Submarines, Mines and Torpedoes in the War

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

Photo, Cribb, Southsea.]

THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “E.2.”

Displacement, 800 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 4 torpedo tubes and 2 q.-f. guns.

There are 17 vessels of this class, completed between 1912–14.

SUBMARINES, MINES AND TORPEDOES IN THE WAR

BY

CHARLES W. DOMVILLE-FIFE

AUTHOR OF “SUBMARINES OF THE WORLD’S NAVIES”,

“SUBMARINE ENGINEERING OF TO-DAY,” ETC.

ILLUSTRATED

HODDER AND STOUGHTON

LONDON NEW YORK TORONTO

MCMXIV

PREFACE

Warfare has become so largely a matter of science that in order to arrive at an intelligent understanding of the naval situation or of the military campaigns in the Great European War, a knowledge of the scientific factors contributing to victory or defeat is essential. And in this volume it has been my aim not only to review the actual fighting underseas, but also to present a compendium of information relative to the submarine fleets and arms of the great Naval Powers engaged; which I venture to hope will prove of present interest on account of the prominent part played by the under-water fighting ships and appliances, and of permanent historic value as being the first work to describe the vast preparations and curious events leading to the new “Submarine Phase” in naval warfare.

C. W. D-F.

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION
THE SUBMARINE PHASE OF THE NAVAL WAR

In the mist of war which envelops over half the entire world, no less than 264 underwater fighting ships are engaged. They form the submarine fleets of England, France, Russia, Japan, Germany and Austria; and the highly-trained crews of these modern additions to the fighting navies comprise nearly 20,000 men. But the conduct of submarine warfare on the grand scale requires far more than flotillas of submergible warships and their daring crews. This new branch of naval science is ever widening in its scope, its means of offence, and in its attendant ramifications. Every important naval base has its curious submarine floating docks, ready for crippled members of its attached flotilla; every naval construction department has its corps of submarine experts; each of the 1,500 surface warships engaged in this titanic struggle for the dominion of Europe and the mastery of the seas carries the means for delivering submarine attacks in its torpedoes and surface and submerged discharging tubes. The oceans in the theatres of war have been strewn with German and Austrian mines; then they have been either counter-mined or swept clear and mined again. British seaplanes, with specially trained observers, are continually searching from high in the air for the dark patches in the semi-transparent sea-green which denote the presence of mines and submarines. Within signal-range or wireless call of the aërial scouts and their attendant ships are destroyer flotillas to give battle to the hostile submarines, while hundreds of trawlers and small steamers, fitted with special apparatus, are continually sweeping up the hundreds of submarine mines laid by the enemy’s vessels which are fitted to enable them to sow like seeds over the pathways of the sea these deadly perils to navigation. Submerged wire entanglements in conjunction with boom-defences and observation and contact submarine mines protect the seaward approaches to harbours in the same way as similar appliances are used to protect the approaches to land fortifications; and every harbour, waterway and channel of strategic importance is protected by elaborate submarine mine defences. All this is part of the new warfare underseas—that science which is daily rendering hazardous the life of the greatest battleship and the smallest merchantman afloat in the zone of war.

Before placing in review order the vast preparations made for submarine attack and defence in the years which preceded the outbreak of war and describing in detail the powerful submarine fleets engaged, it is necessary to make clear to the reader the wonderful change which this new mode of attack has made in all branches of naval warfare and its influence on sea power. As indicative of this change we have only to survey in their submarine aspect the naval operations in the opening phase of this, the greatest war in history.

