth” that they should “take diligent care, and to exert their best endeavors to impress on the minds of children and youth committed to their care and instruction, the principles of piety, justice, and a sacred regard to truth, love to their country, humanity, and universal benevolence, sobriety, industry, and frugality, chastity, moderation and temperance, and those other virtues which are the ornament of human society, and the basis upon which the Republican Constitution is structured. And it shall be the duty of such instructors to endeavor to lead those under their care (as their ages and capacities will admit) into a particular understanding of the tendency of the above mentioned virtues, to preserve and perfect a Republican Constitution, and to secure the blessings of liberty, as well as to promote their future happiness; and the tendency of the opposite vices to slavery and ruin.” Statutes of Massachusetts, 1780-1807, sec. 4, Vol. I, pp. 470-471. On the statute books in 1823. Also Statutes, 1826, ch. 143, p. 180; also General Statutes, 1860, ch. 38, sec. 10, p. 216; also Public Statutes, 1882, ch. 44, sec. 16. This law became the source of many similar in character.

[5] In 1784, Jefferson took occasion to declare, “In every government on earth is some trace of human weakness, some germ of corruption and degeneracy, which cunning will discover, and wickedness insensibly open, cultivate and improve. Every government degenerates when trusted to the rulers of the people alone. The people themselves are its only safe depositories; and to render even them safe, their minds must be improved to a certain degree.” Jefferson, Thomas, The Writings of Thomas Jefferson. Paul Leicester Ford, ed. (New York, 1894), Vol. III, p. 254.

[6] See footnote 4 for the Massachusetts law of 1789. Statutes of New Hampshire, 1830, title XCII, ch. 1, sec. 8, p. 431; also Compiled Statutes, 1853, sec. 20, p. 179. Statutes of Maine, 1821, Vol. II, sec. 2, p. 504, also Revised Statutes, 1840, ch. 17, p. 170. Supplement to Revised Statutes, 1885-1895, ch. 11, sec. 91; Acts and Resolves, 1917, ch. 228, p. 263. Revised Code of Mississippi, 1824, ch. 82, sec. 14, p. 407; Ibid., 1840, ch. 9, sec. 12, p. 124. Statutes of Indiana, 1806, p. 17. Revised Statutes of Illinois, 1833, p. 556.

[7] An illuminating discussion of “Jacksonian Democracy” is found in Arthur M. Schlesinger’s New Viewpoints in American History (New York, 1922).

[8] Mann, Horace, Annual Reports on Education (Boston, 1868), pp. 523-558.

[9] Laws of Massachusetts, 1827, ch. 148, p. 180; also Revised Statutes, 1836, ch. 23, p. 218. In the Revised Statutes “general history,” not “history,” is required.

[10] Laws of Vermont ... to 1834, ch. 50 (1827), sec. 1, p. 136; also Revised Statutes, 1840, ch. XVIII, sec. 1, p. 111; also Compiled Statutes, 1851, p. 144.

[11] Laws of New Hampshire, 1845, ch. 220, sec. 6; also Compiled Statutes, 1853, ch. 79, sec. 6, p. 183. This law was retained in 1863.

[12] Revised Statutes of Rhode Island, 1857, ch. 67, sec. 3, p. 173.

[13] Acts and Resolves of Massachusetts, 1857, ch. 206, sec. 1, p. 542.

[14] General Statutes of Massachusetts, 1860, ch. 38, sec. 1, p. 215; Public Statutes, 1882, ch. 44, sec. 1, p. 299. According to a table in ‘A. J. Inglis’ The Rise of the High School in Massachusetts (Columbia University, New York, 1911), p. 90, history was offered in six out of seven towns in 1860, with a per cent of 200 with algebra as a base of 100 per cent. This would indicate an interest in history to a considerable extent.

[15] Political economy as a term included political science as we understand it today. Cf. Inglis, op. cit., p. 141.

[16] Laws of Virginia, 1848-49, ch. 110. An act establishing free schools in the county of Albemarle, p. 60.

[17] Laws of California, 1851, ch. 126, art. VII, sec. 2, p. 499.

[18] Connecticut, as early as 1796, had emphasized the necessity of inculcating a knowledge of the state law, prescribing that “all parents and masters of children, shall by themselves or others teach and instruct ..., all such children as are under their care and government, according to their ability, and to read the English tongue well, and to know the laws against capital offenses....” Statutes of Connecticut, 1796, p. 60. The law further stated that in case it was impossible to comply with the statement quoted above the children should at least be instructed to answer certain parts of the catechism. To enforce the law, a fine of $3.34 to be used for the poor of the town was imposed upon all parents who failed in compliance. Also cf. law of Massachusetts of 1642, page 3. Massachusetts also in 1789 had emphasized the necessity of training the youth of the commonwealth “to preserve and perfect a Republican Constitution and to secure the blessings of liberty as well as to promote their future happiness.” Laws of Massachusetts, 1780-1807, sec. 4, Vol. I, pp. 470-471. Again in 1826, ch. 143, p. 180.

[19] Martineau, Harriet, Society in America (London, 1837), Vol. III, p. 165.

[20] The year in which the Virginia law was passed, 1849, was a time of sectional discord. Sectional interest may have entered into the passage of the law.

[21] In the discussion of the qualifications of teachers, in each period there is a neglect of all laws in which history or some other social study is not specifically named. Regulations often are quite definite regarding the qualifications of teachers in rural and elementary schools, with no statement or with no definitely named qualifications for high school teachers. In some states the superintendent of public instruction or some other official prescribes the subjects in which the examination is held. The tendency of recent legislation has been to accept graduation from reputable colleges or universities giving training in methods of teaching, in lieu of examination.

[22] Acts of Connecticut, 1841, p. 47; Revised Statutes, 1849, sec. 22, p. 300; Statutes, 1854, p. 414; General Statutes, 1866, p. 132; ibid., 1875, ch. 4, sec. 1; ibid., 1888, sec. 2135, p. 466; ibid., 1902, par. 2245, p. 584; ibid., 1918, ch. 56, par. 1007, Vol. I, p. 349. Additions and slight changes have been made in the regulations for the social studies. With modifications the law has been on the statute books from 1841 to the present.

[23] Revised Statutes of Maine, 1857, sec. 49; ibid., 1871, ch. 11, sec. 54; Acts and Resolves, 1873, ch. 120, p. 76; ibid., 1891, ch. 32, p. 20; ibid., 1895, ch. 155, p. 173. Revised Statutes of Rhode Island, 1857, ch. 67, sec. 3, p. 173.

[24] In 1845 the law was slightly modified to distinguish between grades of certificates, but in all cases United States history was prerequisite to certification, and in 1905, Illinois history was added to the qualifications necessary for a license. In 1913, in the requirements for a state certificate she included sociology among the subjects for examination, and for the first, second and third grade certificates, United States history, civics and the history of Illinois. Revised Statutes of Illinois, 1845, ch. XCVIII, sec. 12, p. 498. The law is substantially the same, Statutes, 1856, ch. 198, sec. XLVI, Vol. II, p. 1098; ibid., 1858, sec. 50, p. 449. Laws, 1865, sec. 19, p. 119; Revised Statutes, 1874, ch. 122, 51, p. 963; Annotated Statutes, 1885, ch. 122, sec. 51, p. 2229; Revised Statutes, 1903, ch. 122, 187, par. 3, p. 1683; ibid., 1906, 187, par. 3, p. 1820. During this period these subjects were to be taught in the schools. Revised Statutes of Illinois, 1913, ch. 122, 541, par. 2, p. 2270; Laws, 1913, p. 588 (Senate Bill No. 355, approved June 28, 1913); the same for the social studies in the laws of 1903 and 1905, also in 1917 and in 1919. See Revised Statutes, 1917, ch. 122, p. 2216; and Laws, 1919, ch. 122, p. 900.

[25] Acts of Iowa, 1846, sec. 72, p. 105; Code of Iowa, 1851, sec. 1148, p. 181; Acts, 1858, p. 72; Code, 1873, sec. 1766, p. 325; Acts, 1878, ch. 143, p. 130. In 1882, regulatory provision requiring for a state certificate a knowledge of civil government, the constitution and laws of Iowa, besides history of the United States, passed the legislature, and economics and civics were added to the subjects required for certification in 1896; Acts, 1882, ch. 167, sec. 4, p. 153. Acts, 1896, ch. 39 (H. F. 135), p. 44. Supplement to Code, 1902, sec. 2736, p. 315, for first grade certificate, civics, elementary economics besides the requirements of second grade, which included history of the United States; also Acts, 1906, ch. 122, sec. 4, p. 88.

[26] Laws of Nebraska, 1855, par. 61, p. 220; ibid., 1858, p. 292; ibid., 1872, p. 55; ibid., 1881, sec. 5, pp. 359, 366; ibid., 1885, sec. 5, p. 327. The same subjects as in 1881 in Laws, 1901, ch. 66, p. 448; ibid., 1903, ch. 135, p. 559. Also Consolidated Statutes, 1891, ch. 44, 3624, p. 792; ibid., 1903, 5542, sec. 5. In 1891, there is a distinction made in the grades of certificates, requiring civil government and United States history in all but the lowest grade, Revised Statutes, 1913, ch. 71, art. XIII, 6857, sec. 158, p. 1913, 6859, sec. 160, p. 1914. In 1881 United States history and civics were added to the prescribed subjects for a second grade certificate, and for a professional state certificate general history, political economy, civil government and American history were required. In the forty years intervening between 1881 and 1921, there is no change in the prerequisites for county certificates, state certificates, and the additional certificates of more recent origin—city certificates—so far as the social studies are concerned, with the exception of the dropping of political economy from the required list by 1919. Laws of Nebraska, 1919, 1921, ch. 70, sec. 2, p. 262.

CHAPTER II
Nationalism and Localism in History Legislation, 1860-1900

THE CURRICULUM

The Civil War marked a turning point in American history. Forces undreamed of before 1860 conspired to change the whole tenor of American life. From isolated rural communities of simple tastes and unexploited resources, the United States emerged into a growing urbanization of multifarious activities. Prior to 1860 there had been little change from the days of George Washington, when nine-tenths of the people had been engaged in agriculture; by 1890, however, the population had so shifted that more than one-third dwelt in towns of over two thousand inhabitants.

These vast and far-reaching changes were brought about by an expansion particularly in the fields of transportation, agriculture, and manufacturing. Steam, electricity, progress in invention, the growth of an immigrant population, and the opening of new lands to settlement, all served as contributing factors. It was a period characterized by a strong national sentiment. The theory of state rights had been settled forever by the victory of the Union in 1865, and a realization of the great opportunities of America bore the fruit of patriotic fervor. Nationalism expressed itself in the nationalization of industry, in the organization of national labor units, in the nationalization of the financial resources of the country, and in a deepened interest in the public school system. It led inevitably to a new appreciation of the distinctive contributions of local communities to the new national spirit, and was, in a sense, responsible for a strong reaction toward deep-seated local interests in the ’nineties.

These vast changes necessitated new aims and purposes in education. The preceding period had witnessed the educational system transformed from an instrument of the church into one of the state. By 1860 the theory of tax-supported schools had become established, and most states provided at least elementary instruction. By 1880, legal and legislative objections to the establishment of high schools had succumbed to the conviction that education was essential in the new social and industrial order. There came to be an abiding faith in the power of education to regenerate society. The “knowledge aim” of the preceding decades was followed by the desire for a citizenship trained to active participation in the society of which it was the warp and woof. As a result, those subjects in the curriculum tending to promote patriotism and good citizenship received the sanction of the educator.

Although history had been found to some extent in the school curriculum before the Civil War, there had been no general acceptance of it as a required study.[27] Now in the form of United States history it was received with widespread approval. A gradual extension of the requirements grew out of the spirit of the times, and to American history was added the study of the constitution of the nation and of the state, as well as the study of state history. Twenty-three states, during the four decades following 1860, placed upon their statute books laws requiring the teaching of history in the public schools. Over one-fourth of these commonwealths lay below the Mason and Dixon line, the states of the Middle and Far West becoming the most active after 1880.

