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PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

BY

C. A. TOLEDANO

1917

PREFACE

With the best intention of justifying Messrs. PITMAN'S confidence in entrusting me with the compilation of a Spanish Grammar to form part of the series of "Commercial Grammars," I set to work to produce a book which, while avoiding pedantry and the agglomeration of superfluous and intricate rules which puzzle the student, should equally avoid falling into the extreme of coarseness which debases the subject under study, or the scrappiness resulting in gaps that perplex and discourage him. I have tried to be brief and clear in the rules given.

The vocabulary has been chosen carefully, avoiding the artificiality of too much commercial technology, but keeping constantly in view the object of the Series, viz., to produce grammars specially suitable for students preparing for a commercial career.

Whether I have succeeded in my efforts it is for the public to judge. I can only say that, after more than twenty-five years' teaching of Spanish in all its stages, privately, at the Manchester University and in the large classes of our public Institutions, I have tried my best to give the fruits of my experience to any interested young people who may be eager to learn a language beautiful, noble, and most useful.

I do not claim to have reached perfection. I only trust the book, such as it presents itself, will be of real help to the student.

C.A. TOLEDANO.

MANCHESTER, 1911.

COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

ALPHABET.

A (a) G (ge) M (eme) Rr (erre)
B (be) H (hache) N (ene) S (ese)
C (ce) I (i) Ñ (eñe) T (te)
Ch (che) J (jota) O (o) U (u)
D (de) K (ka) P (pe) V (ve)
E (e) L (ele) Q (cu) X (equis)
F (efe) Ll (elle) R (ere) Y (y griega or ye)
Z (zeta)

K (ka) and W (doble ve) are only found in foreign words used in Spanish.

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

a as English a in f_a_ther e[1] " a " f_a_te[2] i " i " magaz_i_ne o[1] " o " n_o_te[2] u " u " r_u_le

These five sounds never vary, except that they are a little longer when they are stressed and shorter when they are not, as Yo amo (I love),[3] Amigo (friend), El cielo (heaven), Celeste (heavenly), Un recibo (a receipt), Interés (interest), Yo como (I eat), Contar (to count), Un buque (a ship), Una butaca (an armchair).

Y is considered a vowel in the conjunction y (and), and at the end of a word, as Rey (king), Hoy (to-day).

[Footnote 1: E and o are sounded a little more open when they form a diphthong with i and when they precede r followed by a consonant or r or l final, as Fernando (Ferdinand), Un tercio (a third), El tercer año (the third year), Porfiar (to insist), Amor (love), Español (Spanish).]

[Footnote 2: The a and o of "fate" and "note" are not pure vowel sounds. In English the a is distinctly pronounced a-ee and o is pronounced o-oo.

In Spanish the first part only of the two sounds is permissible.]

[Footnote 3: The examples given with their English equivalents should be learnt.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

There are no Diphthongs or Triphthongs in the English sense of two or three vowels meeting in one syllable and blending into a different sound, as "pause," "plough."

Every vowel is pronounced separately and each with its alphabetical sound, only the two or three vowels occurring in one syllable are pronounced rapidly, as Pausa (pause), Reino (kingdom), Cuenta (account), Buey (ox).

A, E and O never form diphthongs together. They may form diphthongs and triphthongs only in combination with I and U.

CONSONANTS.

The Consonants are pronounced as in English with the following exceptions:

B is pronounced much more lightly than in English, with no pressure of the lips, as Libro (book), Brevedad (brevity).

C before E and I—th in "theatre," as La Cena (the supper), La Cerveza (the beer). Otherwise pronounced K as in English, as Caja (case, box), Color (colour), Cúbico (cubic).

Ch always as ch in "church" (never hard as in "monarch"), as
Chocolate (chocolate), Charla (prattle).

D at the end of a word or after a vowel is pronounced very softly and lightly, with a tinge of th in "they," as Madrid, Amado (loved), Encarnado (red).

G before E and I is pronounced guttural, as El general (the general), El giro (the draft, bill). This sound is equal to ch in the Scotch word "loch." In all other cases G is pronounced hard, as in the English word "gay"; as Gato (cat), Gobierno (government), Gusto (pleasure, taste).

H is a mute letter. (Although in Andalusia it is aspirated in certain words.)

J is always guttural, as Juan (John), Jornalero (day labourer), Junio
(June), Reloj (watch, clock).

Ll—ly, stronger than li in "pavilion," as Belleza (beauty), Folleto (leaflet).