In the domain of naval strategy we find reflected the altered conditions caused by these invisible arms. Every battle on land and sea teaches its lesson of concealment and sudden stealthy attack; and even as the huge siege guns and devastating artillery fire of the land forces is causing the extension of the battle-front and the rapid burrowing under earth or entrenching of positions dearly won or with difficulty retained—“approximating to siege warfare”—so are the powerful 12 and 13.5-inch naval guns (weight of projectile 850 lbs. and 1,400 lbs. respectively), combined with the rapidity and accuracy of the modern warship’s secondary armament, necessitating the reduction in numbers of the big surface ships of the opposing fleets by frequent submarine and torpedo attacks prior to the decisive engagements between the battle fleets. Hence we find, in the opening phase of the naval war, the German and Austrian fleets, inferior in numbers and gun power, skulking behind fortifications and waiting for their submarine and surface torpedo-boats and light cruisers, in conjunction with the hundreds of submerged mines strewn over the North Sea, Baltic, Adriatic and elsewhere to reduce the number and power of the British, French, Russian and Japanese fleets before the decisive actions are fought; and in order that these tactics might be frustrated, and the big British ships, as well as those of her allies, costing several millions sterling each, should not be exposed to these grave risks when no good could result, they have been compelled to delay initiative, and meanwhile all their operations had to be screened by smaller and faster vessels of the cruiser and destroyer types, while they waited within call should the German Battle Fleet—in the case of the North Sea—dare to come out to fight. The British submarines of the large sea-going type were in the meantime employed in watching the Frisian coast with the object of attacking any of the enemy’s ships which ventured from behind the elaborate coast fortifications. Not content with this rôle, however, several British submarines made their way unseen through the dangerous waters of the Heligoland Bight and succeeded in getting within reconnoitering distance of the German submerged harbour defences, behind which lurk their big ships.

With what degree of success this new opening or submarine phase in naval warfare has been attended is shown by the sinking, during the first few weeks of the war, of the British cruiser Amphion, a vessel of 3,440 tons displacement, completed in 1912, and carrying ten 4-inch guns, with a loss of 131 men, by contact with a German mine; the destruction of the German submarine U.15 by the British cruiser Birmingham; the sinking of an Austrian torpedo-boat by a mine off Pola; the torpedoing of H.M.S. Pathfinder, a fleet scout of about 3,000 tons displacement, completed in 1905–6, by a German submarine; the destruction of the Wilson liner Runo by a mine; the sinking of the German cruiser Hela, a vessel of 2,000 tons displacement, built in 1896, by the British submarine E 9, and the torpedoing of the British armoured cruisers Aboukir, Hogue and Cressy—vessels of 12,000 tons displacement, carrying two 9.2-inch and twelve 6-inch guns besides twelve 12-pounder quick-firing guns and two torpedo tubes—by German submarines concealed behind a trawler engaged in laying mines, over which the Dutch flag had been hoisted as a blind.

This is in addition to the lamentable destruction of much life and property belonging to neutral powers caused by the laying of German floating mines on the trade-routes.

To the Allies this submarine phase did not come unexpected. The British Naval yards in conjunction with the big shipbuilding and engineering firms, such as Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness; Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd., Newcastle-on-Tyne; the Whitehead Torpedo Company Ltd., Weymouth; Messrs. Siebe, Gorman and Co. Ltd., London; and Messrs. Scotts’ Shipbuilding and Engineering Co. Ltd., as well as many other firms and individual submarine experts had been engaged for many years in solving one after another the problems continually arising in the practical application of all forms of submarine warfare. The first British naval submarines were launched in 1901–2 from Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and the subsequent growth of our submarine flotillas has been rapid both in number of vessels and in size and armament. The British submarine fleet now numbers 82 vessels. The original boats from which the British type has since been evolved were built from the designs of Mr. John P. Holland, an American inventor.

To France belongs the honour of being the first naval power to adopt the submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war; and the first vessel, the Gymnôte, was launched in 1888, but it was not until 1893 that the Republic commenced the construction of her now powerful submarine flotilla, numbering 92 vessels.

The first Russian submarine was launched at Kronstadt in 1902, and since that date the Russian flotilla has steadily increased until it now numbers 37 vessels.

Japan commenced the construction of what is now a powerful and up-to-date flotilla of seventeen vessels by the acquisition of a British-Holland boat in 1904.

Turning to Germany we find at first a great reluctance on the part of the Ministry of Marine to provide for the construction of submarines, but in 1905–6 this initial hesitation was overcome and the two vessels U.1 and U.2 were launched. Since then the belief in a powerful submarine flotilla steadily grew until at the moment when war was declared Germany possessed no less than 30 to 36 submarines of a very efficient type. The Austro-Hungarian Navy did not adopt submarines as units of the Fleet until 1909, and now possess only six small vessels.