In 1862, Vermont, in a law dealing with “the instruction of the young,” prescribed history and the constitution of the United States, and special instruction in “the geography, and history, constitution and principles of government of the state of Vermont” as a part of the school curriculum.[28] A later law extended the social studies curriculum, for towns of twenty-five hundred inhabitants, to embrace political economy, general history, and civil government in the high school course.[29] The nearby state of Connecticut included in her law, regarding the branches to be taught in her schools, the subject of “history,” later specifying “United States history.”[30]

During the early years of the period Southern legislatures were particularly active, both in the border states and in the Confederacy. In each case the legislation was responsive to the nationalistic tendencies of the time; and, in the states of the Confederacy, the study of national history and of the federal constitution were for the first time required by law.[31] Such statutes, sometimes enacted before the restoration of home rule and under the influence of Reconstruction agencies, sought, through the public schools, to overcome the intensified sectionalism of the post-war South. Laws making it a duty of the teacher to inculcate a proper attitude toward “the laws and government of the country” had much the same purpose as those requiring specifically the study of United States history and government. Thus a law of the first legislative assembly of West Virginia, passed December 10, 1863, made it the duty of all public school teachers “to inculcate the duties of piety, morality and respect for the laws and government of their country.” All teachers and boards of education were expressly “charged with the duty of providing that moral training for the youth of this state which shall contribute to securing good behavior and virtuous conduct, and to furnishing the state with exemplary citizens.” In 1874, a statute designed for the primary schools of the state prescribed the teaching of the common school subjects including geography and history.[32]

Similar enactments were passed by Missouri and Maryland in 1865. In Missouri, it was provided that “all teachers, when employed shall be required to instruct their pupils in the fundamental principles of the Government of the United States and of the State of Missouri, and the duties of loyal citizens thereto.”[33] Maryland, in 1865, made it a duty of her teachers to train their pupils in piety and justice, loyalty and sacred regard for truth, and in love of country; and to lead them into a clear understanding of the virtues which were the basis upon which was founded a republican constitution; “to preserve the blessings of liberty, promote temporal happiness and advance the greatness of the American Nation.”[34] The study of United States history was likewise required, followed in 1868 by the subject of government, both federal and state. It was not until a few years later that state history was added to the prescribed list.[35]

Among the first of the states of the Confederacy to enact laws requiring the teaching of United States history were Arkansas, South Carolina and Mississippi.[36] Passed during the period of carpet-bag control, their statutes show plainly the effects of reconstruction influences. The Arkansas law of 1868 and South Carolina’s law of 1870 prescribed not only the study of national history but also required a knowledge of the principles of the federal and state constitutions. In 1881, North Carolina enacted a statute for the teaching of both national and state history, and Tennessee, in 1873, accorded a place to United States history among the subjects required in her schools.[37] It was not until later that the Alabama Code records similar action by the legislature of that state in prescribing instruction in “the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of Alabama” for “all pupils in all schools and colleges supported, in whole or in part, by public money, or under state control.”[38]

Among the border states, Kentucky, as well as West Virginia, called for the teaching of history, to which was added the study of civil government after “July 1, 1889.”[39]

Florida reverted to a form of the morality laws for the promotion of citizenship through the public schools. In 1881, she directed and authorized each teacher “to labor faithfully and earnestly for the advancement of pupils in their studies, deportment and morals, and to embrace every opportunity to inculcate by precept and example, the principles of truth, honesty, patriotism, and the practice of every Christian virtue; to require the pupils to observe personal cleanliness, neatness, order, promptness, and gentility of manners, to avoid vulgarity and profanity, and to cultivate in them habits of industry and economy, a regard for the rights and feelings of others, and their own responsibilities and duties as citizens.”[40] In 1889 there was added another duty to the list enumerated above: that of “reading at least once a month the Declaration of Rights as set forth by the constitution of the state of Florida.”[41]

The states of the Middle West also desired to inculcate patriotism in the youth of that section and to emphasize the accomplishments of America. In a series of laws, beginning in 1861, Minnesota prescribed the study of the “history of the United States.”[42] In 1878, she sought to carry out the desire for an exemplary citizenry in “An Act to introduce Moral and Social Science in the Public Schools of the State,” in which was reëchoed the sentiment of the morality laws of a former time.[43]

By 1876, Wisconsin had allied herself with those endorsing the study of government, by prescribing that “the constitution of the United States and of this state shall be taught in every district school.”[44] By later laws the study of United States history and civil government was required.[45]

Among the subjects prescribed in Indiana and Missouri was United States history, the latter state directing that elementary school pupils before entering the high school must have completed the subject.[46] South Dakota, in 1895, made United States history a requirement of her common school curriculum,[47] and North Dakota by a series of laws sanctioned both United States history and civil government.[48] Before statehood had been achieved, the territory of Dakota had prescribed, in 1883, that “the highest standard of morals shall be taught, and industry, truthfulness, integrity, and self-respect inculcated, obedience to law enjoined, and the aims of an upright and useful life cultivated.”[49] The same purpose was evident in North Dakota’s law of 1890 and that of South Dakota of 1893, which provided for “moral instruction tending to impress upon the minds of pupils the importance of truthfulness, temperance, purity, public spirit, patriotism, and respect for honest labor, obedience to parents and due deference for old age, shall be given by each teacher in the public schools.”[50]

The states of the Far West were likewise active. They followed in the wake of the older states by prescribing, in most cases, the teaching of United States history, and in some instances the study of government. In addition, they reverted to the type of law found at an early time in the Eastern states, which required a teacher to instruct in the principles of a free government “to train them [the pupils] up to a true comprehension of the rights, duties, and dignity of American citizenship.” Both types of law are found in the legislation of Washington,[51] Montana,[52] California,[53] and Arizona.[54] Nevada and New Mexico allied themselves with the movement to teach United States history in the public schools.[55]

Utah also prescribed United States history as a part of the school curriculum and included in another law an admonition for instruction in patriotism.[56] This statute is a good example of the evolutionary stage through which most states passed in the making of laws, and shows the tendency of the newer states to revert to the old type of laws in the early period of statehood. In Idaho no content subject was prescribed by law, but the teacher was held responsible for inculcating the “principles of morality, truth, justice, and patriotism.”[57]

The place of history in the school curriculum was thus thoroughly established by law at the close of the nineteenth century. United States history was required in more statutes than any other field of history, although, in some instances, political economy and general history found a place in the high school program. Frequently added to the requirement of national history, was the study of civil government, both federal and state, and occasionally local or state history.

During the period one-third of the legislatures enacting social study laws prescribed the teaching of the federal constitution. A knowledge of the state constitution was required in Maryland, South Carolina, Alabama, Missouri, and Arkansas; and North Carolina and Maryland, besides Vermont, prescribed the teaching of state history. The emphasis placed upon a knowledge of state institutions was but the reaction from the intense nationalism of the years immediately following the Civil War. It was especially evident toward the close of the century and during the early years following 1900. Indeed, from 1880 to 1900 local pride evinced a quickened consciousness in the organization of such groups as the Sons of Veterans in 1881, the United Confederate Veterans and the Sons of the American Revolution in 1889, the Daughters of the American Revolution in 1890, and the Sons of Confederate Veterans in 1896. In literature, writers like Cable, Eggleston, Harte and Stockton glorified the characteristics peculiar to their localities; and laws relating to the public school curriculum reflected precisely the same temper.[58]

Educational and learned societies likewise bore testimony to the interest in the study of history. In 1876, a committee of the National Education Association recommended United States history for the elementary school and a study of “universal history and the Constitution of the United States for high schools.”[59] In 1892, the Committee of Ten was created by the same organization to consider “programs of the secondary schools in the United States and ... the requirements for admission to college.”[60] Eight years of history were asked by this committee, four for the high school and four for the elementary.[61] In 1896, the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association was appointed, and in 1899 recommended a four years’ course in history.[62] During this time colleges also extended their entrance credits to include more history, which, with the committee reports, aided much in increasing the offerings in the public school curriculum. These activities are an indication of the place that history was coming to hold in the education of the young. They are added proof of the attention which the public was giving to the social studies in a period in which twenty-five states passed laws to include them in a required course of study.[63]

CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS

During the decade of the ’sixties laws regarding the certification of teachers were passed by New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Minnesota, Maryland, Wisconsin, Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, and California. “History” was a requirement of New Hampshire, Minnesota and Maryland,[64] and “United States history” received mention in the laws of Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Indiana, Missouri, Arkansas, and California.[65] To the requirement of United States history, California added that of the “Constitution and Government of the United States,” which was further amplified by a requirement for the teaching of the constitution of California, in an amendment of 1874.

From 1870 to 1880 there was little departure from the subjects required in the preceding period, “history” being considered essential in Idaho by a law of 1870, by Arkansas, in 1873 and in 1875, and by West Virginia in 1874 and in 1879 for primary school certificates.[66] In Texas, Washington, Kansas, Colorado, and Delaware, the law specified United States history, and in Oregon, modern history.[67] Besides history being required in the statute of Arkansas, an applicant for a state certificate was required to have a knowledge of the constitution of the state and nation, an innovation in the required list of subjects.[68] In Wisconsin, the law pertaining to the certification of teachers was revised in 1879 for the express purpose of examining persons in the federal and state constitutions, and was carried over in the statutes of the next thirty years.[69]

In the decade following 1880, New York, Michigan, the Dakotas, Alabama, Arizona, Ohio, and Montana joined the states which had prescribed certification requirements in the previous decade.[70] Upon the statute books of Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Indiana, California, and Washington were continued laws previously enacted.[71] To her requirement of United States history, Colorado prescribed a knowledge of the federal constitution.[72] Civil government, as well as United States history, was required for licensing in New York, Ohio, Michigan, the Dakotas, Alabama, Montana, and Arizona. In Idaho, by a law of 1884, territorial certificates could be secured only by those showing proficiency not only in United States history, but in general history, political economy, and civil government as well.[73] Oregon also extended her requirements beyond those commonly found, to include modern history.[74]

From 1890 to 1900 only four states passed laws of this character for the first time. All other legislation of the period was enacted by states which had previously prescribed the subjects prerequisite for a teacher’s license. In those commonwealths where there had been statutes enacted, the list of required subjects was frequently extended to include political economy.

Florida, Oklahoma, Utah, and Wyoming, in prescribing that their teachers must show a satisfactory knowledge of United States history, followed the usual practice, although acting for the first time. To this requirement was added also that of a knowledge of civil government, a common prerequisite whose popularity had been established in the ’eighties.[75] Florida, however, for the third and second grade certificates did not require a knowledge of civil government, reserving that only for the first grade and state licenses. For the latter, a knowledge of general history was required by the law of 1893.[76] Wyoming required not only United States history and civil government, but for a first grade certificate added political economy.[77]

From 1890 to 1900 Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Missouri, Kansas, Mississippi, Texas, Idaho, Washington, Utah, California, and Wyoming required proficiency in United States history and civil government for some grade of teacher’s license.[78]

In 1891, Alabama added to the requirement of United States history for a first grade license, the constitution of the state of Alabama and of the United States, thereby conforming to the popular tendency.[79] A knowledge of state history was required in Pennsylvania, Mississippi, South Dakota and Texas; and Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Minnesota, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming required general history for the higher grade of certification.[80] Political economy became a prerequisite for a professional state certificate in Minnesota by the laws of 1893, in Iowa in 1896, and in Wyoming in 1899 for a first grade license.[81]

United States history only was required in Utah for county certificates of the grammar and primary grades, in Kansas for the second and third grade certificates, in Indiana for common school licenses, and in Arkansas for county certificates.[82]

During the period from 1860 to 1900 thirty-six states enacted laws relating to the certification of teachers. Of this number, only six states had passed laws prior to 1860.[83] In all states a knowledge of United States history was a prerequisite for licensing throughout the period, and, in most cases, civil government was required.[84]

TEACHERS’ QUALIFICATIONS: OATHS OF LOYALTY

The fear of an apostacy on the part of the teaching craft led legislatures in this period to impose other than scholastic requirements upon those who would teach in the public schools. These regulations, indicating a distrust of the loyalty of teachers, have required oaths of allegiance from all who would qualify as teachers.

