TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Despite it being referred to, there is no illustration ‘Plate XLI’ in this book.

COMPANION VOLUME

A COMPLETE GUIDE
TO HERALDRY

BY
A. C. FOX-DAVIES
Of LINCOLN’S INN, BARRISTER-AT-LAW

EDITOR OF “ARMORIAL FAMILIES”; AUTHOR OF “THE
ART OF HERALDRY,” ETC.

Illustrated by 9 Plates in Colour and nearly 800
other Designs, mainly from Drawings by

GRAHAM JOHNSTON
HERALD PAINTER TO THE LYON COURT

In One Volume. Containing over 600 pages.
Large square 8vo, Cloth Gilt,
10s. 6d. net

Sir Richard Vernon, 1452. Tong Church, Shropshire

Frontispiece

BRITISH AND FOREIGN
ARMS & ARMOUR

BY
CHARLES HENRY ASHDOWN

HON. SEC. ST. ALBANS AND HERTS ARCHITECTURAL AND ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOCIETY;
HON. CURATOR OF NUMISMATICS, HERTS COUNTY MUSEUM; AUTHOR OF
“ST. ALBANS: HISTORICAL AND PICTURESQUE,” ETC.

ILLUSTRATED WITH 450 ENGRAVINGS IN THE TEXT AND 42 PLATES
FROM ACTUAL EXAMPLES, MISSALS, ILLUMINATED MSS., BRASSES,
EFFIGIES, Etc., AND FROM ORIGINAL RESEARCH IN THE
BRITISH MUSEUM, THE TOWER OF LONDON, WALLACE
COLLECTION, ROTUNDA AT WOOLWICH, MANY
PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, Etc.

LONDON
T. C. & E. C. JACK
16 HENRIETTA STREET, W.C.
AND EDINBURGH
1909

TO

THE PRESIDENT

THE VERY REV. THE DEAN OF ST. ALBANS, D.D.

AND TO

THE MEMBERS

OF THE

ST. ALBANS AND HERTS ARCHITECTURAL AND
ARCHÆOLOGICAL SOCIETY,

THESE PAGES ARE RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY

THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE

The study of Arms and Armour is one of absorbing interest to a large and ever increasing number of the community, inasmuch as it appeals in a marked degree to the student of history, the antiquarian, and to those who work in the realms of art. To the first it appeals as a concrete reminder of the struggles of nations for liberty, independence, power, or conquest; to the second it breathes of the age in which it saw the light with all the feeling and tone which characterised it; to the third it is a source of delight by the consummate beauty of its form or the exquisite details of its adornment. Unfortunately there are few books extant which serve as a guide to the student, although there are many which deal with the subject. The great works of Meyrick, with Skelton his illustrator, are standard only in a sense that it is necessary to be thoroughly acquainted with the subject in order to guard against the many errors embodied in them. Grose is hopelessly antiquated, while Fosbroke, Stothard, Strutt, Shaw, Planché, Cotman, and others who flourished before or about the sixties, only deal pictorially or casually with the subject. The Rev. Charles Boutell by his translation of Lacombe did much to foster the study, but it was from a French point of view, and his epitome of English armour and arms, though excellent in its way, is only superficial, and a digest of his great works on Monumental Brasses. In the latter he probably did more to further the study than any preceding author; he was the first to rationally systematise the arrangement of armour in periods in consonance with the salient features it possessed, thus breaking through the previous methods of classifying it by reigns, which was obviously absurd, or by centuries, which was equally ridiculous. I have followed his method with but little variation in the pages of this book, inasmuch as no better arrangement is extant. It is a matter for great pride to myself that such standard works should have emanated from a former Hon. Secretary of the St. Albans and Herts Architectural and Archæological Society, and if the present volume should in any degree further the good work of my predecessor it will have achieved the height of my ambition. Hewitt is delightful reading, but his arrangement is unsystematic and involved; to the advanced student, however, he is invaluable. The later works of Demmin, Clephan, Gardner, &c., are masterly monographs upon the subject, but hopelessly out of place in the hands of a beginner.

It is with a view to rectifying this obvious requirement that the following pages have been compiled, and it is confidently anticipated that a careful reading and digest of each separate period of armour, supplemented with the study of local brasses, effigies, museums, private collections, &c., will enable the average student to attack the more advanced works upon the subject with equal profit and pleasure. It is perhaps necessary to caution the student of brasses against many existing cases where the armour shown is not essentially that of the period when the person died, inasmuch as many warriors in their old age requested that the armour delineated upon their monumental slabs should be that in which they achieved renown in youth or manhood. In other examples the brass was not executed until some time after the person represented had deceased, and details had undergone change in the interim; while cases are not unknown where the brass of one person has been taken to record the demise of another, perhaps many years later. A flagrant example of this may be cited in the brass of Peter Rede, d. 1577, in St. Peter’s, Mancroft, Norwich, who is represented in complete plate of the years 1460 or 1470, with visored salade, &c. Occasionally we find the artist exercising his powers of recollection with startling results, as in the case of the Wodehouse brass in Kimberley Church, Norfolk, 1465, but probably executed sixty years later. The knight delineated has a skirt of mail of 1490 with three fluted tuilles, very high pike-guards, a camail of 1405 or earlier, sabbatons of 1500, and a breastplate with placcate of 1470. Fortunately such vagaries are so apparent that the observer is placed upon his guard at once.