From this brief resumé of the growth of the submarine fleets of the six great naval Powers at war, it will be seen that in point of numbers as well as in priority, bringing with it practical experience, Great Britain and France have a very appreciable superiority. It must, however, be left for succeeding chapters to describe in detail the steady growth and present size and capabilities of the submarine fleets at war.

The lessons taught by the Russo-Japanese war were not lost on the British Admiralty, and special methods had been prepared to deal with submarine attack in its various forms. Having in mind the destruction caused to both Russian and Japanese warships by submarine mines—especially those of the “offensive contact” type, which are moored to the bottom, float just under the surface and explode immediately on contact; and in the Russo-Japanese War were responsible for the sinking of the Japanese battleships Hatsuse and Yashima as well as the Russian battleship Petropavlovsk and the cruiser Boyarin—the British Admiralty foresaw the danger to which both warships and merchantmen would be exposed in time of war if the seas strewn with these mines could not be quickly cleared, and a new type of auxiliary came into being. This was the mine-sweeper, and eight vessels of the old torpedo-gunboat type were fitted out for the work. In addition to these, however, the Admiralty purchased a considerable number of steam fishing trawlers, and fitted them with mine-sweeping appliances, and made arrangements for a large fleet of similar vessels to be placed at the disposal of the navy in the event of war. In order to man this new mine-sweeping fleet with experienced sailors on the outbreak of war, a new section of the Royal Naval Reserve was created in 1911. This is known as the “Trawler Section,” and consists of 142 skippers and 1,136 men taken from the fishing fleet.

Realizing the value of the submarine mine in certain cases, the British Admiralty went further and created a small mine-laying fleet from seven old second-class cruisers, which had their aft-decks cleared and provided with rails for a large number of mines to be run down and slid over the stern into the water as the vessels steamed along, thus quickly laying a mine-field. But as the laying of mines, speaking generally, is a defensive mode of warfare and the policy of the British Navy—owing to its supremacy—is attack and not defence, the mine-laying fleet is of second importance to the sweeping fleet, the work of which, although much augmented by additional small steamers pressed into service, was, during the first few weeks of the war, of a nature more arduous and dangerous than will ever be realised. Hundreds of German mines were swept up, and hundreds more were exploded by being dragged into contact with each other during the progress of sweeping operations.

What the clearance of these vast fields of floating and anchored mines in the North Sea meant to the British Navy, engaged in blockading the German Fleet, and to the Mercantile Marine not only of England, France, Russia and Belgium, but also to that of the neutral countries, it is perhaps a little difficult to realize until one remembers that several hundred British and French warships were patrolling the North Sea and Channel, and, at the opening of hostilities, there were hundreds of merchantmen homeward bound whose course lay across this mine-infested sea. Many of these vessels had on board not only valuable cargoes of food, raw material for manufacture and gold and silver bullion, but also officers and men returning from various parts of the world to rejoin their regiments. Again, the Expeditionary Force had to be transported across the Channel to France. This could not be attempted until a guarantee had been given by the Navy that the seas were clear of hostile warships, submarines and mines. The fleet blockading the Frisian coast had to be supplied with coal and fresh food; and last but by no means least it was of vital importance to the Allied Armies in the Field that the whole coast-line from Bordeaux to Antwerp, forming the rear and left-flank, should be accessible to friendly shipping. It is not difficult to realize what would have been the effect had thousands of these deadly German contact mines been allowed to float unhindered in these narrow seas, for, notwithstanding the magnificent effort made by thousands of seamen in hundreds of mine-sweepers assisted by seaplanes, many vessels—some belonging to neutral powers and others to the enemy themselves—were destroyed before the seas could be effectively swept clear, the hostile mine-layers destroyed or chased into port and there blockaded with their cowardly fleet.