Legislation of this character was originally an outgrowth of the Civil War, the first laws being passed in 1862.[85] And it is not strange that the border state Kentucky was a pioneer in statutes of this character. Here the law was made to apply to all school commissioners, examiners of teachers for the common schools, and school trustees and teachers elected to teach in the common schools, all presidents, professors and teachers in colleges, and high schools incorporated by legislative enactment. It pledged loyalty to the Union and denounced the tenets of the Confederacy.

“I do solemnly swear that I will support the Constitution of the United States, and the Constitution of Kentucky,” vowed the applicant, “and be true and faithful to the commonwealth as long as I remain a citizen thereof. That I recognize the binding obligations of the Constitution of the United States and the duty of every citizen to submit thereto as the supreme law of the land. That I will not give aid to the rebellion against the government of the United States, nor give aid to the so-called provisional government of Kentucky, either directly or indirectly, so long as I remain a citizen of or reside in Kentucky, and that this oath is taken by me without any mental reservation—so help me God.” This oath, given in writing, was kept at the county court office where the school was located, and a violation of the oath or false swearing upon conviction, led to the imposition of a penalty. Evasion of the law, too, was subject to punishment through a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars nor more than two hundred dollars.[86] In 1889 it was made incumbent upon the county superintendent to administer such oaths.

Similar laws appeared on the statute books of West Virginia and Missouri, where, like Kentucky, these border states felt a pressing need for a loyal citizenry. On December 10, 1863, the former commonwealth declared that no applicant should be admitted to an examination for a teacher’s license unless the county superintendent had reasonable evidence that the candidate was not only “of good moral character and temperate habits,” but that he was “loyal to the government of the United States and of West Virginia.”[87] To buttress this law it was prescribed that all teachers should take the oath of loyalty required of all state officers. The latter regulation was operative after November 16, 1863, but no specific mention was made of teachers subscribing to such an oath until 1867. However, it seems probable that they, as well as state officers, affirmed their loyalty at the earliest period of statehood, since it is recorded that two teachers, J. B. Soloman and C. T. Wilson, in 1869, were exempted from subscribing to the oath prescribed in the act of 1863.

A statute, moreover, directly prescribed for teachers in 1867 the taking of the following oath: “I, A. A. B., do solemnly swear that I will support the constitution of the United States and the constitution of the state of West Virginia, that I have never voluntarily borne arms against the United States, that I have voluntarily given no aid or comfort to persons engaged in armed hostility thereto, by countenancing, counseling or encouraging them in the same, that I have not sought, accepted, nor attempted to exercise the functions of any office whatever under any authority in hostility to the United States; that I have not yielded a voluntary support to any pretended government, authority, power or constitution within the United States, hostile or inimical thereto; and that I take this obligation freely, without any mental reservations or purpose of evasion.”[88]

The cessation of armed hostilities between the North and the South induced Missouri to require an avowal of loyalty on the part of her teachers. On March 29, 1866, there was approved a law by which “all teachers before entering upon the discharge of their duties should take and subscribe to the oath of loyalty prescribed by the constitution.”[89]

Regarding the lessons of the War, Arkansas, in 1866, believed there should be no disagreement. Here not only did the applicant for a teacher’s certificate swear to support the constitution and laws of the United States and Arkansas, but he also promised that he would encourage all others to do likewise. “... I will never countenance or aid in the secession of this state from the United States,” the affirmant declared, and added his pledge “to inculcate in the minds of youth sentiments of patriotism and loyalty.”[90]

Oregon also required a pledge of her teachers by legislation in 1862. Before the county superintendent of schools, disloyalty to the state and nation must be forsworn by the applicant for a certificate, who promised “without any mental reservation or evasion whatever,” that he would “bear true allegiance and fidelity to the same against all enemies, foreign or domestic.”[91]

Dissentient opinions received scant courtesy in Rhode Island at the time of the Civil War although no law forbade them. However, a warning from the state commissioner of education to the general assembly at the January session of 1865 undoubtedly evoked the same response as the enactment of a law. Here, too, there was to be no tolerance for a passive loyalty. “The war tocsin has sounded,” the report declared, “our country is convulsed in mighty conflict, our friends are in the contesting field, their blood has been made to redden and fertilize the rebel soil.... Traitors and rebel sympathizers are among us, rendering every available assistance and using every means within their power to further the rebel cause and aid them in the accomplishment of their hellish design. Therefore, let us be on our guard, lest some of them unawares be ushered into our schools as teachers. For if the teacher be a traitor, his actions will correspond therewith, and by example, if not by precept, he will be sowing the seeds of rebellion in the susceptible hearts of our children. Should the pure minds of our little ones be poisoned with the damnable principles of rebellion, or be led astray by the pernicious examples of rebel sympathizers? Shall the hand already stained with the blood of the murdered father, be employed to guide his orphan child?—the hand that applied the lighted torch, and made the orphan a homeless wanderer, shall that be the hand to trace the chart by which his little bark is to be guided to its destined haven? No, most assuredly, no. Better by far remain as he is, his untutored mind wrapped up in ignorance, than to be thus guided and piloted by the vile traitor, only to be finally dashed against the rocks and engulfed in the waves of rebellion. But let our teachers be noble, loyal sons and daughters of America—those who, while instructing our little ones in the sciences that pertain to the secular concerns of life, will also teach them their obligations to their country, and at the same time will point them to that never fading star by which their frail barks may be safely guided over life’s treacherous seas to the port of eternal rest, to gain that blood-washed throng who chant the praises of God and the Lamb from Mount Zion’s balmy top.”[92]

As a survival of the legislation regarding teachers’ qualifications, which had been brought about by the period of Reconstruction, were the statutes of Arizona of 1883 and 1885. By these laws it was made a duty of the superintendent of public instruction and the county superintendents of schools to administer oaths and affirmations of loyalty to teachers.[93]

CITIZENSHIP AS A QUALIFICATION FOR TEACHERS

Beginning in 1899 came legislation eliminating from the teaching profession those who were not American citizens. North Dakota was the pioneer in this movement in a statute prohibiting the issuance of certificates or permits to teach to persons not citizens of the United States, unless they had resided in the United States “for at least one year prior to the time of such applications or permit.”[94] The same year Idaho adopted a similar restriction, by forbidding the granting of certificates or the employment of any teacher in the public schools, “not a citizen of the United States.”[95] A decade later (1907) Nevada attempted to promote patriotism by requiring an oath of all public officials including teachers in schools and university professors. In this was affirmed the dominance of the national over the state government and an abjuration of duelling, a relic of frontier conditions.

“I, ——, do solemnly swear,” declared the official, or teacher, “that I will support, protect and defend the Constitution and Government of the United States and the Constitution and Government of the State of Nevada against all enemies, whether domestic or foreign, and that I will bear true faith, allegiance and loyalty to the same, any state convention or legislature to the contrary notwithstanding; and further that I do this, with a full determination, pledge and purpose, without any mental reservation or evasion whatsoever. And I do further solemnly swear (or affirm) that I have not fought a duel, nor sent or accepted a challenge to fight a duel, nor been a second to either party, nor in any manner aided or assisted in such a duel, nor been knowingly the bearer of such challenge or acceptance, since the adoption of the Constitution of the State of Nevada, and that I will not be so engaged or concerned directly or indirectly in or about any such duel, during my continuance in office....”[96]

TEXTBOOK LEGISLATION

Substantially all legislation regarding history textbooks has developed since the Civil War, only three states passing statutes of this character before 1860.[97] This form of regulation falls, in general, into laws in which certain textbooks are named as suitable for use or are definitely prescribed, laws in which the subjects of the curriculum are enumerated by a statement concerning textbooks, enactments limiting the price of books, statutes by which books of a partisan or political bias are forbidden, and laws prescribing the character of the content for history textbooks, whose source is a sectional or partisan animus.

In 1862, the state of Vermont passed An Act directing the Board of Education to select a Textbook of the Geography and History of Vermont which was to be used in all district schools of the state for a period of five years.[98] Ten years later Hall’s Geography and History of Vermont, which was then in use by sanction of the law, was continued as a textbook until 1878.[99] In Rhode Island, the report of the Superintendent of Public Education, in 1865, named the histories written by Berard and Goodrich as those commonly used in the public schools.[100] By legislative enactment, North Carolina in 1879, designated Moore’s History of North Carolina for use in her public schools.[101]

Of the textbooks prescribed in West Virginia, Goodrich’s Common School History, Quackenbos’ History of the United States, and Holmes’ History of the United States were named by laws in 1868 and 1873. Later the price of Myers’ General History, Montgomery’s General History and Montgomery’s Beginner’s American History were regulated by law.[102] In Virginia “the two works of John Esten Cooke, entitled respectively ‘Virginia: A History of Her People,’ and ‘Stories of the Old Dominion,’” were included in the list of textbooks selected.[103] In Indiana, in 1889, the state board of education was directed to choose a history equal to Thalheimer’s History of the United States,[104] and two years later it was enacted that the price of the textbook on the history of the United States should not exceed 65 cents a volume.[105]

Minnesota, Kansas, and Montana insisted that their histories be the equal of Barnes’ School Histories.[106] In Kansas the law also made it conditional that the civil government textbook be equal to Thummel’s Government of the United States with the Kansas addendum,[107] and that among the textbooks selected by the state commission should be included books on general history, history of Kansas and English history.[108] A Montana law also limited the price to be paid for books: Barnes’ Brief History of the United States, retail price $1.20; Barnes’ Primary History of the United States, retail price 70 cents; and Lovell’s Civics for Young People (also a prescribed textbook), retail price 50 cents.[109] In South Dakota the maximum price for a textbook on the history of the United States was fixed at 80 cents by a law of 1891.[110]

The duty of choosing textbooks was delegated to various officials in the different states. Missouri directed, in 1897, that a state commission should select the textbooks in United States history and civil government.[111] Arkansas delegated the task of choosing a history of the United States to the state superintendent of public instruction,[112] as well as providing, in 1899, that there be included among the textbooks of the schools, the history and civil government of the state and nation.[113] In Idaho, the county superintendent selected the textbooks in “history,” and in California the duty devolved upon the state board of education.[114]

Among the branches of study in Texas and Alabama for which law prescribed that there should be a uniform series of books was United States history, and in Alabama was added the history and constitution of the state.[115]

The most common regulation regarding textbooks pertained to the prohibition of books showing partisan, political or sectarian bias.[116] In the South, particularly, were such laws enacted. In February, 1890, a joint resolution “in relation to histories to be taught in the public schools of Mississippi” passed the legislature of that state. It urged “the utmost care in the selection and introduction of school histories,” in order to eliminate those considered “biased, prejudiced and unfair,” or that suppressed a “full, free and candid presentation of questions upon which the American people” had been “honestly divided,” and in the maintenance of which they had acted “according to the promptings of courage and honor.”[117]

Precisely the same motive actuated the lawmakers of Alabama later in establishing county school boards to select uniform series of textbooks for the public schools. These boards were instructed to avoid “textbooks containing anything partisan, prejudicial or inimical to the interests of the people of the State” or which would “cast a reflection on their past history.”[118]

Endorsement of history books favorable to the South was the burden of a resolution of Georgia, in 1866, which commended the Southern University series of school textbooks under the auspices of the University of Virginia from the pens of Captain M. F. Maury, Gilmore Simms, Honorable Charles Gayarre, Judge B. F. Porter, Professors Le Compte, Holmes, Venable, Schele, Devere, because they expressed a “correct sentiment.”[119] This particularism became more evident toward the close of the period as Southern legislatures threw off the influence of carpet-bag domination.