The average Englishman is probably more unacquainted with arms and armour than any other technical subject. Beyond a general idea that the Crusaders fought in mail, and the Wars of the Roses were waged by warriors clad in plate, his knowledge does not extend, and he consequently witnesses many startling incongruities upon the stage of a theatre, or the arena of a pageant, with the most profound indifference. He will perceive Richard III. in a camail and Ivanhoe in a salade with the utmost complacency. The pity of it is that those who are responsible for the historical inaccuracies should be so ignorant, for no effort ought to be spared in endeavouring to educate the nation, and especially the youth of it, in the fundamental principles of rigid historical truthfulness. In our theatres recently we have witnessed Bolingbroke in a fifteenth century tabard, a waist-belt, and round-toed sabbatons, with the Duke of Norfolk in an almost equally grotesque parody of the Camail and Jupon Period; Pistol with a basket-hilted rapier; Henry V. in a camail, late fifteenth century gauntlets, twentieth century boots, and vambraces covering parts of his coudières. Upon the arena knights of Richard II.’s period have appeared in full plate armour of 1470; at Queen Eleanor’s funeral without ailettes; while bear’s-paw sabbatons have figured conspicuously in many scenes previous to 1480. These are elementary details which even a cursory knowledge of military equipment could avoid, but in the illustrations of historical scenes in books and magazines equal ignorance prevails, and a knight in pure mail and a surcoat, making love to a maiden in a reticulated head-dress seated under a two-centred Tudor archway, is only an example of the incongruities which almost every day insult the intelligence and offend the eyesight of the educated reader. Unfortunately many illustrators go to the works of Sir Walter Scott for details of mediæval military equipment, and are thereby led hopelessly astray.

It will be noticed in the following pages that continual reference is made, respecting early armour and weapons, to the MSS. which are preserved in our inimitable national collection at the British Museum, and I cannot too earnestly advise the student to utilise to the utmost extent possible the treasure-house of military detail preserved therein. The feeling which prompted early illuminators to represent Biblical and other personages in contemporary equipment, whereby Goliath was shown habited in Norman hauberk and helm, Moses appeared on horseback with couched lance in the mixed mail and plate of the thirteenth century, and Julius Cæsar crossed the Rubicon in a salade and complete Yorkist plate, is simply invaluable to the student, inasmuch as every detail, though at times almost microscopic, is faithfully delineated, and every new fashion recorded at once upon its adoption. I have drawn upon many manuscripts for illustrations, but there are scores still untouched which only need the student’s attention to deliver up many valuable examples of details probably quite unknown at the present time.

There are collateral subjects connected with the study of Armour and Arms which the exigencies of space have compelled me to wholly or partially omit, such as heraldry, mantling and the changes it underwent, caparisoning and barding, the later development of weapons of precision, history and varieties of the sword, &c., some of which would require special monographs to deal with, and do full justice to, the subject.

One of the main ideas has been the simplification of those points upon which the majority of the books extant are either silent or deal with in a casual and unsatisfying manner. One period especially, which gave me infinite trouble as a student, is that between 1320 and 1360, while another feature, generally omitted or hurriedly glossed over, is the equipment of the common soldier. In conclusion I must express my deep sense of obligation to the authorities connected with the Tower of London, the Wallace Collection, the British Museum Manuscript Department, the South Kensington Museum, the Rotunda at Woolwich, the Edinburgh Castle Museum, the United Service Institution, the Armourers’ Hall, &c., for the kind facilities they have willingly and promptly afforded for sketching, photographing, and examining the various exhibits preserved in those institutions.

CHARLES HENRY ASHDOWN.

Monastery Close,
St. Albans, Herts.

The Author gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to Viscount Dillon; the Marquis of Salisbury; the late Sir John Evans, K.C.B.; The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely, D.D.; Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey, Bart.; H. J. Toulmin, Esq., J.P.; A. F. Calvert, Esq.; W. Page, Esq., F.S.A.; E. J. Hunt, Esq., B.A.; H. R. Wilton-Hall, Esq.

CONTENTS

BRITISH AND FOREIGN ARMS AND ARMOUR

CHAPTER I

WEAPONS OF PREHISTORIC MAN

THE STONE AGE

The prehistoric man of the Stone Age had undoubtedly one of the most difficult materials to deal with that can possibly be conceived, inasmuch as it was intensely hard, very brittle, and, so far as flint is concerned, occurred naturally only in comparatively small masses. Yet with this crude matter, and with implements of the same material, he succeeded in producing implements for husbandry and domestic use, weapons of war and for the chase, which excite our warmest admiration, both for the beauty of their proportions and the exquisite skill required in their manufacture. To the worker in flint the number of objects capable of being produced in that exceedingly refractory medium was limited, but these as the age progressed were eventually of a very high order of excellence, probably deemed unattainable by the earlier man. We will take the different weapons in the order of their importance, premising that in this chapter we shall have no armour to deal with, though doubtless the man of the very earliest age had some protection in the way of skins, plaited osier, or bark with which to ward off hostile blows, in addition to the shield, which is common to every race without exception when in the savage state.

Fig. 1.—Stone celt with cutting edge.

Celts.—The word “celt,” said to be derived from a doubtful Latin word signifying a chisel, is the name by which a particularly large and widely distributed class of weapons or implements is known. The word has no connection with the Celtic people, and should be pronounced “selt” and not “kelt,” as one frequently hears. The form of the celt is well known, inasmuch as many hundreds exist in our museums and private collections. They are found widely distributed in all parts of Europe, and generally throughout the known world, being regarded in many places in mediæval and even in modern times with superstitious reverence as thunderbolts with inherent mystical qualities.

Fig. 2.—Stone celt with cutting edge.