The torpedo has long been recognised as one of the most effective of naval arms. It is carried by every modern warship afloat, but it is essentially the arm of the submarine and of the small and fast surface vessel. For a torpedo attack to be successful it is absolutely necessary for the vessel carrying the weapon to get within about 1,000 yards of the object of attack. The difficulty of accomplishing this manœuvre with an enemy on the alert is easily apparent, but if the attacking vessel can creep up to within torpedo range unobserved her chances of sinking the enemy are decidedly good, and it is the quality possessed by the submarine of making herself invisible by sinking beneath the surface and approaching her enemy “seeing but unseen” that makes this type of vessel the ideal torpedo-boat. But, like everything else, there are limits to its use, for a submarine, although it can navigate on the surface like an ordinary torpedo-boat, cannot deliver a submerged attack at night owing to the periscopes, which are the “eyes” of these underwater fighting ships, being useless in the dark. When night covers the sea, however, the chances of the fast grey-painted surface torpedo-boat or destroyer being able to approach the enemy unseen are more than doubled, and in this way fleets become exposed to submarine torpedo attack by day and surface torpedo attack by night. Further, a submarine will often attack while a seaplane hovers over the enemy in order to draw attention. It is this constant exposure to sudden and unseen submarine attack which is primarily responsible for the terrible nerve strain imposed on the crews of modern surface warships in time of war.

Owing to the ability of submarines to deliver stealthy attacks by day, naval tacticians have designated this type of craft “Daylight torpedo-boats,” but they are rapidly passing beyond the purely torpedo and coastal defensive stage and are taking on to themselves the rôle of the ocean cruiser. The size of these vessels has increased from 50 to 1,000 tons displacement in ten years. They now carry not only a considerable number of the largest size torpedo but also quick-firing guns for repelling attacks by small surface vessels, and are capable of accompanying fleets to sea. The Australian naval submarines A.E.1 and A.E.2 both made the voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power and without convoy. The radius of action of the latest vessels both of the British and French Navies amounts to several thousand miles. In the case of the British “F” class the displacement has risen to 1,500 tons, the speed to 20 knots and the armament to six torpedo tubes and four 12-pounder quick-firing guns, thus making them in every sense ocean cruisers capable of keeping the sea in almost any weather and possessing wide range of action and considerable offensive power. Hitherto British submarines, like the ordinary surface torpedo-boats, have been known by numbers only, but the latest vessels are to receive names which indicates the increase in size and importance of these craft. They may be termed the advance guards of the submarine battleships of the future.

The torpedo, which is the principal arm of the submarine boat, is itself a submarine projectile. After being discharged from the firing tube it sinks a short distance below the surface and is propelled by its own engines at a high rate of speed in a straight line towards its object of attack. Great improvements have been made during the past ten years in the construction of these delicate weapons. The extreme effective range and speed has risen from 4,000 yards at 18 knots to 7,000 yards at 45 knots or 11,000 yards at 30 knots. The “war-head” or front section of the torpedo contains a charge of about 200 pounds of damp gun-cotton which is fired by a detonator on the torpedo striking an object. This very powerful explosive charge is capable of tearing open an enormous hole in the unprotected under-water skin of the surface warship. The type of weapon used in the British, French, Russian and Japanese Navies is the Whitehead torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch). The German Navy uses the Schwartzkopf torpedo (18-inch and 21-inch), which is very similar to the Whitehead and is a very powerful weapon.

In the first phase of the naval war no less than eight warships have been sunk by submarine torpedoes.

The activity of the British submarines in the theatre of war, from the beginning of hostilities, is admirably set forth in the following dispatch from Commodore Roger B. Keyes, C.B., which is the first dispatch in the history of naval warfare to describe in detail submarine attack and reconnaissance:—

H.M.S. Maidstone,

17th October, 1914.

“Sir,—In compliance with Their Lordships’ directions, I have the honour to report as follows upon the services performed by the Submarines since the commencement of hostilities:—

“Three hours after the outbreak of war, Submarines E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot), and E.8 (Lieutenant-Commander Francis H. H. Goodhart), proceeded unaccompanied to carry out a reconnaissance in the Heligoland Bight. These two vessels returned with useful information, and had the privilege of being the pioneers on a service which is attended by some risk.