Maryland’s legislation of 1868 and South Carolina’s of 1870 declared that “school books shall contain nothing of a sectarian or partisan character.”[120] Virginia as early as 1849 had subscribed to a similar statement,[121] and in 1872 both North Carolina and Georgia forbade the use of books in the public schools which might partake of a “political” or “sectional” bias.[122]

In Georgia, the county boards were not permitted “to introduce into the schools any textbook or miscellaneous book of a sectarian or sectional character.”[123] A South Carolina law, pertaining to the general duties of the state superintendent of education, accepted the phraseology common to many laws regarding textbooks in forbidding “partisan” books or instruction.[124]

Partisan textbooks were also excluded from the schools of Alabama, Kansas, Arizona, Washington, and California.[125] In Idaho and Montana legislation stipulated the rejection of all books which would propagate “political” doctrines, and in Texas it provided that nothing of a sectional or partisan character should be included in the uniform series of textbooks selected.[126] In Kentucky the county board of examiners was given the task of selecting a uniform series of textbooks for the county providing that the selection did not include any books of “an immoral, sectional or sectarian character.”[127] The territory of Dakota legislating regarding school libraries forbade not only books unsuited “to the cultivation of good character and good morals and manners,” but all “partisan political pamphlets and books.”[128]

The evolution of laws respecting textbooks in this period indicated the tendency toward a spirit of localism. The South seized upon another opportunity in her legislation for textbooks to prohibit the teaching of a Northern viewpoint; nine states of the Confederacy passed laws prohibiting the use of “partisan” histories in their schools. The border state of Kentucky also forbade “sectional” textbooks, whereas the West attempted to exclude “partisan, political books.”[129] The laws passed by the North during the period dealt largely with the naming of textbooks to be used in the public schools.

FOOTNOTES:

[27] Cf. Johnson, Henry, Teaching of History in Elementary and Secondary Schools (New York, 1915), ch. v; Russell, W. F., The Early Teaching of History in the Secondary Schools of New York and Massachusetts (Philadelphia, 1915). History was offered in states where there were not statutory requirements. The enumeration of these laws does not, moreover, indicate the amount of history studied.

[28] General Statutes of Vermont, 1862, ch. 22, sec. 19, p. 151.

[29] Ibid., 1894, sec. 700, p. 189. Similar laws had been passed by Massachusetts in 1860. See page 7.

[30] Laws of Connecticut, 1883, ch. LXXIV, p. 264. Laws of successive years carried on substantially the same requirements. In 1902 the law appeared with slight modifications, having been accepted in 1868, 1870, 1884, 1888, 1889, 1895, 1897, 1899. General Statutes of Connecticut, 1902, ch. 131, par. 2130, p. 561, cites Revision, 1888, par. 2118, ch. 6; 1895, ch. 119; 1897, ch. 101; 1899, ch. 54.

[31] Virginia in 1849 had prescribed United States history. This state did not enact a law during this period.

[32] Acts of West Virginia, 1863, ch. 137, 16, p. 250. Again Acts, 1866, ch. 74, 29, p. 62; and Code, 1868, ch. 45, 35, p. 300; Acts, 1873, ch. 123, 32, p. 403; Acts, 1881, p. 185; Acts, 1874, ch. 123, 11, p. 388; ibid., p. 173. This law was reënacted in 1881.

[33] General Statutes of Missouri, 1864-65, sec. 4, p. 128. Approved February 10, 1865.

[34] Laws of Maryland, 1865, ch. 5, sec. 4, p. 284.

[35] Ibid., ch. IV, sec. 2, p. 282; ibid., 1868, ch. VI, sec. 2, p. 754; ibid., 1870, ch. VII, sec. 3, p. 540; ibid., 1872, ch. 7, sec. 3, p. 638; Revised Code, 1879, art. XXVII, 39, Vol. I, p. 255.

[36] Virginia had passed such a law in 1849. See page 8. Laws of South Carolina, 1870, sec. 24, p. 344; Revised Statutes, 1872, ch. XXXVIII, sec. 4, p. 246; General Statutes, 1881-1882, sec. 1004, p. 300. Revised Statutes, 1893, sec. 1058, Vol. I, p. 368, repeat the law. Laws of Arkansas, 1868, sec. 65, p. 184; Laws, 1875, sec. 45, p. 68; again in Acts, 1913, sec. 62, p. 410. Laws of Mississippi, 1873, ch. 1, sec. 23, p. 13.

[37] Laws of North Carolina, 1881, ch. 200, sec. 38, p. 383. Laws of Tennessee, 1873, ch. XXV, sec. 31, p. 46; Laws, 1879, ch. 187, sec. 31.

[38] Code of Alabama, 1897, art. 3, 3456, 4, Vol. 1, p. 998; ibid., 1907, 1685, 4, Vol. 1, p. 741. The Code of a decade later repeated the same statute indicating that it was still a law.

[39] Laws of Kentucky, 1888, par. 6, Vol. 1, p. 157. General Statutes, 1873, p. 212. The latter refers to the law for history. For West Virginia see page 15.

[40] Digest of Florida, 1822-1881, sec. 36, p. 910; Revised Statutes, 1892, sec. 253, p. 184; Compiled Laws, 1914, Vol. I, p. 139.

[41] Acts of Florida, 1889, ch. 3872, sec. 31, p. 82. Approved June 8, 1889. A law pertaining to the teaching of citizenship had been passed in Florida on January 24, 1851, and is unique in its period. By this law, two seminaries of learning were established upon the east and west sides of the Suwanee River. The first purpose of these seminaries was to be the instruction of persons in “all the various branches that pertain to a good common school education; and next to give instruction in the mechanic arts, in husbandry and agricultural chemistry, in the fundamental laws, and in what regards the rights and duties of citizens.” Acts of Florida, 1850-1861, ch. 337 (no. 26), p. 97; also Digest, 1822-1881 inclusive, ch. 178, sec. 1, p. 916; Revised Statutes, 1892, ch. V, par. 301, p. 192.

[42] Laws of Minnesota, 1861, sec. 22, p. 60; 1862, sec. 29, p. 26; 1864, sec. 29, p. 23; 1873, sec. 64, p. 21. Successive laws do not necessarily mean reënactments, but other subjects have been added with the social studies remaining the same and reappearing in the laws.

[43] General Statutes of Minnesota, 1881 (including Statutes, 1878), ch. 36, sec. 178, Vol. II; General Statutes, 1894, ch. 36 (Title 5), sec. 3889, sec. 3890, sec. 3891, p. 1053. The law provided “that all school officers in the state may introduce, as part of the daily exercises of each school in their jurisdiction, instruction in the elements of social and moral science, including industry, order, economy, punctuality, patience, self-denial, health, purity, temperance, cleanliness, honesty, truth, justice, politeness, peace, fidelity, philanthropy, patriotism, self-respect, hope, perseverance, cheerfulness, courage, self-reliance, gratitude, pity, mercy, kindness, conscience, reflection, and the will.” Further provisions suggested the mode for carrying out the law. “That it may be the duty of the teachers to give a short oral lesson every day upon one of the topics mentioned ..., and to require the pupils to furnish illustrations of the same upon the following morning.” If only one lesson were given and only one topic discussed daily by the teacher, a full calendar month would have been spent in the carrying out of this law.

[44] Revised Statutes of Wisconsin, 1878, ch. 27, sec. 447, p. 173.

[45] Laws of Wisconsin, 1887, ch. 79, p. 77; ibid., 1898, ch. 27, sec. 447, p. 363; Statutes, 1913, ch. 27, sec. 447, p. 258.

[46] Revised Statutes of Indiana, 1881, 4497, p. 978; Laws of Missouri, 1895, p. 267; Revised Statutes, 1899, sec. 988, Vol. I, p. 2270; ibid., 1909, sec. 10852; ibid., 1919, sec. 11218. See page 15 for other Missouri laws.

[47] Laws of South Dakota, 1895, sec. 13, p. 142.

[48] Laws of North Dakota, 1895, ch. 56, p. 79; ibid., 1897, sec. 741, p. 108; 1905, sec. 750, p. 202; 1909, sec. 833, p. 302. Dakota Territory, Compiled Laws, 1887, sec. 1770, p. 395. This shows that United States history was required in the common schools, as early as 1883, Session Laws of Dakota Territory, 1883, ch. 44, par. 83.

[49] Revised Code of Dakota Territory, 1883, sec. 91, p. 585.

[50] Laws of North Dakota, 1889-90, sec. 134, p. 211; Revised Code, 1895, sec. 754; ibid., 1909, sec. 889, p. 184; ibid., 1913, sec. 1389, Vol. I, p. 333. Laws of South Dakota, 1893, sec. 6, p. 126; ibid., 1895, sec. 6, p. 138; ibid., 1901, sec. 6, p. 173; Compiled Laws, 1903, sec. 2358, p. 429; ibid., 1913, sec. 143, Vol. I, p. 591.

[51] Code of Washington, 1881, sec. 3205, p. 558; General Statutes, 1890, ch. VIII, sec. 810, Vol. I, p. 300. Similar laws, Laws, 1890, sec. 45, p. 372; Laws, 1895, sec. 1, p. 8; Laws, 1897, sec. 65, p. 384; Laws, 1909, sec. 2, p. 262; also Laws, 1877, sec. 5, p. 274, for the law prescribing teaching of patriotism. Washington required United States history.

[52] Revised Statutes of Montana, 1879, sec. 1119, p. 646, prescribed United States history. Laws of Montana, 1871-72, p. 630; Revised Statutes, 1879, sec. 1128, p. 648; again on statute books, Laws, 1874, sec. 41, p. 132; Compiled Statutes, 1887, sec. 1900, p. 1187; Revised Code, 1907 (see act of March 11, 1895); Laws, 1913, ch. VI, 802, pt. 4, p. 245, for prescribing teaching of patriotism. This law was carried by Montana on her statute books for fifty years. In Washington it passed through a similar experience, being found in the Code of 1910. See Remington and Ballinger’s Code, 1910, sec. 4550, Vol. II, p. 490.

[53] Statutes of California, 1863-4, sec. 6, p. 211; ibid., 1865-6, sec. 55, p. 398; Codes and Statutes of California, 1885, sec. 1665, Vol. I, p. 290; ibid., 1905, sec. 1874, 2, Vol. I, p. 451. Same law (1885) on statute books in 1905. Code, 1905, 1665, Vol. I, p. 391. Civil government was added, 1889. Laws of California, 1891, 1665, p. 161; again in Laws, 1893, p. 254; Laws of California, 1903, 1874, 2, p. 195; Codes, 1905, 1665, Vol. I, p. 391; Laws, 1907, p. 947. The laws respecting the teaching of patriotism and training for citizenship are found in Statutes of California, 1865-86, sec. 70, p. 400; Codes and Statutes, 1885, sec. 1702, Vol. I, p. 293; Codes and Statutes, 1905, sec. 1701, Vol. I, p. 420.

[54] Laws of Arizona, 1883, sec. 59, p. 49; Laws, 1885, p. 157; Revised Statutes, 1887, p. 284; Revised Laws of the Territory of Arizona, 1901, 2214, sec. 85, p. 602. The study of United States history required. Revised Statutes of Arizona, 1887, 1566 (sec. 94), p. 285; Laws, 1885, p. 160; Revised Laws of Territory, 1901, 2243 (sec. 113), p. 608. The law prescribed that a teacher instruct in the principles of “morality, truth, justice, and patriotism ... to train them [pupils] up to a true comprehension of the rights, duties, and dignity of American citizenship.”

[55] Statutes of Nevada, 1864-5, sec. 42, p. 424. Also General Statutes, 1861-1885, 1330, sec. 42, p. 384. This last would indicate the inclusion of the law in the statutes to 1885. Compiled Laws of Nevada, 1861-1900, 1346, sec. 4. Compiled Laws of New Mexico, 1884, sec. 1101, p. 548; ibid., 1897, sec. 1529, p. 425.

[56] Utah’s law regarding the teaching of patriotism came under a statute regarding “Prohibited Doctrines. Moral Instruction.” It prescribed that “no atheistic, infidel, sectarian, religious, or denominational doctrine shall be taught in any of the district schools of this state. Moral instruction tending to impress on the minds of the pupils the importance of good manners, truthfulness, temperance, purity, patriotism, and industry, shall be given, ... and all such schools shall be free from sectarian control.” The law prescribing the study of United States history is found in Laws of Utah, 1896, p. 486; ibid., 1897, p. 131. Revised Statutes, 1898, p. 441; Compiled Laws, 1907, sec. 1848, p. 704.

[57] Laws of Idaho, 1884, sec. 34, p. 193; Revised Statutes, 1887, ch. VII, sec. 687, p. 134; Laws, 1899, sec. 48, p. 97; Political Code, 1901, ch. XL, sec. 1067, Vol. I, p. 329; Compiled Statutes, 1919, sec. 944, p. 269. This last citation would indicate the permanence of the law.

[58] This is especially evident in the legislation affecting textbooks in history. See page 36 et seq. A knowledge of state history was required for teacher certification in Pennsylvania, Mississippi, South Dakota, and Texas.