Ñ—ny, stronger than ni in "pinion," as Niño (child), Caña (cane), El otoño (autumn).

Q is only used before ue and ui (and the u is then mute), as
Querido (dear, beloved), Yo quiero (I want).

R as in English, but it is always rolled, as Caro (dear, expensive), Pérdida (loss). At the beginning of a word or when preceded by a consonant it is rolled more strongly, as La rosa (the rose), Deshonra (dishonour).

Rr always rolled strongly, as Carro (cart), El ferrocarril (the railway).

S always pronounced as s in "soap," and never as in "as" or "sure."

T as in "tea," but never as t in "nation." It must be pronounced softly, not explosive, as Fortuna (fortune), Cuatro (four).

V is pronounced much more lightly than in English, as Vino (wine), Vivir (to live). By the common people V is often confounded with B, but educated Spaniards will always make the proper distinction.

Y—Spanish I.

Z—th in "theatre," as Zarazas (cotton prints), Zorra (fox).

NOTE.—In modern Spanish Z is not used before E or I, its place being supplied by C.

RULES ON PRONUNCIATION.

RULE I.—Every letter is pronounced. There are no mute letters as b in "lamb" or n in "autumn."

EXCEPTIONS—H is not sounded as already explained in the alphabet. U is not sounded in the following syllables: que, qui, gue and gui, as Quedar (to remain), Quinta (villa), Guerra (war), Águila (eagle), unless the u in gue and gui has the diaeresis, as Argüir (to argue), Vergüenza (shame).

RULE II.—No consonant is doubled except C and N. C is found doubled in words like Acceder (to accede) when one C is hard—k and the other soft—th.

N is found doubled in words having the prefix in, as Innoble (ignoble), Innavegable (unnavigable). Also in Perenne (perennial) and a very few more words.

Ll and Rr are treated as single letters.

RULE III.—The stress of the voice falls on the last syllable but one in all words ending in a vowel or S or N; otherwise it falls on the last syllable, as Una factura (an invoice), Facturas (invoices), Hermano (brother), Cartas (letters), Ellos tienen (they have), Azul (blue), Abril (April), Labor (labour), Feliz (happy).

In diphthongs and triphthongs the stress is not on i or u, but falls on a, e or o, as Reina (queen), Gracia (grace), Igual (equal), Cielo (heaven).

When the diphthong is formed by i and u the last one bears the stress, as Un viudo (a widower), La ciudad (the city), Luisa (Louise).

The numerous exceptions to the above rule are all marked by the written accent (´), as Facturó (he invoiced), Escribirá (he will write), Háblame (speak to me), Inglés (English), Alemán (German), Útil (useful), Jóvenes (young men).

The stress of the voice should fall distinctly on the proper syllable according to the above rule, and the attention of the student must be earnestly called to this very important point.

A word in the plural maintains the stress on the same syllable as in its singular, as El océano (the ocean), Océanos (oceans), Cálculo (calculation), Cálculos (calculations), Inglés (Englishman), Ingleses (Englishmen); except Carácter (character), Caracteres (characters), Régimen (regime or rule), Regímenes (regimes or rules)—the latter hardly ever used in the plural.

SIGNS.

The Written Accent.

The only accent in Spanish is (´). It is used—

(1) To mark the exceptions to the Rule of Stress.

(2) To distinguish between two meanings of the same word, as El (the), Él (he); De (of), Que él dé (that he may give); Se (3rd person reflexive pronoun, "himself," etc.), Yo sé (I know); Más (more), Mas (but).

(3) In the following words established by use, as "ó" or "ú" (or), "é" (and), "á" (to).[4]

(4) In some words when used interrogatively, as Quién? (who?), Qué? (what?), Cuál? (which?), Cúyo? (whose?), Dónde? (where?).

(5) On I and U when they occur together with A, E or O, the I or U not belonging to the same syllable, viz., not forming diphthong with A, E or O, as Filosofía (philosophy), El continúa (he continues).

(6) On I following U when the I does not form a diphthong, but stands as a separate syllable, as Concluído (concluded), Imbuído (imbued).

(7) On Éste (this), Ése and Aquél (that) when these words are stressed.

[Footnote 4: According to the last edition of the Grammar of the
Spanish Academy, these words may now be written without the accent.]

Crema (Diaeresis).

The diaeresis is placed over u in "güe" and "güi" when the u is to be sounded.[5]

[Footnote 5: In poetry also to divide an ordinary diphthong into two syllables for the sake of rhythm.]