“During the transportation of the Expeditionary Force the Lurcher and Firedrake and all the Submarines of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla occupied positions from which they could have attacked the High Sea Fleet, had it emerged to dispute the passage of our transports. This patrol was maintained day and night without relief, until the personnel of our Army had been transported and all chance of effective interference had disappeared.

“These Submarines have since been incessantly employed on the Enemy’s Coast in the Heligoland Bight and elsewhere, and have obtained much valuable information regarding the composition and movement of his patrols. They have occupied his waters and reconnoitred his anchorages, and, while so engaged, have been subjected to skilful and well executed anti-submarine tactics; hunted for hours at a time by Torpedo Craft and attacked by gun-fire and torpedoes.

“At midnight on August 26th, I embarked in the Lurcher, and, in company with Firedrake and Submarines D.2, D.8, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, and E.9 of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, proceeded to take part in the operations in the Heligoland Bight arranged for August 28th. The Destroyers scouted for the Submarines until nightfall on the 27th, when the latter proceeded independently to take up various positions from which they could co-operate with the Destroyer Flotillas on the following morning.

“At daylight on August 28th the Lurcher and Firedrake searched the area, through which the Battle Cruisers were to advance, for hostile Submarines, and then proceeded towards Heligoland in the wake of Submarines E.6, E.7, and E.8, which were exposing themselves with the object of inducing the enemy to chase them to the westward.

“On approaching Heligoland, the visibility, which had been very good to seaward, reduced to 5,000 to 6,000 yards, and this added considerably to the anxieties and responsibilities of the Commanding Officers of Submarines, who handled their vessels with coolness and judgment in an area which was necessarily occupied by friends as well as foes.

“Low visibility and calm sea are the most unfavourable conditions under which Submarines can operate, and no opportunity occurred of closing with the Enemy’s Cruisers to within torpedo range.

“Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir, Commanding Submarine E.4, witnessed the sinking of the German Torpedo-Boat Destroyer V.187 through his periscope, and, observing a Cruiser of the Stettin class close, and open fire on the British Destroyers which had lowered their boats to pick up the survivors, he proceeded to attack the Cruiser, but she altered course before he could get within range. After covering the retirement of our Destroyers, which had had to abandon their boats, he returned to the latter, and embarked a Lieutenant and nine men of Defender, who had been left behind. The boats also contained two Officers and eight men of V.187, who were unwounded, and eighteen men who were badly wounded. As he could not embark the latter, Lieutenant-Commander Leir left one of the Officers and six unwounded men to navigate the British boats to Heligoland. Before leaving he saw that they were provided with water, biscuit, and a compass. One German Officer and two men were made prisoners of war.

“Lieutenant-Commander Leir’s action in remaining on the surface in the vicinity of the enemy and in a visibility which would have placed his vessel within easy gun range of an enemy appearing out of the mist, was altogether admirable.

“This enterprising and gallant Officer took part in the reconnaissance which supplied the information on which these operations were based, and I beg to submit his name, and that of Lieutenant-Commander Talbot, the Commanding Officer of E.6, who exercised patience, judgment, and skill in a dangerous position, for the favourable consideration of Their Lordships.

“On September 13th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton) torpedoed and sank the German Light Cruiser Hela six miles South of Heligoland.

“A number of Destroyers were evidently called to the scene after E.9 had delivered her attack, and these hunted her for several hours.

“On September 14th, in accordance with his orders, Lieutenant-Commander Horton examined the outer anchorage of Heligoland, a service attended by considerable risk.

“On September 25th, Submarine E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander C. P. Talbot), while diving, fouled the moorings of a mine laid by the enemy. On rising to the surface she weighed the mine and sinker; the former was securely fixed between the hydroplane and its guard; fortunately, however, the horns of the mine were pointed outboard. The weight of the sinker made it a difficult and dangerous matter to lift the mine clear without exploding it. After half an hour’s patient work this was effected by Lieutenant Frederick A. P. Williams-Freeman and Able Seaman Ernest Randall Cremer, Official Number 214235, and the released mine descended to its original depths.

“On October 6th, E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton), when patrolling off the Ems, torpedoed and sank the enemy’s Destroyer S.126.