[59] Johnson, op. cit., p. 133.

[60] Ibid., p. 134.

[61] Ibid., pp. 134-135. 1st and 2d years, biography and mythology; 3d year, American history, the elements of civil government; 4th year, Greek and Roman history; 5th year (high school), French history; 6th year, English history; 7th year, American history; 8th year, a special period for intensive study and civil government.

[62] Ibid., p. 143. 1st year, Ancient history to 800 A.D., 814 A.D., or 843 A.D.; 2d year, Medieval and Modern European history; 3d year, English history, and 4th year, American history and civil government.

[63] This includes Massachusetts whose law was discussed in chapter I. See page 7. Florida and Idaho did not name any social studies; hence they are not included in this number.

[64] Connecticut, 1866, and Maine, 1873, still required “history.” General Statutes of New Hampshire, 1867, ch. LXXXI, sec. 4, p. 169; Laws of Minnesota, 1861, sec. 22, p. 60; Code of Public Laws of Maryland, 1903, art. 77, 70, Vol. II, p. 1472. The source of the law is from Laws, 1868, title II, ch. 1, sec. 2, p. 757.

[65] Digest of Laws of Pennsylvania, 1883, 173, p. 308, in which is source of law from Public Laws, 1867, par. II (April 9, 1867). Laws of Wisconsin, 1861, ch. 176, sec. 4, p. 100; Laws of Indiana, 1865, sec. 34, p. 13. Statutes of Missouri, 1870, ch. 123, Vol. II, p. 1260, containing source from General Statutes, 1865, sec. 90, p. 273. Laws of Arkansas, 1868, sec. 60, p. 181. Statutes of California, 1865-6, sec. 87, p. 404, first and second grade certificates. These laws are continued by the following in successive legislation; Minnesota Laws, 1862, sec. 29, p. 26; ibid., 1864, sec. 29, p. 23; ibid., 1873, sec. 64, p. 71; General Laws, 1881, sec. 66, p. 480; ibid., 1894, sec. 3750, p. 1022; Laws of Wisconsin, 1868, ch. 109, sec. 4, p. 110; Revised Statutes of Indiana, 1881, 4425, p. 957, Laws, 1889, ch. LV, p. 85; ibid., 1899, ch. CCXIV, p. 489; Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1879, sec. 7077, Vol. II, p. 1394, which contains amendment of 1874 when civil government was added. These successive laws remained unchanged for the social sciences except where noted. Digest of Laws of Pennsylvania, 1894, p. 815; ibid., 1901, p. 859; in 1901, civil government, both state and local, were added. Acts of Arkansas, 1873, sec. 62, p. 40. Codes and Statutes of California, 1876, sec. 1748, Vol. I, p. 242.

[66] Laws of Idaho, 1870-71, sec. 12, p. 10; Laws of Arkansas, 1875, sec. 33, p. 65; Laws of West Virginia, 1874, ch. 123, sec. 28, p. 399; also ibid., 1879, ch. 74, sec. 28, p. 143.

[67] Laws of Texas, 1871-73, sec. 15, Vol. VII, p. 540; Code of Washington, 1881, sec. 3240, p. 564, Laws, 1871, sec. 6, p. 17, ibid., 1877, sec. 6, p. 424; Compiled Laws of Kansas, 1879, sec. 6, par. 81 (5181), p. 834; Laws, 1876, ch. 122, art. 6, par. 6; Laws of Colorado, 1870-72, sec. 10, p. 134, ibid., 1876, sec. 15, 2461, p. 811; Laws of Delaware, 1879, p. 52; Laws of Oregon, 1872, par. 25, p. 507.

[68] Laws of Arkansas, 1875, sec. 33, p. 65, also ibid., 1868, sec. 60, p. 181, ibid., 1873, sec. 62, p. 410. Laws of New Hampshire, Minnesota, Missouri, Maryland, Maine, Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois and California were discussed in connection with the passage of earlier laws in the preceding chapter.

[69] Laws of Wisconsin, 1879, ch. 237, p. 346; Laws, 1887, ch. 79, p. 77.

[70] Laws of New York, 1882, ch. 318, p. 382, certificate for prospective teachers; Laws of Ohio, 1882, p. 70. “An act to amend section 4074 of the Revised Statutes of Ohio relating to teachers’ certificates, making an examination in United States history essential.” General Statutes of Michigan, 1883, par. 5153, Vol. II, p. 1356 (a compilation of laws); Public Acts, 1887, ch. XII, sec. 4, p. 890, left unchanged the social studies by law of 1887, ch. 196, sec. 5153, p. 3539; Laws of Dakota Territory, 1883, ch. 44, par. 16. Revised Code, 1883, par. 16, p. 558, first and second grade certificates; Compiled Laws, 1887, par. 1770, p. 395; for first grade certificate, Dakota added civil government. Acts of Alabama, 1880-81, p. 75, first and second grade certificates, Code of Alabama, 1887, ch. 3, 984, Vol. I, p. 269, same certificates; Laws of Arizona, 1885, p. 140, Revised Statutes, 1887, ch. 2, 1485 (sec. 13), p. 272, first and second grade territorial certificates. Laws of Montana, 1883, sec. 1149, p. 57, for county certificates.

[71] General Statutes of Connecticut, 1888, sec. 2135, p. 466; Digest of Laws of Pennsylvania, 1883, 173, p. 308; required United States history from a law of 1867; Laws of Delaware, 1887, sec. 4, p. 120, United States history. Laws of West Virginia, 1881, sec. 28, p. 182, “history” required for primary school certificates; see Laws, 1874, p. 399; Revised Statutes of Indiana, 1881, 4425, p. 957, Laws of 1889, ch. LV, p. 85, for common schools, United States history was required; Supplement to Revised Statutes of Wisconsin, 1878, required United States history, federal and state constitutions for the first, second, third grade certificates, also Laws, 1887, ch. 79, p. 77; General Statutes of Kansas, 1889, 5651, par. 90, p. 1831. United States history was required for first, second, and third grade certificates; also Laws, 1881, ch. 151, par. 6, amended by Laws, 1885, ch. 170, par. 1, p. 274; Revised Statutes of Idaho Territory, 1887, ch. VII, sec. 680, county certificates with the requirement of United States history; Code of Washington, 1881, sec. 3240, p. 564, United States history was required, from Laws, 1871, also Laws, 1885, p. 27; Codes and Statutes of California, 1885, par. 1772, Vol. I, p. 298, which was the same as in 1876; for county certificates United States history was prescribed.

[72] General Statutes of Colorado, 1883, ch. XCVII, 3010, sec. 15, p. 883. This amended General Laws, 1879, p. 162, by adding “constitution of the United States”; Laws, 1889, sec. 4, p. 381.

[73] Laws of Idaho, 1884, sec. 30, p. 192; also Revised Statutes, 1887, ch. VII, secs. 682, 683, p. 133. See chapter 1 for requirements in Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, Connecticut, and Maine.

[74] Laws of Oregon, 1885, p. 44, also Laws, 1872, sec. 25, p. 507.

[75] Statutes of Oklahoma, 1893 (compilation), ch. 73, art. 5, p. 1094, for first and second grade certificates, also Laws, 1897, ch. 34, art. 6, p. 273. Revised Statutes of Wyoming, 1899, sec. 627, p. 228; Laws, 1899, ch. 70, p. 136, for second and third grade certificates. Laws of Florida, 1893, ch. 4192, p. 125, also Compiled Laws, 1914, 365, Vol. I, p. 136, for first grade certificates. See footnote, page 86.

[76] Compiled Laws of Florida, 1914, 365, Vol. I, p. 136.

[77] Laws of Wyoming, 1899, ch. 70, p. 136, also Revised Statutes, 1899, sec. 627, p. 228.

[78] Laws of Pennsylvania, 1895, 41, p. 155, for high schools demanded general history and civics, but no mention was made of United States history. In Digest, 1894, p. 815, United States history was required for certificate from any county, borough, or its superintendent. Laws of Delaware, 1893, sec. 5, p. 691, professional certificates; ibid., 1898, sec. 24, p. 198, professional, first, second, and third grade certificates. Acts of West Virginia, 1891, ch. 64, p. 169, “history” and civil government for primary certificates; also Acts, 1895, ch. 26, 28, p. 81, for first, second and third grade certificates; adding general history in first grade certificate, see ibid., p. 82, also Code, 1899, ch. 45, 28, 29. Public Acts of Michigan, 1893, sec. 5, p. 35, also in Compiled Laws, 1915 (5881), sec. 5, Vol. II, p. 2213. Statutes of Wisconsin, 1898, ch. 27, sec. 447, p. 363, for all grades of licenses. General Statutes of Minnesota, 1894, ch. 36, par. 3749, par. 3750, Vol. I, p. 1022, for professional state certificate by law of 1893 approved April 18, 1893. Laws of North Dakota, 1895, 52, p. 27, for all certificates, ibid., 1897, par. 741, p. 108. Laws of South Dakota, 1891, ch. 56, par. 4, p. 119, ibid., 1893, ch. 78, 105, ibid., 1895, ch. 78, p. 83, in Compiled Laws, 1913, par. 55, Vol. I, p. 572. Revised Statutes of Missouri, 1899, sec. 9798, Vol. II, p. 2277, any certificates. General Statutes of Kansas, 1897, ch. 63, par. 200, p. 671, first grade certificate, but second and third grade required only United States history. Annotated Code of General Statute Laws of Mississippi, 1892, 4022, p. 889, first grade license; professional and state in 1896, Laws, 1896, p. III, secs. 6 and 7. Laws of Texas, 1822-1897, sec. 65, first, second grades and permanent certificates (23d legislature, 1893); by laws of 1891, state certificate general history and civil government; Revised Statutes, 1895, art. 3979, p. 787. Laws of Idaho, 1897, sec. 7, p. 75, ibid., 1899, sec. 17, p. 310. Laws of Washington, 1891, ch. XCVII, sec. 4, p. 244, Code, 1891, par. 773, Vol. I, p. 281, state certificate, ibid., par. 777, p. 285, first grade certificate. Revised Statutes of Utah, 1898, 1767, p. 425, state professional certificate, ibid., 1923, p. 455, for primary and grammar certificates, United States history only, but ibid., 1924, high school certificates; both United States history and civics for territorial certificate of first grade in 1890, civics and United States history, Laws, 1890, sec. 23, p. 115; Revised Statutes, op. cit., 1767, p. 425, state professional diploma of high school grade, general history, civil government, United States history. Statutes of California, 1893, p. 260, primary county certificates. Revised Statutes of Wyoming, 1899, sec. 627, p. 228, first, second, and third grade licenses, with political economy required for first grade.

[79] Acts of Alabama, 1891, par. 2, p. 250. Approved February 4, 1891; also in Code, 1897, art. 6, Vol. I, p. 1007.

[80] See citations in footnote 52.

[81] Citation of reference in footnote 52. Also Acts of Iowa, 1896, ch. 39, p. 44, amends 1766 of Code.

[82] Digest of Statutes of Arkansas, 1894, ch. 139, sec. 7010, p. 1523, Act of April 14, 1893; Laws of Indiana, 1899, ch. CCXIV, p. 489; General Statutes of Kansas, 1897, ch. 63, par. 201, 202, p. 671; Revised Statutes of Utah, 1898, 1796, p. 432.

[83] Maine, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Illinois, Iowa, and Nebraska.

[84] Connecticut, Illinois, Montana, Ohio, Oregon being the states which required only history. Oregon’s requirement was modern history.

[85] Kentucky and Oregon passed laws this year.

[86] Laws of Kentucky, 1862, ch. 636, p. 265. Approved August 30, 1862. Laws, 1889, Vol. I, p. 169, par. 15. In the law for the qualifications of teachers, however, the taking of the oath was not mentioned.

[87] Acts of West Virginia, 1863, ch. 137, 35, p. 255; also Code, 1868, ch. 45, 31. p. 298; again Acts, 1866, ch. 74, 37, p. 65.