Tilde.

The tilde (~) is used on the letter N to turn it into Ñ, as Mañana (morning) (in old Spanish spelt Mannana).

Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation.

These are used in Spanish both at the beginning and at the end of the question or exclamation, as ¿Qué quiere V.? (what do you want?), ¡Cuántos sufrimientos! (how much suffering!). Note that at the beginning they are reversed.

The other signs of punctuation are used as in English.

Capital letters are used as in English with the following exceptions—

(1) Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters, as Un libro inglés (an English book).

(2) Days of the week generally (and sometimes the months of the year) are written with small letters.

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

After the first syllable each succeeding one commences with a consonant, as a-for-tu-na-da-men-te (fortunately), except when a prefix occurs before a primitive word,[6] as Organizar (to organise).

[Footnote 6: A few minor exceptions will be learnt by practice.]

Des-or-ga-ni-zar (to disorganise).

When two consonants occur together one letter belongs to one syllable and the other to the next, as—

Ac-ci-den-te (accident) Pe-ren-ne (perennial) Tem-po-ral-men-te (temporarily) In-me-dia-to (immediate)

EXCEPTION—bl, br, pl, pr, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr and tr are not divided, as—

A-blan-dar (to soften)
Li-bro (book)
A-pla-zar (to postpone)
A-pre-ciar (to appreciate)
De-cla-mar (to declaim)
De-cre-tar (to decree)
A-me-dren-tar (to frighten)
Con-fla-gra-ción (conflagration)
Re-fren-dar (to countersign)
A-glo-me-rar (to agglomerate)
A-gran-dar (to enlarge)
En-con-trar (to meet)

If any of these combinations occur together with a third consonant, this of course will belong to the previous syllable, as

Em-bro-llar (to entangle).

If four consonants come together, two belong to the first syllable and two to the next, as Obs-tru-ir (to obstruct).

Ll and Rr, being treated as single letters, must not be divided, as—

Ba-lle-na (whale)
Una ca-lle (a street)
A-lla-nar (to level)
Tie-rra (earth)

LESSON I.

THE ARTICLE.

The =Definite Article= in Spanish is

=El= before a masculine[7] noun singular
=La= " feminine[7] " "

[Footnote 7: Spanish nouns are all masculine or feminine. There are no neuter nouns.]

as—

El hombre (the man)—La mujer (the woman)
El libro (the book)—La pluma (the pen)

El recibo (the receipt)—La cuenta (the account)

=Los= before a masculine noun plural
=Las= " feminine " "

as—

Los muchachos (the boys)—Las señoras (the ladies)
Los géneros (the goods)—Las facturas (the invoices)
Los lápices (the pencils)—Las cartas (the letters).

The =Indefinite Article= is—

=Un= before a masculine noun singular
=Una= " feminine " "

as—

Un amigo (a friend)—Una amiga (a lady-friend)
Un padre (a father)—Una madre (a mother)

The Indefinite Article has no plural, but the Spanish plural forms "unos" (masc.) and "unas" (fem.) translate the English words "some" or "any," as Unos hermanos (some brothers), Unas hermanas (some sisters), Unos tinteros (some inkstands), Unas mesas (some tables). (The Spanish words "Algunos," "Algunas," are also used for the same purpose.)

NOTE 1.—Before a feminine noun singular commencing with a or ha use =El= and =Un= instead of La and Una if such nouns are stressed on the first syllable, as El águila (the eagle), El agua (the water), El alma (the soul). (The plural is regular, as Las águilas (the eagles).)

NOTE 2.—The Definite Article has a "neuter form" which is =Lo=. It cannot be used before a noun but before other parts of speech used to represent an abstract idea, as Yo amo lo bello (I love the beautiful, viz., all that which is beautiful), Lo sublime (the sublime, viz., all that which is sublime).

REGULAR VERBS.

1st Conjugation. Hablar (to speak). Pres. Part. Hablando (speaking). Past Part. Hablado (spoken).

Present Tense, Indicative Mood.