The primitive celts occurring in England are simply flints roughly chipped into form with unsharpened edges, and are chiefly found in those counties where flint abounds. They are not, however, confined to them, but occur in other parts where flint is not abundant, being fabricated in a different material such as agate, quartz, granite, obsidian, clay-slate, greenstone, serpentine, and other rocks. These crude celts, being merely chipped out and very roughly formed, are at times difficult of recognition; they belong to the Palæolithic or earlier period of the Stone Age. The second development of the celt appears in the grinding of one edge so as to produce a cutting portion (Figs. [1], [2]), the ruder ones simply having a serrated edge produced by being chipped. This grinding was doubtless executed by means of sand and water, and in scores of examples a remarkably even result has been obtained ([Fig. 3]). The third form in which the celt is polished all over is the highest development and the most recent ([Fig. 4]), and is classed in the Neolithic period. Some of these have ornamentation upon them in the form of ribs running longitudinally upon the sides, and some are bored with a circular or oblong hole. For use these celts were fixed transversely at the end of a haft of wood either by binding or by the wood being cleft for their insertion; in peace they performed all the offices which are associated with a hatchet, and in war those of a battle-axe.

Fig. 3.—Celt with ground edge.

Fig. 4.—Stone celt with polished surface.

Spear-heads.—The greater part of these belong to the later period, and are remarkable for the care and attention which has been bestowed upon their construction. They invariably present a lance-like outline of symmetrical proportions with the edge in one plane, and are chipped so as to be very thin ([Fig. 5]); at times notches occur upon either side to facilitate their fixing into the end of the spear shaft and being bound firmly in it. Others have been found with the cutting edge carefully ground and polished, but with the tang only chipped and the edges serrated to afford a firm grip for the sinews used to affix it to the shaft. They vary in length from three to ten or more inches.

Arrow-heads and Javelin-heads.—The earliest forms of these are simply elongated splinters of flint or other stone, and undoubtedly were simply tied upon or inserted in the end of the arrow shaft by a ligament. They show but little work, simply as much as was necessary to give a satisfactory point, and to provide a tang for fixing. These may be termed lozenge-shaped ([Fig. 6]), and side by side with them are those of a leaf-shape—these two being the designs presenting the least amount of work and skill in fabrication. Subsequently a barbed and tanged variety was evolved, showing the maximum amount of technical skill in the making, and having the most deadly properties by reason of the difficulty of extraction when once inserted under the skin (Figs. [7], [8]). They are as a rule of symmetrical proportions, the barbs carefully chipped to offer the least amount of resistance to the penetrative force of the arrow, and even at times a certain amount of polishing and grinding was added to insure keenness to the point and edge.

Fig. 5.—Flint spear-head.

Fig. 6.—Lozenge-shaped arrow-head.

Fig. 7.—Barbed arrow-head.

Fig. 8.—Barbed arrow-head.

The British Museum is in possession of a number of these arrow-heads, which may be considered almost as works of art, together with some of larger proportions which undoubtedly formed the heads of javelins ([Fig. 9]). Being fabricated of such imperishable material they have naturally been preserved in very large numbers, and hardly a museum exists without at least a few specimens being contained in it. In the mediæval period many quaint superstitions were associated with them, and their preservation as amulets, charms, and general attributes of curative powers, &c., has led to the handing down to the present generation of scores which would probably have been broken up in the ordinary course of events.

Fig. 9.—Javelin-head.

Fig. 10.—Dagger from British Museum.

Fig. 11.—Dagger from British Museum.

Fig. 12.—Dagger with notched edge.

Daggers.—The dagger is one of the commonest forms of weapon relating to the Stone Age, as might be supposed from its simple form and easy construction when compared with others. In its crudest and earliest condition it merely consisted of a flint rudely chipped to a point at one end; but subsequently it assumed a more definite form, and almost equal attention was paid to the handle and to the blade. The latter was invariably leaf-shaped, and broader towards the point than at the butt, where it is usually rounded or cut off square. The beautiful example, [Fig. 10], is of white flint and may be seen in the British Museum, while [Fig. 11] from the same collection is of black flint and about eight inches in length. As this is thickened at the butt it may have been used without any handle, but undoubtedly most of these blades were so mounted, and in [Fig. 12] we have an example of the notched variety, where two indentations are perceived on either side for the passage of the tendons fixing the blade to the handle. In a few cases a shaped handle having a pommel and a grip, and with the blade formed out of the same piece of flint, has been discovered; the weapons in these instances have been ten or twelve inches in length, and modelled precisely the same as the bronze dagger which succeeded them. The highest type of flint weapons of the dagger class are those which have been discovered in Egypt; they are provided with long thin blades, beautifully ground or chipped on one side to form an edge, and elaborately serrated upon the thicker side forming the back, with cross ripple markings for ornamentation, the whole forming a specimen of clever handicraft and skilful workmanship which can only be adequately appreciated by actual inspection.

Among the weapons of the Stone Age may be mentioned the sling-stones, which are found in considerable numbers in countries where flints abound; they are of a lens-like shape and from two to three inches in diameter, being probably formed in this manner for insertion in a cleft stick which was used for throwing them. Balls of stone are also occasionally found with grooves in them, which suggest the presence at one time of string; these may have been used as weapons for throwing with the string attached, or wielded in the hand as a flail.

Battle-axes.—Although the celt may be regarded as fulfilling the functions of a battle-axe among its other manifold duties, yet a true battle-axe was evolved by the Stone man towards the latter part of his existence. It was invariably perforated by a circular hole, effected by grinding, and as a rule assumed approximately the shape shown in [Fig. 13]. Examples of these battle-axes have been found with cutting projections upon each side of the shaft; this was probably the prototype of the bipennis subsequently made in bronze and finally in iron. An example is shown in [Fig. 14].

Fig. 13.—Stone battle-axe.

Fig. 14.—Battle-axe.