[88] Acts of West Virginia, 1869, pp. 56, 104. For the law prescribing the oath, Code of West Virginia, 1868, ch. 45, 32, p. 299; Acts, 1863, ch. 106, p. 138. Constitution, ibid., ch. IX, p. 76. On February 7, 1870, this law was reënacted and amended. Code, op. cit., ch. 14, 32, p. 739 of Appendix.

[89] Laws of Missouri, 1865-6, par. 89, p. 189.

[90] Acts of Arkansas, 1868, sec. 61, p. 182. Again in Acts, 1873, sec. 64, p. 412. Repealed by an act of 1875.

[91] Code of Oregon, 1862, sec. 9, p. 40.

[92] Acts and Resolves of Rhode Island, 1865, pp. 126-127. The Twentieth Annual Report on the Public Schools in Rhode Island made to the General Assembly at the January Session, A.D. 1865.

[93] Laws of Arizona, 1883, pp. 41 and 157, ibid., 1885, p. 146. The law made it a duty of superintendents of public instruction or county superintendents of schools to administer the following oath, but there was no separate law prescribing that a teacher take such an oath: “I, ——, do solemnly swear that I will support the constitution of the United States and the laws of the territory of Arizona; that I will true faith and allegiance bear to the same, and defend them against all enemies whatsoever, and that I will faithfully and impartially discharge the duties of the office (name of office) according to the best of my ability, so help me God.”

[94] Laws of North Dakota, 1897, par. 742, p. 109; ibid., 1901, p. 99; ibid., 1905, p. 206. This statute was in the School Laws published in 1923. In 1900, North Dakota’s total population was 319,146 with a foreign population of 113,091.

[95] Laws of Idaho, 1897, sec. 17, p. 85, ibid., 1899, p. 310; Code, 1901, ch. XL, Vol. I, p. 330. This law is found as late as 1921. Also Compiled Statutes, 1919, par. 946, Vol. I, p. 270. In 1900, Idaho’s population was 161,772, of which 24,604 were foreigners.

[96] Laws of Nevada, 1907, ch. CLXXXII, sec. 30, p. 386; also Revised Statutes, 1912, sec. 3277, also Revised Laws, 1861-1912, 370, sec. 2, Vol. I, p. 113. Out of a total population, in 1900, of 42,335 Nevada’s foreign population was 10,093.

[97] New Hampshire, Virginia and Louisiana.

[98] General Statutes of Vermont, 1862, ch. 22, sec. 1, p. 169. The selection of the book was to be made as soon as possible, and was to be binding upon all teachers and boards of education until January, 1867. The law appeared in later statute books. Revised Laws of Vermont, 1880, ch. 33, sec. 558, p. 169; Vermont Statutes, 1894, sec. 700, p. 189.

[99] Laws of Vermont, 1872, no. 14, sec. 1, p. 54. “Hall’s Geography and History of Vermont now in use by the authority of law, in the schools of Vermont, or such revised editions of the same as may be issued, shall be continued as a textbook for the term of five years from the first day of November, A.D., 1873.” Approved November 26, 1872. Legislation of this character is found also in 1888 and in 1890. Laws, 1888, no. 9, sec. 171, and 172, ibid., 1890, no. 7, p. 25.

[100] Acts and Resolves of Rhode Island, 1865, p. 153. Report of the Superintendent of Public Education.

[101] Laws of North Carolina, 1879, ch. 93, p. 177. Approved March 1, 1879. John W. Moore, author of textbook.

[102] Code of West Virginia, 1868, 55, p. 308. For Holmes’ History of the United States, Laws, 1873, 58, p. 419. For geography, Knote’s Geography of West Virginia, Mitchell’s New Revised Geographies, Macy-Howe-Smith’s Lessons on the Globe, by laws of 1873 and again in 1891. Laws, 1891, p. 313. Laws of West Virginia, 1895, ch. 37, p. 63. For the General History by Myers, contract price $1.10, contract exchange price 82 cents; for the Leading Facts of American History, contract price 65 cents, exchange price 50 cents; Beginner’s American History, contract price 43 cents, exchange price 35 cents. Lewis’ History and Government of West Virginia, in fixing 80 cents as the contract price, and Dole’s The American Citizen with 65 cents as the exchange price were likewise named in the law.

[103] Code of Virginia, 1887, sec. 1501, p. 404. By a law of 1883-4.

[104] Laws of Indiana, 1889, ch. L, sec. 1, p. 75.

[105] Ibid., 1891, ch. LXXX, sec. 1, p. 100.

[106] General Statutes of Minnesota, 1881, ch. 36, par. 156, 157, p. 498. Contract for books let to D. D. Merrill, St. Paul. Laws of Kansas, 1897, ch. 179, sec. 4, p. 378. Laws of Montana, 1889, sec. 4, p. 211.

[107] Laws of Kansas, op. cit.

[108] Laws of Kansas, 1899, ch. 176, p. 357. It was required that the general history textbook must equal Myers’ General History and the English history must equal Montgomery’s English History.

[109] Laws of Montana, op. cit.

[110] Laws of South Dakota, 1891, par. 11, p. 239.

[111] Laws of Missouri, 1897, sec. 5, p. 23. Approved March 31, 1897.

[112] Digest of the Statutes of Arkansas, 1894, ch. 139, sec. 6975, p. 1519. Act of December 7, 1875. Also in Digest, 1904, sec. 7531, p. 1543; ibid., 1916, sec. 9379, p. 2132.

[113] Laws of Arkansas, 1899, sec. 5, p. 148.

[114] Laws of Idaho, 1884-85, p. 185; Laws of California, 1883-84, ch. VIII, sec. 1, p. 6.

[115] Laws of Texas, 1822-1897, sec. 1, Vol. X, p. 145; Code of Alabama, 1897, art. 18, 1810.

[116] Indeed, as early as 1842, New Hampshire had prescribed that “no book shall be directed to be used as a school book which is calculated to favor any particular religious or political sect or tenet.” Revised Statutes of New Hampshire, 1842, ch. 73, sec. 12, p. 151; Compiled Statutes, 1853, sec. 13, p. 178; General Laws, 1878, ch. 89, sec. 12, p. 217.

[117] Laws of Mississippi, 1890, ch. 74, p. 88. The state superintendent, governor, and attorney-general were made a committee “to examine the various textbooks upon United States history and recommend with their approval such works as accord with their best judgment.”

[118] Acts of Alabama, 1896-7, p. 204. County School Book Board for the county of Winston; ibid., for the county of Limestone; ibid., p. 637, for the counties of Sumter and Madison.

[119] Acts of Georgia, 1866, p. 222. The same series were endorsed by Mississippi.

[120] Laws of Maryland, 1868, ch. IX, sec. 1, p. 756; ibid., 1870, ch. 10, sec. 1, p. 547; Laws of South Carolina, 1870, sec. 10, p. 341.

[121] Laws of Virginia, 1849, ch. 113, p. 66.

[122] Revised Statutes of North Carolina, 1872-3, sec. 59, p. 583. This provided that “no sectarian or political textbooks or influences shall be used in any public school.” In Georgia the law prescribed that “the county board of education shall not be permitted to introduce into the schools any text-book or miscellaneous books of a sectarian or sectional character.” Code of Georgia, 1882, part 1, title XIII, ch. V, par. 1274, p. 270; also Acts of 1872, sec. XXXIII, p. 75; also Laws, 1887, sec. XXIII, p. 74.

[123] Code of Georgia, 1895, sec. 5, par. 1365, Vol. I, p. 376. Legislation continued from 1872. Acts, 1872, sec. XXXIII, p. 75; also Code, 1882, part I, title XIII, ch. V, par. 1274, p. 270.

[124] General Statutes of South Carolina, 1881-82, sec. 987, p. 294. Also Laws, 1870, sec. 10, p. 341. Code, 1902, sec. 1175, p. 452; Code, 1912, sec. 1699, Vol. I, p. 472.

[125] Code of Alabama, 1897, art. 18, 1811; ibid., 1907; Session Laws of Kansas, 1897, ch. 179, sec. 4, p. 378; Revised Statutes of Arizona, 1887, 1530, sec. 58, p. 281, Laws, 1885, p. 153; Code of Washington, 1891, par. 791, 10, Vol. I, p. 292; Laws, 1883, p. 13; Codes and Statutes of California, 1876, sec. 1672, Vol. I, p. 235; ibid., 1905, Vol. I, p. 408.

[126] Revised Statutes of Idaho Territory, 1887, ch. IX, sec. 705, p. 135. Also Laws, 1866, p. 27; Laws, 1870, p. 13; Laws, 1879, p. 24; Laws, 1890, p. 148; Laws, 1893, p. 211; Code, 1908, sec. 668, Vol. I, p. 406. This last forbade “sectarian and partisan instruction.” Compiled Statutes of Montana, 1885, sec. 1893, p. 1185. The term “partisan” in some states may have referred to the teaching of religious or political doctrines. Laws of Texas, 1822-1897, sec. 1, Vol. X, p. 145. Passed in 1891.

[127] Acts of Kentucky, 1893, art. VI, par. 61, p. 1439. Approved July 13, 1893.

[128] Compiled Laws of Dakota Territory, 1887, par. 1798, p. 401; Revised Code, 1883, p. 597, Session Laws, 1883, ch. 44, par. 130.

[129] Dakota Territory, Montana, Idaho, Washington excluded from their schools “partisan” textbooks.

CHAPTER III
Laws for the Expansion of the History Curriculum
1900-1917

The twentieth century did not usher in unexpected developments in the American educational system, for the school had begun to experience a transformation of purpose in the period following the Civil War. It was not, however, until after 1900 that the forces aroused by the Economic Revolution began to assert themselves to a marked degree and to seek means to equip the individual for the complex responsibilities of his social relationships. The early years of the new century saw a tidal wave of reform sweep into all phases of American life. Agitation for the recall of judicial decisions and the introduction of such measures as the initiative and referendum attested new convictions in the realm of politics. The reform spirit found expression in muck-raking literature, movements for the betterment of dependents on society, legislation to alleviate unfortunate industrial conditions, and schemes of coöperation between employer and employee bore testimony to a new social consciousness and national morality.

The public school also gave evidence of the spirit of the new era through the changed character of its instruction.[130]

“Preparation for citizenship” became the keynote of the period, perhaps better expressed by John Dewey’s definition of education as “The process of remaking experience, giving it a more socialized value through increased individual experience by giving the individual better control over his powers.” History and the other social studies gained in popularity as especially adapted to implant the right social attitude.

This wider outlook on life did not confine itself solely to an interest in domestic affairs, for the Spanish-American War had banished the long-cherished theory of national isolation. The international viewpoint was encouraged further by the fact that by 1900 the United States had achieved second place as an exporting nation. As a result, the study of foreign history gained in popularity, and increased offerings in the social studies curriculum evinced the growing favor in which these subjects were held.