“The enemy’s Torpedo Craft pursue tactics which, in connection with their shallow draft, make them exceedingly difficult to attack with torpedo, and Lieutenant-Commander Horton’s success was the result of much patient and skilful zeal. He is a most enterprising submarine officer, and I beg to submit his name for favourable consideration.

“Lieutenant Charles M. S. Chapman, the Second in Command of E.9, is also deserving of credit.

“Against an enemy whose capital vessels have never, and Light Cruisers have seldom, emerged from their fortified harbours, opportunities of delivering Submarine attacks have necessarily been few, and on one occasion only, prior to the 13th September, has one of our Submarines been within torpedo range of a Cruiser during daylight hours.

“During the exceptionally heavy westerly gales which prevailed between the 14th and 21st September the position of the Submarines on a lee shore, within a few miles of the Enemy’s coast, was an unpleasant one.

“The short steep seas which accompany westerly gales in the Heligoland Bight make it difficult to keep the conning tower hatches open. There was no rest to be obtained, and even when cruising at a depth of 60 feet, the Submarines were rolling considerably, and pumping—i.e. vertically moving about twenty feet.

“I submit that it was creditable to the Commanding Officers that they should have maintained their stations under such conditions.

“Service in the Heligoland Bight is keenly sought after by the Commanding Officers of the Eighth Submarine Flotilla, and they have all shown daring and enterprise in the execution of their duties. These Officers have unanimously expressed to me their admiration of the cool and gallant behaviour of the Officers and men under their command. They are however, of the opinion that it is impossible to single out individuals when all have performed their duties so admirably, and in this I concur.

“The following Submarines have been in contact with the enemy during these operations:—

D.1 (Lieutenant-Commander Archibald D. Cochrane). D.2 (Lieutenant-Commander Arthur G. Jameson). D.3 (Lieutenant-Commander Edward C. Boyle). D.5 (Lieutenant-Commander Godfrey Herbert). E.4 (Lieutenant-Commander Ernest W. Leir). E.5 (Lieutenant-Commander Charles S. Benning). E.6 (Lieutenant-Commander Cecil P. Talbot). E.7 (Lieutenant-Commander Ferdinand E. B. Feilmann). E.9 (Lieutenant-Commander Max K. Horton).

I have the honour to be, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

(Signed) ROGER KEYES,

Commodore (S).”

In conclusion, it must therefore be set on record that the opening phase in the greatest naval war in history has been one of submarine attack and counter-attack, mine-laying and destroying, warships and merchantmen sunk in a few minutes by submarine torpedoes and mines, with sharp engagements between the cruisers and destroyers acting in conjunction with the under-water craft. The much-vaunted German Fleet, like that of its ally Austria-Hungary, has not dared to show itself from behind the forts and carefully-screened anchorages of the naval bases, suffering rather the everlasting disgrace of having stood in cowardly idleness while the 5,000 merchant ships it was built to protect hauled down the flag of the “Fatherland” and German maritime commerce was swept from the seas while the Allied fleets hold undisputed command of every ocean.

The First Lord of the British Admiralty has said that if the German Fleet will not come out to fight it must be “dug out like rats in a hole.” This, then, may be the second phase in the naval war, and out in the grey mist of the North Sea, ready and eager for the work, lies the great battle fleets of England.

CHAPTER I
THE MODERN SUBMARINE TORPEDO-BOAT

The submarine torpedo-boat is to most people a complete mystery, and before describing the composition and strength of the submarine fleets at war it may therefore be of interest to say something of the principal features common to all types of submarine craft.

Method of Submergence

It may sound ridiculous, in face of the many accidents which have occurred, to say that one of the greatest difficulties is to make a submarine sink sufficiently quickly, and one of the easiest of operations to make her rise, and yet such is undeniably the case.[^[1]]

It will be readily understood that any delay in disappearing beneath the surface when attacking would be a great danger to a submarine in action. For example, a number of hostile torpedo-boat destroyers are scouring the sea in advance of a fleet, and are discovered at daybreak by the submarines, which are waiting to attack the fleet behind, approaching at a speed of 30 knots an hour. A hurried dive beneath the surface is necessary if the waiting submarines would avoid detection, which would, in all probability, mean destruction by the quick-firing guns of the destroyers.