THE BRONZE AGE

The term “Bronze Age,” so generally used for the period immediately preceding the introduction of iron, conveys to most readers very scanty ideas as to the duration of time over which it extended. Indeed, to those thoroughly conversant with the subject, the chronological arrangements of the various periods of the age, and the grouping together of these into one comprehensive whole, is practically a case for individual calculation, and these tally but seldom. However, it may be taken that, speaking broadly, the bronze period commenced in Britain about 1500 b.c., and at a much earlier age upon the Continent, one authority placing it as early as 3000 b.c. Iron was in general use about three or four centuries before Christ on the Continent, and Cæsar makes no mention of bronze in his description of the weapons and accoutrements of the Britons.

Celts.—Of all the varying forms of bronze implements the celt is probably the most widely distributed and the best known, and there is every reason to believe it was the first of the articles to be manufactured. It is generally admitted to be both an implement for everyday use and also a weapon of war. Its general utility was that of a chisel, a wedge, or a wood-splitting hatchet; in war it was the prototype of the battle-axe. It is of very wide distribution, being found all over the Continent of Europe, and has many varieties. In order of development the flat celt is undoubtedly the earliest, and was derived from the celt of the Stone Age, the example shown in [Fig. 15] differing but little from the flint prototype. This pattern gradually developed until one similar to [Fig. 16] was evolved. From this crude form the flanged variety was produced, giving an extra grip for the handle; then a transverse ridge was added, thus forming two receptacles to receive the split end of the handle ([Fig. 17]). The latest development of the celt is that in which a socket is made for the insertion of the handle ([Fig. 18]).

The relative form of the handle with the celt affixed has been much discussed, but the consensus of opinion leads one to believe that the handle was somewhat in the shape of a hockey-stick, the bent part being inserted in the socket of the celt. Before the evolution of the socketed celt the latter was inserted in a cleft stick and projected from one side at right angles, being firmly bound in that position by cross-lacing. This projection doubtless suggested the bent stick of a later period.

Fig. 15.—Earliest bronze celt.

Fig. 16.—Later celt.

Fig. 17.—Celt, flanged and ridged.

Fig. 18.—Latest development of celt.

Daggers.—Of contemporary date with the celt, and perhaps of even more remote antiquity, is the bronze dagger, which in its original simple form may have been used as a knife for domestic purposes and a dagger for war, though subsequently the two became quite distinct. The general form of the blade may be gleaned from Figs. [19] and [20], where the ribs towards the point may be readily seen. This ribbing and grooving of the blade are a distinctive feature, and are sometimes beautifully developed into a pattern more or less intricate. The handles were made of ivory, bone, or wood, and are very seldom found entire. The method of adjusting the haft will be gleaned from the position of the rivets; the handle was evidently either split into two pieces and then placed on either side, or a cut was made for the insertion of the tang or lower part of the blade. In some cases the pommel of bronze has been found accompanying the dagger, and also traces of what may have been the sheath. That variety of dagger having a tang to fit into the shaft seems to be peculiar to our islands, as those found on the Continent invariably possess a socket into which the handle could be fitted. Some very small and thin daggers have been found side by side with flint weapons, which appears to point to a time when the metal was very scarce, in the earliest part of the Bronze Age; subsequently the stouter form of weapon shows analogies with continental forms, and so points to intercommunication between the mainland and this island at that early date.

Fig. 19.—Bronze dagger.

Fig. 20.—Ribbed bronze dagger.

Swords.—The sword does not appear to have been contemporaneous with the early thin dagger, but was no doubt a subsequent evolution based upon the dagger. Of all the forms which have been handed down to us from the most remote antiquity, the bronze sword is the most beautiful, and it is very questionable if any of the hundreds of shapes of lethal weapons of that description which have subsequently seen the light can vie with it in symmetry of form and general gracefulness. Only one other class of weapon of this period attempts to rival in beauty the leaf-shaped sword, and that is the spear, which is often of the most graceful lines. The beautiful workmanship exhibited by these weapons raised doubt at times as to their real origin, many asserting that they were of Roman fabrication, but it has been definitely settled that they antedated the Italian historical period. Iron and steel were substituted for bronze at a very early period in the Roman army, the shape, however, being unaltered. The fact that the majority of finds of bronze swords occurs in countries where the Romans never penetrated militates against the supposition of their Roman origin. The length of the blade averages about two feet, though some are as short as one and a half feet, and some as long as two and a half. The hilt plate alters much in form, and there are many varieties: the handle was of wood, bone, or horn, split into two plates and riveted on either side (Figs. [21], [22]). The blade was apparently cast in a mould so carefully made that there was no necessity for file-work or hammering afterwards, the edges being formed by the uniform reduction all round of the thickness of the metal ([Fig. 23]). Blade and tang were cast in one piece, although one variety which appears to be common to the British Isles has a handle affixed to the blade by rivets, after the manner of the dagger ([Fig. 24]). The rivet heads occasionally show signs of having depressions in them, as though they were splayed by a punch, while some have been closed by a hollow punch so as to leave a small stud. Occasionally swords are found having the hilt and finished blade cast in one piece, while others occur bearing signs of the hilt being cast upon the blade. A few swords have been found with gold ornamentation upon the hilts, and many in which the blade is decorated with a pattern produced in the casting. Although of bronze, and therefore not subject in any great degree to aerial oxidation, the sword appears to have been universally protected by enclosure in a scabbard. These in some instances were of bronze, but more often of leather or wood, with fittings of bronze, and in all cases the scabbard was of greater length than the blade it contained. Some scabbards even appear of fantastic forms, as though the man of the Bronze Age, like his successor of the Iron Period, was not averse to the occasional outshining of his fellow-man.

Fig. 21.—Bronze sword.

Fig. 22.—Bronze sword showing rivet-holes.

Fig. 23.—Bronze sword with cast edge.

Fig. 24.—British sword with riveted handle.