In planning the course of study, educational associations showed much activity in committee reports. The report of the Committee of Seven of the American Historical Association doubtless had a pronounced influence in the curriculum making of the greater part of this period. In 1907, it was followed by the report of the Committee of Five, who made slight changes in the list of studies recommended by the Committee of Seven. However, modern European history received greater emphasis than in the first report, a tangible expression of the expanding horizon of the time. In 1909, the Committee of Eight attempted to standardize a course in history for the elementary schools, in which was included not only United States history but a study of European history.[131]

From 1900 to the year of our entrance into the World War, thirty-two states approved laws incorporating history and other social studies in the curriculum of the public schools, approximately twice as many as had legislated from 1860 to 1900.[132] The importance placed upon the study of United States history, federal and local civics and state history in the previous period persisted. The early years of the century were characterized also by laws pertaining to the teaching of patriotism through the celebration of historic events, by statutes to inspire reverence for the flag, and by enactments indicative of sectional interest.[133]

In 1900, Vermont amended her law prescribing the high school course of study, and designated political economy, civil government and general history among the branches to be taught.[134] Other enactments, enumerating the prerequisites for a high school, included thirty-three weeks of history and the natural, political, social, moral and industrial sciences.[135] In 1906, there was provided instruction for elementary pupils in the history and constitution of the United States and the history, constitution and principles of the government of Vermont.[136] In 1915, the teaching of “citizenship” was approved for all rural schools of a six year course, and for elementary schools of eight years.[137]

The tendency to emphasize a study of the Constitution has no better illustration than in the laws of New Hampshire, where, in 1901, it was made compulsory for every high school to give “reasonable instruction in the constitution of the United States and in the constitution of New Hampshire.”[138] Later enactments further stressed the importance of a knowledge of the state and federal constitutions by prescribing that “in all mixed schools and in all grades above the primary, the constitution of the United States and of the state of New Hampshire be read aloud by the scholars at least once during the last year of the course below the high school.”[139] The teaching of citizenship was the purpose of a Connecticut law of 1903 and of 1915, prescribing regular instruction for all pupils above the fourth grade in “the duties of citizenship, including the knowledge of the form of national, state, and local government.”[140]

Training in citizenship was the purpose of a Delaware law of 1911, which prescribed that teachers train their pupils in “honesty, kindness, justice, and moral courage ... for the purpose of lessening crime and raising the standard of good citizenship.” Four years later it was followed by an enactment requiring the teaching of United States history and instruction in “the general principles of the constitution of the United States” and of the state.[141]

In 1911 Pennsylvania prescribed for the elementary schools the teaching of United States history, history of the state and civil government.[142] These subjects received the statutory endorsement of Kentucky in 1904, Virginia in 1904 and 1906, North Carolina in 1901, 1905, 1907, 1908 and 1913.[143] South Carolina in several laws from 1892 required for schools under the direction of boards of trustees and of county boards of education, the “history of the United States and of this state, the principles of the constitution of the United States and of this state, morals and good behavior.”[144]

Texas gave her sanction to the same subjects in 1905,[145] and Alabama prescribed that in all schools and colleges supported in whole or in part by public money, or under state control, there should be instruction in the constitution of the United States and of the state of Alabama.[146] In Georgia, the law prescribed as part of the curriculum for the common schools that “the elements of civil government shall be included in the branches of study taught in the common or public schools, and shall be studied and taught as thoroughly and in the same manner as other like required branches are studied and taught in said public schools.”[147] West Virginia attained some individuality in adding to state and national history and civil government, “general and West Virginia geography.”[148]

In the schools of Florida instruction in “history” was required for the intermediate grades, and in the grammar grades the “history and civil government of Florida and of the United States.”[149] Additional emphasis was placed upon the teaching of civics in 1909 when an act provided that the “elements of civil government be taught in the common and public schools of the state, ... to be studied and taught as thoroughly and in the same manner as any other required subjects.”[150]

Louisiana committed herself to the teaching of United States history in every school district as an elementary branch by an act of 1902;[151] and Mississippi, in 1916, prescribed for the “curriculum of the free public schools,” civil government with special reference to local and state government, the history of the nation and of the state.[152]

In 1904, Ohio established civil government and the history of the United States as required subjects for an elementary school education.[153] In 1910, it was made obligatory upon each county board of school examiners to examine pupils of township schools in civil government and United States history.[154] In the Code of 1910, there were included, in both the elementary and high school courses of study, the history of the United States and civil government, and in the high school the history of “other countries” as well.[155] By an act approved May 18, 1911, but repealed in 1914, teachers in elementary schools were required to qualify in the history of the United States, including civil government, and in the high school in general history, with an election of civil government.[156] An Illinois law of this period was similar to that of Delaware in phraseology and spirit, and prescribed the teaching of “honesty, kindness, justice and moral courage” to lessen crime and develop a good citizenship.[157]

Wisconsin, as early as 1865, had required as essential for a district school education, United States history and civil government, local history and government, a practice continued through 1917. In schools offering industrial education, citizenship became an obligatory study by the statutes of 1913.[158] Minnesota made a knowledge of United States history prerequisite for entrance into high schools,[159] and Indiana expanded her list of the required number of studies to include, in all commissioned high schools, civil government, general and state, ancient, medieval or modern history and the history of the United States.[160] For the curriculum of the common schools, there was required in Indiana the study of United States history, a practice developed from a law first in force in August 1869.[161]

South Dakota,[162] North Dakota,[163] and Kansas[164] also committed themselves to the subjects popular in this period. In Nebraska, “a study of American history for at least one semester in the eleventh and twelfth grades,” became a requirement for normal training courses in the high school.[165] Missouri made a knowledge of United States history essential for entrance into the high schools, as well as prescribing that no school could be classed as a high school which did not include a four years’ course in history.[166]

Oklahoma, in 1905, illustrated well the social viewpoint characteristic of the time in her law requiring “in each and every public school it should be the duty of each and every teacher to teach morality in the broadest meaning of the word, for the purpose of elevating and refining the character of school children up to the highest plane of life; that they may know how to conduct themselves as social beings in relation to each other, as respects right and wrong and rectitude of life, and thereby lessen wrong doing and crime.”[167] In 1907, another law prescribed “the elements of economics” for all public schools receiving support from the state.[168]

A place of prominence in the normal training curriculum was accorded United States history by Oregon in 1911.[169] In 1913, Wyoming enacted a law requiring of her superintendent of public instruction the preparation of a course of study for the elementary schools in the usual subjects, including United States history and the history and civil government of Wyoming,[170] and by an act of 1917 history and civics were required in the teacher training departments of the high school.[171] California, too, succumbed to the trend of the times, and in 1903 and in succeeding years prescribed the teaching of United States history and civil government for a public school education.[172]

In the revision of her territorial laws in 1901, Arizona again included United States history as a school subject;[173] and by legislation in 1912, New Mexico showed her approval of the social studies in “An Act to Encourage the Instruction in the History and Civics of the State of New Mexico.” This law forbade any person to teach in the public schools unless he had passed a satisfactory examination in the history and civics of the United States as well as in the history and civics of the state. “It shall be the duty of the teachers in the public schools of the state,” the law read, “to give such instruction as is practicable in the history and civics of the United States with special reference to the history and civics of the state of New Mexico; which said instruction may be given orally or by study of textbooks covering the subject and which said textbooks shall have been adopted by the State Board of Education.” The statute specified that the textbook in state history and civics must be prepared “by a known historian of the state” and “be sold at a price to be fixed by the State Board of Education not to exceed one dollar per volume.”[174]

Of the thirty-two states which had enacted laws during this period for the teaching of the social studies, substantially all required United States history, federal and local civics. State history, which had attained some popularity in the preceding period, received attention in many statutes. Laws requiring the teaching of European history in some form were found in Vermont, Indiana, Ohio and Missouri, and economics was prescribed in the laws of Oklahoma and Vermont.

CERTIFICATION OF TEACHERS

The tendency to enlarge and enrich the social studies curriculum was more evident in the requirements for teachers’ certificates than in the courses of study prescribed by law. These requirements, in general, included ancient, medieval and modern history, general history, English history, economics and sociology, besides civil government, state history and history of the United States. Especially was there an increased offering of subjects for high school teachers. In the elementary and county licenses only civics and United States history were required with the greatest frequency. Among those states which passed new laws or reënacted old legislation offering ancient, medieval or modern history were California, Idaho, Oregon, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, Missouri, and Texas.[175] English history appeared among the subjects in the laws of Idaho, Nevada, Kansas, and Wisconsin;[176] general history was one of the requirements for certification in the laws of West Virginia, Ohio, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska, South Dakota, Utah, Nevada, Washington, and Idaho.[177]

Economics, or, as it was more commonly known, political economy, was prescribed in Iowa, Nebraska, and Wyoming.[178] South Dakota permitted for examination either sociology or economics,[179] and Wisconsin and Arkansas insisted upon a knowledge of “rural economics.”[180] “Current events” or “current history” were among the requirements of South Dakota in her law of 1919, and of Nevada, in 1907, and in 1921, for certification of primary, grammar and high school classes.[181]

State history and the study of the state constitution received recognition in the requirements of Pennsylvania, Delaware, West Virginia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Alabama, Oklahoma, Texas, Wisconsin, South Dakota, Illinois, Kansas, and New Mexico.[182]

Of all of the social studies required for certification, however, United States history and civil government were the most popular, being prescribed in some law in every state excepting Arizona.[183] In some of the states where there was no special enactment prescribing United States history or civics, the examining board may have been given the privilege of naming the subjects for examining the candidates, or, through custom, they may have become a part of the subjects in which examinations were held. It is also true that colleges and normal schools have taken over the preparation of teachers in the subjects which they are to teach, making unnecessary many of the examinations previously held.

FLAG LEGISLATION AND OBSERVANCE DAYS

A means of implanting patriotism in the pupils of the public schools has been legislation pertaining to the display of the American flag, the development of a proper attitude toward it, and the singing of the national anthem. Ten states gave expression to this form of training for patriotism in this period. Similar to such enactments was the legal provision made for the observance of the birthdays of great men and the commemoration of historic events by classroom exercises. In addition, there was a constantly growing number of legal holidays upon which no school was in session.[184]

Laws respecting the flag were, and are, of three general kinds: (1) that each school must possess a flag for display in a conspicuous place, (2) that proper respect for the flag be taught, and (3) that suitable exercises be engaged in at definitely stated intervals. This last type of law often proves the occasion for the reciting in unison of the salute to the flag, the so-called “American Creed,” or the preamble to the Constitution. In the second variety of law a pledge of allegiance is the keynote of the sentiment expressed, such as: “I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic for which it stands; one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all”; or, “We give our hearts and our hands to God and our Country; one country, one flag, and one language.”[185]

In 1898, New York enacted “flag” legislation which had the three-fold characteristics of such laws. Within the next few years this law was followed by statutes of like kind in Massachusetts, Indiana, Iowa, and Arizona. However, as later legislation appeared, it took on a more elaborate phraseology, with a more open avowal of patriotic purpose.[186] This is well illustrated by an act of 1909 in Indiana, which ordered that “the state board of education shall require the singing of the ‘Star Spangled Banner’ in its entirety in the schools of the state of Indiana, upon all patriotic occasions,” with the necessary admonition “that the said board of education shall arrange to supply the words in sufficient quantity for the purposes indicated therein.”[187]

“An Act to provide for the display of the United States flag on the school houses of the state, in connection with the public schools, and to encourage patriotic exercises in such schools,” became a law in Kansas, March 7, 1907. By this act the state superintendent was instructed to prepare a program for the salute to the flag at the opening of each day of school, as well as “such other patriotic exercises as may be deemed by him to be expedient.”[188]

Relying upon the governor’s proclamation, New Jersey, in 1915, set aside the week of September sixth to thirteenth for appropriate exercises to be held, at least one day in the interval named, by schools and churches in commemoration of the one hundredth birthday of the national anthem.[189]

In her Revised Statutes which took effect on January 1, 1917, Maine incorporated a flag law evolved from enactments of 1907 and 1915, whereby superintendents of schools were directed to display the flag from public school buildings on suitable occasions. Towns were directed to appropriate annually “a sufficient amount to defray the necessary cost of the display of the flag,” and it was made “the duty of instructors to impress upon the youth by suitable references and observances the significance of the flag, to teach them the cost, the object and principles of our government, the great sacrifices of our forefathers, the important part taken by the Union army in the war of eighteen hundred sixty-one to eighteen hundred sixty-five, to teach them to love, honor and respect the flag of our country that cost so much and is so dear to every true American citizen.”[190]

Closely akin to the enactments respecting the flag and patriotic exercises were those designating days for special patriotic observance.[191] Laws providing for the establishment of Memorial Day are of such a character. In general, Memorial Day legislation was sectional in character and acclaimed the results of the Civil War from the Northerner’s standpoint. In 1886, the Kansas legislature, moved by patriotic feeling, had resolved to observe the day in fitting manner, inasmuch as “during the past ten or twelve years the loyal people of the United States, inspired by a sentiment of reverent respect for the memory of our heroic dead, have by spontaneous consent, dedicated the thirtieth day of May of each year to ceremonies in honor of the soldiers who cheerfully sacrificed their own lives to save the life of the republic. ‘They need no praise whose deeds are eulogy,’ and nothing that we can now say or do will add to the glory or brighten the fame of the gallant host who, a quarter of a century ago, came thronging from farms, workshops, offices and schools, to fight, to suffer and die for the Union and freedom. But the story of their sublime self-sacrifice, and their dauntless courage, should be kept forever fresh and fair in the hearts and minds of the young, until the end of recorded time. So long as men and women teach their children to revere the memory of patriot heroes, so long as the peaceful present honors and emulates the example of the war-worn past, there need be no fear that the dead have died in vain, or that ‘a government of the people, by the people, for the people,’ will perish from the earth. The steadily growing popularity of Memorial Day, and the universal interest taken in its beautiful ceremonies, is one of the most hopeful developments of American sentiments.”[192]

Conceding the importance of a proper recognition of Memorial Day, Vermont in 1894 appointed the last half day’s session before May the thirtieth for exercises “commemorative of the history of the nation during the war of the Rebellion, and to patriotic instruction in the principles of liberty and the equal rights of man.” The popularity of this law is attested by its continuance on the Vermont statute books in her Compilation of 1917.[193]

In 1890, Massachusetts, and in 1897, New Hampshire established in these commonwealths the custom of observing May the thirtieth by exercises of a patriotic nature in the schools.[194] New York, in 1898, Arizona in 1903, and Kansas in 1907, also subscribed to the sentiment which dictated that Memorial Day be given special recognition.[195]

The birthdays of Lincoln and Washington were also given recognition by New York in 1898, Arizona in 1903, and Kansas in 19O7.[196] The year 1909 witnessed an expression of patriotic enthusiasm over Lincoln’s contribution to the American nation, awakened, no doubt, by the centenary of his birth. During this year California, Maine, and New Mexico prescribed special observance of February the twelfth. Rhode Island followed in 1910, West Virginia in 1911, with Vermont in 1912 and in 1917.