When a submarine is travelling on the surface she is in what is technically called the light condition, that is to say, with her water ballast tanks empty, but when it is required to sink her so that only the tiny platform, or deck, and conning-tower are above the surface, water is let into these ballast tanks, and the additional weight causes her to sink into the sea until her back is almost flush with the surface—this is known as the awash condition.

It is not difficult to perceive that when travelling awash, a wave might at any moment roll along the tiny unprotected deck of the submarine, break over the mouth of the conning-tower, and descend like a waterspout into the interior. Were this to happen a terrible disaster might result, for it must be remembered that when travelling awash, a very little additional weight would cause the submarine to plunge beneath the surface. In order to obviate this risk it has become a rule that when proceeding with this small margin of buoyancy, the hatch covering the mouth of the conning-tower should be screwed down and the submarine hermetically closed, ready to sink.

To many it may appear strange that total submergence is not accomplished by letting still more water into the ballast tanks, but entirely with the aid of the propellers and rudders. A submarine has two, and sometimes three, pairs of rudders; one pair of ordinary vertical ones to guide her to port or starboard, and a horizontal pair to cause her to dive and rise. Two additional fins are frequently placed on each side of the forepart of the vessel to assist the diving and rising.

In order to make the submarine dive beneath the surface, the horizontal rudders are deflected when the boat is proceeding at full speed. The action of the water against the rudders is such that the bows are forced down and the whole vessel slides under the surface. The principle is much the same as that of steering an ordinary surface vessel, where the force of the water against the rudder causes the vessel to swing to right or left.

From this it will be seen that a submarine is only held below the surface by the action of her rudders on the passing water; should the propellers driving her along cease to revolve and the vessel slow down, she automatically rises to the surface because the rudders have no longer any effect.

Although the steering both on the vertical and horizontal plane is controlled by hand, it would be quite beyond the strength of a man to move the various rudders as required, so electric motors are installed to perform the actual work. In fact, almost everything in a submarine is operated by electricity.

In the earlier types of submarine boats, a considerable time was required to open the valves and allow sufficient water to enter the ballast tanks to make them sink to the awash condition. Some of the now obsolete French naval boats took as long as fifteen to twenty minutes to carry out this simple operation. The main reason for this was, that they were designed with too much surface buoyancy, that is to say, they rode too high in the water when floating in the light condition compared with the inadequate means then employed for the inlet of water into the ballast tanks, and were thus forced to let in an enormous quantity of water at a very slow rate before they settled down sufficiently to enable total submergence to be accomplished by the use of the horizontal fins and rudders. This great drawback has now been completely overcome, and the modern submarine can sink below the surface in about three minutes.

When water is pumped into the ballast tanks in order to make the submarine settle down, the air which normally fills these tanks is compressed into a fraction of its proper space, and is therefore always exerting a downward pressure which increases as more water is pumped in. Therefore, when it is desired to bring the submarine to the surface again, all that is necessary is to open the valves and allow the compressed air to force the water out. It should, however, be remembered that there is really no need to “blow out” the ballast tanks in order to bring the submarine to the surface, for this can be much quicker accomplished by simply elevating the horizontal rudders; but in this case the submarine only rises just above the surface—to the awash condition—whereas if the tanks are emptied of water she rises to the light or cruising condition. This substantiates the assertion made at the beginning of this chapter—that it is far more difficult to make a submarine sink than it is to make her rise.

It has been said that a man walking from one end of a submarine to the other would, in all probability, cause her to plunge dangerously, so delicate is the state of equipoise when totally submerged. Whatever may have been the case in the early types it is certainly not so now. So steady are modern submarines when running below the surface, especially those of the British, Russian, French, and Japanese and German Navies, that the long up and down hill glides, which, with some boats, used to amount to yaws of from 20 to 30 feet, have now been reduced to a few feet in so many hundreds of yards. In fact, this switch-back motion is almost unnoticeable except when the submarine is being swung round at a sharp angle. In no case, however, is it sufficient materially to affect the firing of the torpedoes.