Fig. 25.—Bronze spear-head, leaf-shaped.

Fig. 26.—Spear-head with apertures for thongs.

The Spear.—The spear is undoubtedly of the most remote antiquity, and dates far back into the Stone Period; its inception seems to be inherent in all savage tribes, and is a natural evolution of the idea of inflicting injury upon a foe at a distance, and again of preventing his approach to do personal harm. The primitive man probably pointed a long stick by attrition on a rock, and subsequently hardened it by fire: a splint of bone, being harder than the wood, occurred next, and probably the flint succeeded, to be followed in due time by the bronze head. The difficulty of affixing the head, however, seems to have hindered progress at first in this direction, for the bronze dagger undoubtedly antedated the spear-head, which continued to be of flint for a long period after the dagger was introduced. It is highly probable that the first spear-head was not constructed until the Bronze man discovered the secret of making the socketed celt by means of a core placed within the mould; with the advent of this invention spear-heads became possible. Of course it may be open to question whether any of the blades with tangs were really spear-heads and not daggers, or incipient sword-blades. Some spear-heads have been found which are undoubtedly of the tanged description, but they are not of British, and possibly not even of European origin. The general form of the head tends towards the leaf-shape, though this is not so pronounced as it is in the sword ([Fig. 25]). The advent of the spear-head occurred when man had developed considerable skill in the casting of bronze and its manipulation under the hammer, and the really extraordinary deftness shown in making the core, so that the minimum of metal was used with the maximum of effect and strength, calls forth the warmest admiration. Some of these cores are prolonged through the centre of the blade, so that the metal is really attenuated, but at the same time of uniform thickness, the inserted staff providing the necessary rigidity. Respecting the sizes of those found there can be no question but that the larger heads (and some have been found nearly a yard in length) were intended for use only in the hand as spears, while some of the smaller are the heads of javelins, or possibly of arrows. The blades are at times of remarkable beauty of design and of excellent workmanship. The sage-leaf form is of very common occurrence, the central core reaching to the point, and ornamented with subordinate ribs which also strengthen the blade. In these forms a hole is punched in the socket for the insertion of a rivet to fix it to the lance shaft. Others show two small loops cast upon the socket for a thong to pass through, which was afterwards brought down to the shaft and securely fastened ([Fig. 26]). This variety shows no rivet-hole. Ornamentation is by no means rare upon these spear-heads; it generally takes the form of open work, such as circles and ovals perforating the blade, and of filed or cast patterns upon the sockets, some even showing traces of gold inlaying. Barbed spear-heads are extremely rare, and were probably only used in the chase.

PLATE I*

Shield of Italian Workmanship, Sixteenth Century

A. F. Calvert

Arrow-heads.—Arrow-heads in bronze practically do not exist in this country, although they occur on the Continent and in Egypt, where they are generally of the types shown in Figs. [27] and [28]. It is highly probable that the flint arrow-head was in use through the whole, or nearly the whole, of the Bronze Age, being retained because of its efficiency and cheapness. Bronze must have been a comparatively rare and dear alloy, and the weapons exhibit as a rule the minimum of metal in their construction compatible with efficiency; arrows from their very nature are continually being lost, and this fact alone would render their use expensive.

Fig. 27.—Bronze arrow-head.

Fig. 28.—Bronze arrow-head.

Shields.—Among primitive races the shield was invariably of wicker-work or of wood, and as the examples in bronze which have been unearthed are of a high order of skill in workmanship and design we may naturally infer that they were of comparatively late introduction, and only appeared when the expert artizan of the age was capable of producing plates of considerable area and of uniform thickness. In the British Museum are several very fine examples of shields, one of which we illustrate to show the general form and shape ([Fig. 29]). It was dug up not far from the river Isis, in the vicinity of the Dyke Hills, near Dorchester in Oxfordshire. It is circular in form, about 13 inches in diameter, and ornamented with two concentric rings of bosses which encircle an umbo. All these bosses have been repousséd in the metal except four, which are used in two instances as rivet heads to fix the handle in position, and in two others to fasten buttons to the interior of the outer rim. It is probable that a guige was fastened to these buttons. So thin is the metal that it can hardly have served as a shield without some auxiliary strengthening, and this was conjecturally afforded by a lining of leather moulded into the depressions of the shield when wet. There is no reason for supposing that the metal now seen was the size of the original shield; in fact there is a probability that it was larger, and that the metal merely formed the centre. A bronze buckler found near Aberystwith was formerly in the Meyrick Collection and preserved at Goodrich Court, whence it was transferred to the British Museum. It is about 26 inches in diameter, with no less than twenty concentric circles of knobs and ribs, with the usual buttons for fixing the guige. The general type of shield is that having a series of concentric rings raised in the metal with studs between the ribs. The ornamentation is in all cases raised by hand with hammer and punch, and doubtless the metal was much thicker and the diameter much less in the early stages of making.

Fig. 29.—Bronze shield. (British Museum.)

Fig. 30.—Bronze mace-head.

A considerable number of bronze weapon-like forms have been from time to time discovered, the uses of which are only conjectural. Thus long blades of a triangular bayonet-like section occur, which may either have been a sword or rather rapier for thrusting only, or have been attached to a shaft and served as a spear. Others, again, have a socketed head from the side of which projects a cutting blade of various sizes and forms which might be the halberd in an incipient stage. There also exist short, thick, scythe-like blades of great strength, with strong rivets for attachment to some shaft, which may have been constructed to fit upon the wheels of chariots. Knobs of bronze occur having a socketed centre and projecting spikes upon the sides which undoubtedly when fitted to suitable handles formed the maces of the Bronze Age ([Fig. 30]), or possibly were portions of early “morning stars” or military flails.