Yo hablo (I speak) Nosotros (m.) hablamos (we speak)
Nosotras (f.) hablamos (we speak)

Tú hablas[8] (thou speakest) Vosotros (m.) habláis (you speak)
Vosotras (f.) habláis (you speak)

Él or Ella habla (he or she speaks) Ellos (m.) hablan (they speak)
Ellas (f.) hablan (they speak)
Usted habla (you speak)[9]. Ustedes hablan (you speak).[9]

[Footnote 8: The second person is only used in the familiar style, practically when in English the 2nd person would be addressed as "John" or "Frank" and not as "Mr. Smith" or "Mr. Brown.">[

[Footnote 9: This is called the polite way of addressing and is the form in use. Note that the verb after it is in the 3rd person, because "Usted," "Ustedes" (which can be abbreviated as V. Vs.) are contractions of Vuestra merced (your grace), Vuestras mercedes (your graces). V. ama = your grace loves.]

2nd Conjugation. Temer (to fear). Pres. Part. Temiendo. Past Part. Temido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Yo temo Nosotros (m.) temenos
Nosotras (f.) temenos

Tú temes Vosotros (m.) teméis
Vosotras (f.) teméis

Él teme Ellos (m.) temen
Ella teme Ellas (f.) temen

V. teme Vs. temen

3rd Conjugation. Partir (to depart, to set out). Pres. Part. Partiendo. Past Part. Partido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Yo parto Nosotros (m.) partimos
Nosotras (f.) partimos

Tú partes Vosotros (m.) partís
Vosotras (f.) partís

Él parte Ellos (m.) parten
Ella parte Ellas (f.) parten

V. parte Vs. parten

VOCABULARY.

=á=, to, at =amar=[10], to love =el árbol=, the tree =las botas=, the boots =el capitán=, the captain =la camisa=, the shirt =la casaca=[11], the coat =comprar=, to buy =la flor=, the flower =el hombre=, the man =el hermano=, the brother =la hermana=, the sister =el joven=, the young man =la joven=, the young woman =el lápiz=, the pencil =el libro=, the book =la madre=, the mother =mas=, but =más=, more =la mujer=, the woman =nosotros tenemos=, we have =el oro=, gold =el padre=, the father =los pantalones=, the trousers =el papel=, the paper =para=, for =la plata=, silver =la pluma=, the pen =el sombrero=, the hat =él tiene=, he has =V. tiene=, you (sing.) have =Vs. tienen=, you (pl.) have =la tinta=, the ink =el tintero=, the inkstand =*tener=,[10] to have, to possess =yo tengo=, I have =el viejo=, the old man =la vieja=, the old woman =la virtud=, virtue

[Footnote 10: The verbs given in this vocabulary and the following are regular (i.e., they are conjugated respectively as the model verbs given) unless they are marked with an asterisk.]

[Footnote 11: Or americana, more used now.]

EXERCISE 1 (1).

Translate into English—

1. El hombre tiene una pluma.

2. La mujer tiene un libro.

3. ¿Tiene el padre un sombrero?

4. Nosotros tenemos el tintero del (of the) joven.

5. V. tiene el papel y (and) el lápiz de la madre.

6. Vs. tienen la tinta y el papel.

7. Las hermanas aman.

8. El oro y la plata son preciosos (are precious) mas la virtud es (is) más preciosa.

9. La vieja y la joven compran flores (flowers).

10. V. vende sombreros.

11. Vs. tienen las cartas.

12. ¿Compra[12] V. los pantalones?

13. El Señor (Mr.) Brown es hermano de Juan (John).

14. El sombrero, la americana, y las botas son míos (mine).

15. ¿Habla V.?

16. ¿Teme ella?

17. Ellos parten.

18. V. parte.

19. Nosotros compramos géneros (goods) y vendemos flores.

[Footnote 12: The auxiliary "Do" and "Did," used in English in interrogative and negative sentences, are not translated in Spanish.]

EXERCISE 2 (2).

Translate into Spanish—

1. The father, the mother, and the brother.

2. A pencil, a pen, and an inkstand.

3. The old man and the old woman.

4. A hat and some boots.

5. The shirt and the trousers.

6. I buy the tree.

7. He sells some flowers (flores).

8. I fear.

9. He fears.

10. We sell.

11. We set out.

12. You (sing.) set out.

13. I buy.

14. He sells.

15. The brother and the sister sell.

16. They speak to the (al) man.

17. We set out for London (Londres).

18. The old woman has the hat.

19. The old man has the flower.

20. Who (quién) has the ink and a pen?

21. The father has the coat.

22. Gold is precious (es precioso) but virtue is more precious (preciosa).

23. I sell paper to the woman.

24. You (sing.) fear.

25. You (plu.) buy some flowers.

26. She speaks to the sister.

27. The father and the mother of the captain.

LESSON II.
(Lección segunda.)

THE ARTICLE (contd.).