“February 12, the birthday of Abraham Lincoln is hereby declared a legal holiday,” stated the law of California, which is typical of others of this group, “provided, however, that all public schools throughout the state shall hold sessions in the forenoon of that day in order to allow the customary exercises in memory of Lincoln; and provided further, that when February 12 falls on Sunday, then the Monday following, shall be a legal holiday and shall be so observed; and provided still further, that when February 12 falls on Saturday such exercises in the public schools shall take place on the Friday afternoon preceding.”[197] In Rhode Island, the day was called “Grand Army Flag Day,” and was, in 1914, still one of those days upon which special exercises were held.[198]

Michigan prescribed the reading of the Declaration of Independence to all pupils in the public schools above the fifth grade upon the twelfth and twenty-second of February, and upon the twelfth of October, with an obviously patriotic intent, in her legislation of 1911.[199] Washington’s birthday occasioned legislation in Maryland in 1904 and in Maine in 1913, as a day suitable for the propagation of patriotism.[200]

In the latter state Columbus Day, October 12, was included in those observance days upon which exercises should “aim to impress on the minds of the youth the important lessons of character and good citizenship to be learned from the lives of American leaders and heroes and from a contemplation of their own duties and obligations to the community, state, and nation of which they constituted a part.”[201] Columbus Day received the recognition of several other state legislatures, Michigan, West Virginia, Louisiana, and Oregon especially setting it aside for patriotic purposes.[202]

Flag Day, likewise, was deemed worthy of observance. New York in her legislation of 1898, Arizona in 1903, and Kansas in 1907 included it among those days set aside for special exercises in the schools.[203] Connecticut decreed, in 1905, that the governor, annually in the spring, should designate by official proclamation the fourteenth day of June as Flag Day, upon which “suitable exercises, having reference to the adoption of the national flag be held in the public schools.”[204]

In 1906, a proclamation of the governor of New Jersey, couched in grandiloquent phraseology, recommended that suitable exercises be held in the public schools for commemorating the birthday of the American flag. It urged a more extended knowledge of the flag’s history. “The history of our flag is the history of the growth of our nation,” he proclaimed, “and the celebration of the anniversary of its birth is not only a patriotic duty but an educational privilege. On the day of its inception it stood as an emblem of the unity of a few modest little colonies. To-day it is the symbol of a mighty nation. It has floated over many a battlefield, inspiring the sons of patriotism with a courage and strength that made possible the triumph of the right and the preservation of the Union. It has been carried to far distant lands and has aroused the enthusiasm of thousands to whom its advent meant emancipation from cruelty and oppression.”[205]

Reminiscent of the local history movement of the decades following the Civil War was legislation prescribing the celebration of days of interest peculiar to different states. In 1897, Massachusetts passed a resolution recommending to the governor that he issue a proclamation to public school teachers suggesting commemorative exercises for the centennial of the inauguration of “John Adams of Massachusetts,” in order “to impress upon their pupils the significance of the inauguration of the president of the United States and the importance of the part sustained by the commonwealth in American history.”[206]

“Rhode Island Independence Day” was acclaimed in 1909, for May the fourth. At this time, so the statute read, the celebration of the “first official act of its kind by any of the thirteen American colonies” in a declaration of sovereignty and independence took place. From the date of the passage of the law, every fourth of May in the future, it was determined, should become the occasion for the salute of thirteen guns by detachments of the state artillery, at all places in the state where artillery was stationed, besides a display of state and national flags, as well as patriotic exercises in the public schools.[207]

March the eighteenth assumed a distinctive place in the school calendar of South Carolina by a law enacted in 1906, being known as “South Carolina Day.” The selection of this date sprang from a desire to honor John C. Calhoun, and from the hope that an observance of this day would “conduce to a more general knowledge and appreciation of the history, resources and possibilities of the State.”[208] In like spirit Georgia, in 1909, endeavored to awaken local pride in the pupils of the public schools by a celebration of “Georgia Day” on February twelfth, “as the landing of the first colonists in Georgia under Oglethorpe.”[209] Confederate heroes received special tribute by patriotic exercises on January nineteenth, the birthday of Robert E. Lee, through a law of Arkansas. The program of exercises, the law prescribed, should deal with events connected with the life of General Lee and “other distinguished Southern men” with attention to those men of renown in civil and military life.[210] In Maryland, the state board of education, by a law of 1904, was given the privilege of naming a time suitable for the observance of “Maryland Day.”[211]

“The geography, history, industries and resources” of Minnesota, through a law of 1911, received especial attention in the public schools on “Minnesota Day.”[212] Montana, through a celebration of “Pioneer Day” endeavored to instruct in the pioneer history of the region.[213] Missouri paid homage to her state history in a law of 1915 through observance by teachers and pupils on the first Monday in October. At this time, the law prescribed the “methodical consideration of the products of the mine, field and forest of the state” and the “consideration of the achievements of the sons and daughters of Missouri in commerce, literature, statesmanship and art, and in other departments of activity in which the state has rendered service to mankind.”[214] The American Indians, through a law of 1919, in Illinois, were likewise deemed worthy of commemorative exercises.[215]

The persisting desire of the lawmaker to instil patriotism, either local or national, in pupils in the public schools has been the incentive for laws respecting the flag and observance days. Local pride is evident in the Northern laws for the observance of Memorial Day and the birthday of Lincoln; whereas in the South a sectional interest is shown in days memorializing the heroes of their section. The Middle and Far West have also attempted to inculcate local pride. There is a dearth of legislation in the Southern states for the commemoration of Flag Day by special exercises, but Washington and Columbus have been accorded homage by both the North and the South.

TEXTBOOK LEGISLATION

Textbook legislation from 1900 to 1917 followed the trend of other legislation of the time. As the curriculum of the social studies expanded, laws dealing with textbooks were made to include more subjects for which there was to be a uniform series selected. State history and civil government, both local and national, as well as foreign history and other social studies, were found more frequently among the subjects enumerated. The reaction which had set in against the enforced nationalism of the Reconstruction period in the South continued to express itself in those states in which there had hitherto been no open remonstrance.

In 1904, the Mississippi legislature instructed the textbook commission to select a uniform series of textbooks in United States history, civil government, state history and other subjects, and took occasion to prescribe that “no history in relation to the late civil war between the states shall be used in the schools in this state unless it be fair and impartial,....”[216]

Presumably of like character was the action of North Carolina in 1905. In “An Act to Promote the Production and Publication of School Books relating to the History, Literature or Government of North Carolina for use in the Public Schools,” there was appropriated $5,000 for the years of 1905 and 1906 for the state board of education “to encourage, stimulate and promote the production and to procure the control and publication of such books as in the judgment of the board properly relate to the history, literature and government of North Carolina.”[217]

Florida’s sectionalism was openly avowed in her “Act for Providing a Method of Securing a Correct History of the United States, Including a True and Correct History of the Confederacy, and Making an Appropriation for such Purpose.” The act declared: “Whereas, no book called History, which does not tell the truth or withholds it, is worthy of the name or should be taught in public schools; and,

“Whereas, the South is rich in historical facts that are either ignored or never mentioned in the so-called histories taught in our schools; and,

“Whereas, the Southern States have been derelict in their duty to posterity in not having provided for past and future generations a history that is fair, just and impartial to all sections”; therefore it was enacted that Florida appropriate $1500 as her share toward a fund of $16,500 to be offered as a prize to the person writing the “best history of the United States in which the truth about the participation of the eleven states” be told.[218]

In the creation of a textbook board in 1907, Texas regarded it essential that a uniform series of books be selected among which there should be textbooks on the history of Texas, civil government and United States history, in which “the construction placed on the federal constitution by the Fathers of the Confederacy shall be fairly presented.”[219]

A uniform series of textbooks not of a partisan character were prescribed by laws in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Kansas, and included the subjects of United States history, state history, and civil government.[220] Louisiana, Indiana, and Kansas added ancient, medieval and modern history textbooks to others previously prescribed.[221] In 1901 Nevada included the history of the United States among the textbooks to be prescribed by the state board of education,[222] and Idaho, in 1907, imposed the choice of a civil government textbook and one in United States history upon her State Board of Textbook Commissioners and the superintendent of public instruction.[223] In 1913, California directed her state board of education to revise the state series of textbooks which included United States history.[224]

Three states, Ohio, New Mexico, and West Virginia placed laws upon their statute books regarding state history, Ohio accepting Howe’s Historical Collections of Ohio as a reference book,[225] and New Mexico limiting to one dollar a volume the price of a state history which was to be prepared by a “known historian of the state.”[226] Davies’ Facts in Civil Government, by an act of 1901 of West Virginia was again endorsed and the price fixed at 55 cents.[227]

Four states, during the period, in addition to three commonwealths which named “partisan” textbooks, enacted laws to exclude histories held to be sectional in spirit. Legislation in all other cases dealt with provisions for a uniform series of textbooks. The statutes of Louisiana, Indiana, and Kansas showed the expansion of the social study curriculum in providing for textbooks in ancient, medieval and modern history. Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Kansas regulated the purchase of textbooks in state and national history and in civics. In California, Ohio, New Mexico and West Virginia provisions were made relative to state history textbooks, and Idaho and Nevada in their laws recognized a need for textbooks in civil government or United States history.

FOOTNOTES:

[130] This period recognized the importance of vocational training as an important function of the public school, and developed an interest in other “expression subjects.” The content subjects were also expanded and liberalized. According to Cubberley, “The modern school aims to train pupils for greater social usefulness and to give them a more intelligent grasp of the social and industrial, as well as the moral and civic structure of our modern democratic life.” Cubberley, Ellwood P., Public Education in the United States (Boston, 1919), p. 370.

[131] Only the outstanding committee reports are mentioned. Cf. Johnson, op. cit. An N. E. A. committee report appeared in 1916 but played no part in the social studies curriculum of the period. It expressed, however, the practical and social viewpoint of the time.

[132] Eighteen states.

[133] See chapter VI for a discussion of the activities of the G. A. R. in the North and of pro-Southern groups in the South to direct the content of history textbooks.

[134] Laws of Vermont, 1900, no. 25, p. 19. The law of 1912 was substantially the same as that of 1900. Laws, 1912, sec. 1016, p. 68.

[135] Laws of Vermont, 1902, no. 27, sec. 3, p. 39; ibid., 1904, no. 137, sec. 4, p. 62; Public Statutes, 1906, ch. 47, sec. 1016, p. 277.

[136] Public Statutes of Vermont, 1906, ch. 46, sec. 1003, p. 275. Cf. Laws, 1888, ch. 5, sec. 95, p. 24.

[137] Public Acts of Vermont, 1915, sec. 44, p. 131.

[138] Supplement to the Public Statutes of New Hampshire, 1901-1913, p. 17 (1901, ch. 96, sec. 4, 1903, 31:1; 1903, 118:2; 1905, 19:1).