CHAPTER II

THE ASSYRIANS

The bas-reliefs of Assyria afford us ample materials for becoming acquainted with the arms and armour of that great and warlike empire, and our own national collection probably contains the richest store of detail.

The Tunic.—This appears to have been of thick quilted linen or of leather, as sometimes long hair is shown upon it. It reached to the knees and had half-sleeves: at times a pectoral is shown of large proportions. Another, and much more military style, consisted of rope fastened side by side, and so bound round the body that it had the appearance of a tight-fitting cuirass. This would be much more efficacious against the sword and the arrow than the tunic. It generally terminated at the waist. In the earlier sculptures there are no indications of the metal cuirass or of greaves, but the latter subsequently came into vogue; they were of metal and reached to the knees.

In the invasion of Greece by Xerxes the Assyrians are described as having defensive tunics of flax, which were stuck together surface to surface by a soft mucilage to the number of over a dozen, and formed an excellent defence against a sword-cut. All the varieties of armour are faithfully shown upon the sculptures, some exhibiting the scale-like nature of a few cuirasses, from which we may infer that mascled armour was known to them as to most Oriental nations.

The Helmet.—This was generally the hemispherical skull cap so much affected by Asiatic races then and now; it was made either in iron or leather, furnished with a chin-strap, and decorated at times with a horse-hair crest. A design is sometimes seen which strongly approaches the Phrygian in shape, having a portion of the crest curving over towards the front, while another variety is that of a truncated cone curved backwards. Defences for the neck and sides of the neck are common.

At Marathon the helmets worn were “interlaced or interwoven,” from which we may infer that chain mail was not unknown to the Assyrians; it may, however, refer to bands of metal plaited together.

The Shield.—This was circular and concave and, if we may credit Herodotus, made of cane. The representations of this defence bear out the assertion, however, for the front is generally marked out in concentric circles, and wherever the back is exhibited the same circles invariably appear. The light and tough nature of the material would strongly commend itself for this purpose. Occasionally shields are shown covered with leather, or one plate of metal, while others have a surface covered with lozenges, which doubtless represents a kind of pourpoint or quilted material stretched over the framework.

The Sword.—The Assyrian sword as delineated upon the sculptures was slung at the left side, and passed through two notches in the belt so as to make it assume a horizontal position.

The sculptures in the British Museum show the general character of the sword (or rather of the scabbard, for they are all sheathed) with great minuteness. The pommel is very elegant in form and generally carved; the grip is of peculiar formation, and there is no guard; from actual examples which have been found we know that the broad blade has two edges and terminates in a point. The scabbard is extremely artistic in form, and the whole weapon partakes more of the nature of the dagger or anelace than of the sword.

The Bow was a favourite weapon and of the usual Oriental pattern, being composed of horn, wood, and the large sinews of certain animals firmly glued together. It was carried partly unstrung over the shoulder when not in use; the total unstringing was not advisable because of the time occupied in getting it ready, most Asiatic bows bending backwards into an oval shape when unstrung, and requiring much physical exertion and time to replace the string. The quiver was also suspended in the same position, containing arrows of some length made of cane.

The Lance was of short proportions, with oblong and leaf-shaped heads, often unbarbed; it could be thrown, if desired, like a javelin. The mace is also shown upon the sculptures, but rarely.

THE EGYPTIANS

The Tunic.—This was invariably of a quilted material, thickly padded, and generally composed of linen several times folded; it could resist a cutting weapon but not the point of a sword or lance. Over it was placed the pectoral, which covered the shoulders as well as the chest, and was very similar to the mediæval camail.

The Helmet was of the semi-globular form as a basis with various additions, none, however, of a distinctive national character. The material used was quilted linen of many thicknesses glued together.

The Shield was used only by the spearmen, and was about a yard in height; it was of peculiar shape, being rectangular in the lower part and semi-circular in the upper, where a round opening was pierced, through which the approach of the enemy could be viewed with safety. The outer parts were covered with leather strengthened with rings and studs.

The Bow.—The main strength of the Egyptian armies lay in their bowmen, who fought from chariots or on foot. English pattern than the Oriental, as also did the arrow, which was at times over 30 inches in length. The latter was made of cane or reed, feathered and barbed, the heads being of bronze.

The Spearmen or heavily-armed troops were accoutred in cuirasses of bronze scales overlapping, and supported on the shoulders by straps; or else in short tunics of heavily-quilted material with bronze plates sewn on in a pattern. Their helmets were quilted like the tunics.

Various weapons appear to have been used by the Egyptians, but they were all secondary to the bow and spear. The sword was straight, double-edged, tapering from the hilt to the point, and constructed of bronze. Scimitars, daggers, battle-axes of various shapes, and slings were in use, while a speciality seems to have been made of the javelin, which was hurled by means of a stick.

THE GREEKS

For the better understanding of the arms of the Greeks it is desirable to consider those of the two distinct ages into which their history naturally falls, viz. the Heroic and the Historic.

THE HEROIC AGE

This period is approximately 1000 years b.c., of the time of Homer, from whom we obtain all, or nearly all, of the particulars respecting arms and armour.

The Cuirass.—This was made of bronze, as was the whole of the defensive armour at that time. It was worn over a linen tunic, and apparently consisted of a breastplate guarded round the arms and neck with lames. That of Agamemnon is stated to have had ten bands of bronze, twelve of gold, twenty of tin, and six of bronze round the neck. We have mention of the defensive equipment of Menelaus which was pierced by the arrow of Pandarus. It first passed through the golden clasps of the waist-belt, then the breastplate, and finally through a coat of mail which was worn underneath. The cuirass was often very highly ornamented by repoussé work and also inlaid with gold.