The definite article El is contracted with the preposition de (of or from) into =Del= and with the preposition A, into al as—

Del extranjero: Of or from the foreigner.
Al caballero español: To the Spanish gentleman.

These are the only contractions that occur in Spanish; with the other prepositions the article simply follows, as—

By, for, with, in, on, without, behind, the father:
Por, Para, Con, En, Sobre, Sin, Tras, el padre.

The following are the principal cases in which the definite article is used in Spanish and not in English—

1. Before nouns taken in a general sense, as—

El oro y la plata: Gold and silver.
Los hombres ó las mujeres: Men or women.

2. Before titles denoting dignity and profession,[13] as—

El Señor Fulano: Mr. So-and-So.
El Rey Jorge V.: King George V.
El Profesor Rosales: Professor Rosales.

The only exception is "Don" (Mr.), only used before Christian names, as
Don Francisco (Mr. Francis).

3. Generally before each of several nouns following each other when they are material possessions, as—

La casa y el jardín de mi hijo: My son's[14] house and garden. Las puertas y las ventanas de mi casa: The doors and windows of my house.

But—

La diligencia, devoción, y virtud de mi primo: the diligence, devotion and virtue of my cousin.

4. Before a proper noun qualified by an adjective, as—

El valiente Juan: Brave John.[15]

The following are the principal cases in which the indefinite article is used in English and not in Spanish—

1. Before a noun following the verb "to be," or other similar verbs, as—

Es capitán[16]: He is a captain.
Soy francés: I am a Frenchman.
Se hizo actor: He became an actor.
Le elegimos miembro de esta sociedad: We elect him a member of this
society.
Fué elegido miembro: He was elected a member.

2. After "what" used in exclamations, as: Qué hermosa vista: What a fine view!

3. Before "hundred" and "thousand": 100—ciento, 1,000—mil.

[Footnote 13: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 14: The 's = possessive does not exist in Spanish. "My son's house" must always be translated as "the house of my son.">[

[Footnote 15: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 16: Except, of course, when we particularize, as—Es un capitán que conocí en Paris: He is a captain I knew in Paris.]

Imperfect Tense,[17] Indicative Mood.

Past Definite,[17] Indicative Mood.

[Footnote 17: The Imperfect tense describes a past action or state in progress; the Past Definite narrates an event. Ex.: I met (past def.)] Charles, who wore (imp.) a black hat: Encontré á Carlos quien llevaba sombrero negro.]

[Footnote 18: The Subject-Pronoun may be left understood, and is generally omitted unless special stress is laid upon it.]

VOCABULARY.

=alemán=[19], German =beber=, to drink =bien=, well =café=, coffee =cerveza=, beer =clavel=, carnation =cliente=, client, customer =comer=, to eat =escribir=[20], to write =estudiar=, to study =exportar=, to export =extranjero=, foreigner =ferretería=, ironware =grande= (pl. =grandes=), large =hijo=, son =hija=, daughter =italiano=, Italian =jardinero=, gardener =leer=, to read =mañana=, morning, to-morrow =manzana=, apple =máquina=, machine =mesa=, table =mi=, my =mucho= (m.), much =mucha= (f.), much =muy=, very =pera=, pear =pero=, but =pobre=, poor =¿qué?= what? =que=, that, who, which =rosa=, rose =su=, his, her, their =su … de V=., your =té=, tea =el … de V=., your =vino=, wine =violeta=, violet

[Footnote 19: Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters.]

[Footnote 20: Past Participle is "Escrito," otherwise regular.]

EXERCISE 1 (3).

Translate into English—

1. Mi hermano habla español (or castellano).

2. V. no habla francés.

3. ¿Habla bien el alemán el primo de su amigo de V. (your friend)?

4. No, Señor, el primo de mi amigo no habla bien el alemán pero habla muy bien el inglés.

5. ¿Cómo está (how is) su hermana de V.?

6. Está muy bien, gracias (thank you).

7. ¿Compra V. papel y tinta?

8. Sí, Señor, y compro lápices y plumas.

9. ¿Quién (who) compra zarazas (prints) y géneros blancos (whites)?

10. El comerciante (merchant) que vino (came) de la Habana.

11. ¿Quién vende máquinas y ferretería?

12. Nosotros exportamos máquinas muy buenas al extranjero (abroad).

13. Estos géneros son para los clientes de V. que parten mañana.

14. ¿Ha hablado V. con Don Francisco?