The Helmet.—The most elaborate helms were those fitting lightly to the head and adorned with a crest which projected before and behind, and was also furnished with plumes. The simpler forms were of leather or bronze, fitting closely to the head, and without peak or plume.

PLATE II of Philip II.

A. F. Calvert

Fig. 31.—Greek greaves (front and back view).

The Greaves covered the legs from the knee to the instep, and from their form must have been constructed of bronze or some alloy possessing a large amount of pliability, inasmuch as they were in one piece, and yet nearly met behind the legs, where they were fastened with clasps. Homer frequently alludes to the excellent way in which these defences were made, whereby they in no way hindered the wearer ([Fig. 31]). It is conjectured that the bronze used in the construction of the greaves resembled in some respects the hardened brass or “latten” of the mediæval ages, and that they were carefully moulded to the limbs of the wearer.

The Shield, by far the most important part of the defence, was either round or oval in form and made of bronze, protected at the back with hide, and at times covered with it. Strengthening discs of metal, bosses, and rings of metal were also added (Figs. [32], [33]). It appears to have been of very great weight, even Ajax on one occasion being embarrassed by the weight of his own shield, which we are told was of bronze backed by seven tough bulls’ hides. They reached from the neck to the ankle, and were often elaborately decorated. A guige appears to have been fitted at times, which passed over the right shoulder.

Fig. 32.—Greek shield.

Fig. 33.—Greek shield (front and back).

Fig. 34.—Greek sword in scabbard.

The Sword.—Homer applies the terms “long, large, sharp, trenchant, and two-edged” to the sword, and it is evident that it was of the same description as that characteristic of the Bronze Age ([Fig. 34]). It was ornamented with studs of gold or silver, and the sword-belt was apparently worn over the shoulder.

Fig. 35.—Greek bow.

The Lance or Javelin.—This was by far the most important weapon in the Grecian armoury, and plays the chief part in all Homeric combats, which commence by the spear being poised in the hand and hurled as a javelin. It decided the contest as a rule, and it was only upon its failing to do so that the combatants had recourse to the sword. The lance was made of ash—long, tough, and ponderous; the head was of bronze and unbarbed.

The Bow.—Only one description of a bow is given to us—that of Pandarus, which is said to be of ibex horn, strung with sinews ([Fig. 35]). The arrow-head is of iron; the only mention of that metal in the warrior’s equipment, and the arrows were kept in a quiver fitted with a lid. The sling appears to have been relegated to the lowest order of combatants, who occupied the rear of the army, and sent their missiles over the heads of those in front. The great chiefs and the spearmen did not disdain to use the stone upon occasion, and we have graphic descriptions of the huge rocky pieces the combatants hurled at one another.

THE HISTORIC AGE

The equipment described by Homer had not particularly altered in the Iron Age except in certain details and modifications necessitated by the changed order of combat. The heavily-armed soldier, having already a tunic as a just-au-corps, put on greaves, cuirass, sword (hung upon the left side by a belt passing over the right shoulder); the large round shield, supported in the same manner, helmet, and spear, or two spears, as occasion required. Men thus equipped were termed Hoplites, the term “hopla” more especially denoting the defensive armour, the shield and breastplate, or cuirass. The mode of combat by the Greek phalanx necessitated the adoption of a long and heavy spear; the ranks were sixteen deep, and each rank consisted of the men standing close together with shield touching shield, while the spears or pikes, each 24 feet in length, reached 18 feet in front of the nearest rank when couched. As a space of about 2 feet was allowed between each rank, the spears of the five files behind him projected in advance of each front-rank man.

The sword continued to be of the leaf-like form which prevailed in the Bronze Age, and was longer than the Roman sword of the following era. At the same time a sword was in use which was the prototype of the subsequent weapon: it had a long, straight blade slightly tapering from the hilt to the point, where it was cut to an acute angle for thrusting. A central ridge traversed both sides of the blade, and it was double-edged. Upon these swords and their scabbards a wealth of decoration was lavished by the Greeks. The great shield of the Heroic Age gave place to a round or oblong shield reaching only to the knee; it was concave to the body, and appears to have been decorated as a general rule: one invariable ornament was a flat band or border round the circumference. This shield was the true battle-shield of the heavily-armed hoplites. A much smaller and lighter one was used by the cavalry and the light infantry, being made of hide with the hair on. A cross-piece was affixed at the back for a handle, and a cord was looped round the inside of the shield, which afforded a grasp for the hand.

Fig. 36.—Greek helmet with cheek-guards.

Fig. 37.—Greek helmet.

Fig. 38.—Greek helmets of the Bœotian shape.

Fig. 39.—Helm, breastplate, and backplate from Cumæ. (Tower of London.)

The helms all appear with characteristic neck-guards and pendent guards for the face, which were free to move upon simple attachments at the side; the front is shown to be protected by a more or less ornamental visor or nasal. The crest, of which three distinct varieties are shown, assumed many modifications of those varieties, but the general arrangement was to lengthen it so as to extend from the front portion of the helmet to the neck-guard, and the upper portion spreading like a fan. The body of the helm in nearly every instance was made the ground for elaborate decoration. To the crest was added at times one or two plumes, the whole producing a striking military effect (Figs. [36] and [37]). The true Greek war-helm, however, had very little exterior ornamentation, but was in every respect a most serviceable and business-like headpiece. It was known as the Bœotian helm ([Fig. 38]), and the general shape may be gathered from an examination of the Italian “barbuta” of the fourteenth century, its lineal descendant. A fine helmet of this character is preserved in Case 24 at the Tower of London; it is of bronze, and was excavated at Cumæ, an ancient Greek colony near Naples. It is shown in [Fig. 39]. Fitting closely to the head and neck, the lower part reached to the shoulders; in front two openings for the eyes, with a drooping nasal between and a narrow vertical opening opposite the chin and neck, gave a general protection which was most effectual, and only exposed the absolute minimum to chance of injury. Its efficacy was soon recognised, and it was eagerly assumed by the hoplites and the leading Greek warriors. The greaves now appear without straps behind, and were retained in their place solely by the elasticity of the metal; they are represented as adhering closely to the limb, and were probably moulded from casts taken direct from the wearer. About 400 b.c. the heavy bronze cuirass of the Greek soldier, which had been transmitted from the Heroic Period, gave way to a lighter but equally efficacious defence, made of linen crossed many times in folds and glued together, such as we have seen used by the Egyptians, and, in fact, by nearly all Asiatic races. The mounted soldiers wore a shorter cuirass than the hoplites; it was moulded to the figure, and from the lower edge pendent straps of leather were affixed for the protection of the lower part of the body and the thighs. These “lambrequins,” as they were termed, were very numerous, and at times ornamented with metal plaques; they were longer than the Roman lambrequins of a subsequent period by reason of the Greek cuirass terminating at the waist (Figs. [40] and [41]). The javelin or throwing-spear of the light-armed troops was furnished with a strap to aid in propelling it. A pair of Greek greaves are preserved in Case 24, Tower of London, which are probably of the Heroic Age, as they are furnished with rings for the attachment of fastening straps. From the same case we have examples of the bronze cuirass, backplate, and breastplate, with a bronze attachment at one shoulder for fastening the two together. An outline of the chief muscles and prominences upon the human form are crudely imitated in repoussé work, and indications exist upon the backplate of the fastenings by which it was attached to the front ([Fig. 39]). The bronze belt or zone which was worn by many warriors below the cuirass is also exemplified and shown in [Fig. 42]. The fastenings in front show a considerable amount of artistic skill. To this zone were attached the lower defences for body and limbs.

Figs. 40 and 41.—Greek cuirasses.

Fig. 42.—Spear-head, dagger and sheath, and bronze belt from Cumæ. (Tower of London.)

PLATE III*

German Shield, Sixteenth Century, by Desiderius Colman

A. F. Calvert

The shape of the spear-head is similar to that shown in [Fig. 42]. It has a central ridge strengthening the blade, and is furnished with a hollow socket for receiving the head of the shaft.

Fig. 43.—Greek parazonium.

Fig. 44.—Greek quiver bow-case.

Fig. 45.—Greek quiver.

Fig. 46.—Greek bow in case.

The Greek dagger was termed the “parazonium,” and was common to all the troops ([Fig. 43]): it was broad in the blade and came to an acute point, the general shape of the blade being of a leaf-like outline similar to the sword. This shape was subsequently adopted by the Romans. A dagger and sheath from Cumæ differs in form from the foregoing ([Fig. 42]), and partakes more of the character of the anelace of the mediæval period. The holes are shown for rivets by which the wooden or bone handle was fastened, and the sheath, which is very plain, terminates in a small knob. The dagger had a small shoulder-strap of its own, by which it was suspended at the right side in a sloping position much higher than the waist.

The bow was of the short form, and made of the same materials as those used in the Heroic Age. A quiver was in general use by the Greek archers, which contained both bow and arrows, as in [Fig. 44], which is shown with its accompanying strap. This, however, was not always the case, as quivers are shown for arrows alone, as in [Fig. 45], and also bow-cases which are not adapted for arrows as well ([Fig. 46]).

THE ETRUSCANS

Fig. 47.—Etruscan helmet.

With regard to the arms and armour of the Etruscans we find but little difference existing from those of the Greeks, but certain developments occurred which distinguished them from those of the parent country and were subsequently adopted by the Romans, thus laying the foundation for a separate and distinct style of equipment. The helmet in general followed the Greek lines but had a tendency towards the formation of a deep bowl-shape for the head; also wings were adopted, at times, which projected to a considerable extent and gave a distinctly Asiatic character to the headpiece ([Fig. 47]). For the ordinary soldier a skull-cap was in use with a truncated point upon the summit, and ornamented bosses round the rim ([Fig. 48]).

Fig. 48.—Etruscan soldier’s helmet.

The cuirass with its dependent lambrequins was formed, like that of the Greeks, by joining a back- and breast-plate, but the overlapping shoulder-guards, with a tendency to meet in front, so often observed upon Etruscan pottery, are quite distinct from the Greek model ([Fig. 49]). Cuirasses are also shown made of overlapping plates of metal ([Fig. 50]); of discs or lames of plate sewn on a padded base ([Fig. 51]); and one quilted throughout apparently without any metallic defence ([Fig. 52]). It has the thorax attached to it, and being viewed from behind exhibits that protection, as is also the case in [Fig. 51]. As a rule greaves were not worn, the limbs being entirely unprotected. The archers had a cap similar to [Fig. 48], together with a tunic of leather. The bow in use was of a very simple form, as shown in [Fig. 53]. The shield was circular, and similar in outline to that of the Greek, but differed in its great convexity; the one shown in [Fig. 54] exhibits the interior, with the method of affixing the handle.

Fig. 49.—Etruscan cuirass.

Fig. 50.—Scaled Etruscan cuirass.

Fig. 51.—Etruscan cuirass with thorax.

Fig. 52.—Etruscan cuirass with thorax.

Fig. 53.—Etruscan bow.

Fig. 54.—Etruscan shield. (Inside.)

CHAPTER III

THE ROMANS

The defensive armour of the Romans differed essentially in the early form from the later, or, broadly speaking, between the Republican Period and the Imperial Period; though it overlapped considerably it may be as well to accept these periods for differentiation.

REPUBLICAN ARMOUR