15. Sí, Señor, le hablé en la ciudad (in town).

16. Las rosas, los claveles y las violetas del jardinero.

17. El amor y respeto de mi hijo y de mi hija.

18. Juan es francés y yo soy inglés.

19. Le han elegido miembro de esta (this) sociedad.

20. Las hermosas rosas sobre la mesa.

21. V. tiene mil libras (£1,000) y yo tengo ciento.

EXERCISE 2 (4).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Do you speak Spanish?

2. No, but I speak Italian well.

3. Do your customers buy (any) goods?

4. They buy machines and ironware, but my correspondent in Havana buys prints in very large quantities (cantidades).

5. Who sells paper and ink?

6. The old man sells them (los vende).

7. Who writes a letter?

8. I write letters.

9. Who drinks wine?

10. I do not drink wine.

11. Do you drink beer?

12. I do not drink beer but I like (me gustan) coffee and tea.

13. Poor John is my friend.

14. What a beautiful (hermosa) rose!

15. Do your brothers study French?

16. Yes, and they study German.

17. Who studies Italian?

18. My sister-in-law studies Italian and French.

19. The merchant (comerciante) was elected a member of your society.

20. Mr. Brown is a captain.

21. John set out for America.

22. I like (me gusta) to study foreign languages (lenguas extranjeras).

LESSON III.
(Lección tercera.)

THE NOUN.

The noun in Spanish has only two genders.

=Nouns= denoting =male= beings are =Masculine=.
" " =female= " " =Feminine=.

When there is no real gender, nouns are called masculine or feminine according to their terminations.

GENERAL RULE.—All nouns that terminate in a, ión, d, also abstract nouns ending in ez, are feminine, as—

La villa: The town. La nación[21]: The nation.
La ciudad: The city or large town. La honradez: Honesty.
The other terminations are masculine.

There are many exceptions to the above rule, principally in nouns ending in E.[22]

[Footnote 21: English words ending in "tion" end in ción in Spanish.
(Note the accent.)]

[Footnote 22: Appendix I—for reference only at this stage.]

=Formation of the Plural of Nouns=.

Nouns ending in a vowel which is not stressed and also nouns ending in E bearing the stress, add =S= to form the plural.

All others add =Es=.

EXCEPTIONS—

1. Nouns ending in Z in the sing. change it into =Ces=. 2. Nouns ending in S do not change unless the last syllable is stressed.

EXAMPLES—

El amo: The master. Los amos: The masters.
El cuñado: The brother-in-law. Los cuñados: The brothers-in-law.
La cuñada: The sister-in-law. Las cuñadas: The sisters-in-law.
El yerno: The son-in-law. Los yernos: The sons-in-law.
La nuera: The daughter-in-law. Las nueras: The daughters-in-law.
El árbol: The tree. Los árboles: The trees.
El examen: The examination. Los exámenes: The examinations.
El lápiz: The pencil. Los lápices: The pencils.
El ómnibus: The omnibus. Los ómnibus: The omnibuses.
El jabalí: The boar. Los jabalíes: The boars.

3. Nouns ending in Y add =Es=, as—

El rey: The king. Los reyes: The kings.
La ley: The law. Las leyes: The laws.

4. The following add only =S= to form the plural—

Papá, Mamá, Bajá (a pasha), Sofá (sofa).[23]

[Footnote 23: Words ending in accented vowels are very few and the rule for those ending in á, ó, ú is not very strict.]

=Compound Nouns= form their plural according to sense, as—

Hijodalgo (a gentleman by birth), literally, "son of something"; Plu.,
Hijosdalgo (literally, "sons of something ").
Ferrocarril (railway), literally, "iron railroad"; Plu., Ferrocarriles
(literally, "iron railroads").

Such nouns are rare.[24]

[Footnote 24: A verb as a component part does not change, as El portabandera (the standard-bearer), Los portabanderas (the standard-bearers).]

Pitman's Commercial Spanish Grammar (2nd ed.)

PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

BY

C. A. TOLEDANO

PREFACE

C.A. TOLEDANO.

MANCHESTER, 1911.

COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

ALPHABET.

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

CONSONANTS.

RULES ON PRONUNCIATION.

SIGNS.

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

LESSON I.

THE ARTICLE.

REGULAR VERBS.

VOCABULARY.

EXERCISE 1 (1).

EXERCISE 2 (2).

VOCABULARY.

EXERCISE 1 (3).

EXERCISE 2 (4).

THE NOUN.

EXCEPTIONS—

EXAMPLES—