The reserve buoyancy of a submarine in the awash condition—or diving-trim, as it is called in the British flotillas—is necessarily very small, amounting to little more than two or three pounds in a thousand, which in a 300-ton vessel means a difference of only about 100 gallons of sea-water between the ability to float and the inevitability of sinking. Any material increase in the small margin of what is known as positive-buoyancy must be accompanied by a corresponding increase in the power of propulsion, otherwise it would be quite impossible to drive her under, or, in other words, to overcome the vessel’s natural tendency to float on the surface.

For these and other reasons, a submarine when running submerged is in such a delicate state of equipoise that any sudden increase or loss of weight would upset the balance and so cause the vessel to either dive or rise with dangerous rapidity.

This would be the effect produced when a torpedo was discharged were provision not made to counter-balance this sudden loss of weight by means of compensating-tanks, into which sufficient water is pumped to compensate for the loss of weight incurred by the discharge of each torpedo.

Many submarines are also fitted with bow and stern trimming-tanks, into which water can be pumped in such a manner as to correct any tendency of the vessel to float too high or low at either extremity.

Propulsion.

Of the many complicated problems surrounding submarine boat construction the motive power and propelling engines have been in the past, and are still, the most profound puzzles. Steam, compressed air, electricity, petrol, and heavy oil have all been used with varying results since first this type of vessel came into being; and many curious engines for using these prime movers in conjunction with each other and with chemical compounds have been evolved by ingenious inventors.

About steam and compressed air little need be said, for although given a good trial, especially by the French naval authorities, they were abandoned some years ago in favour of a combination of petrol and electric engines, which in turn have given place to more powerful machines using heavy oil and electricity. Steam is, however, again being used in conjunction with turbine engines for surface propulsion.

The carrying of large quantities of petrol, or heavy oil, is under all circumstances attended with a certain amount of risk, and when many tons have to be carried in a confined space, as in a submarine, this risk is more than doubled, as the slightest leakage when the vessel is submerged would mean that a powerful explosive mixture of petrol and air would be made.

A modern submarine torpedo-boat (British type). A. Deck superstructure. B. Scuppers for filling superstructure. D. External connections. E. Conning-tower (4-inch armour). F. Periscope. G. Periscope motor (for turning, &c.). H. Air cowls. I. Conning-tower cap (opening sideways). J. Mast stays. K. Mast (not part of service equipment). L. Torpedo-tube cap. M. Torpedo-tubes (twin), torpedoes in. N. Air-flask (for expelling torpedoes). O. Hydroplane engines. X. Double casing, with special vent for accumulators. Y. Spare torpedoes. Z. Petrol storage tanks (2). 1. Air flasks. 2. Centrifugal pumps. 3. Air-lock, with submarine escape dresses. 4. Commander’s platform. 5. Ladders. 6. Depth and deflection indicator, registering submarine’s deflection from horizontal. 7. Speed dials. 9. Petrol engines. 10. Electric engines. 11. Dynamo, for recharging batteries. 12. Petrol engines—exhaust.

It being also quite impossible, for obvious reasons, to use a petrol engine when running submerged, a second motive power, an engine, with its additional space and weight, has to be carried to drive the submarine when under water. For this purpose electricity is used in almost all types. But electricity, again, has many drawbacks. It costs in weight nearly thirty times more than other motive powers, and is extremely dangerous, for should salt water in any way gain access to the storage batteries, chlorine gas would be given off in large quantities, although in the more recent vessels of the British, American, and French Navies this danger has been minimised by enclosing the batteries in air-tight cases. On account of the weight and the space required, it is impossible to install a very powerful electric engine in a submarine (compared with the size of the boat), and thus both the speed and radius of action are curtailed.

If this division of power between the surface and submerged engines could be overcome, and the whole space made available for one powerful set of engines suitable for driving the vessel both on the surface and when submerged, not only would the mechanism of submarines be simplified, but a very considerable increase in both speed and range of action would naturally result.

In the “D,” “E” and “F” classes of British submarines, and in the more modern vessels of the French, Russian and German Navies, heavy oil is being used in place of petrol on account of the increase in power obtained with greater safety.

Arrangements are made in almost all modern submarines so that when the vessel is using the oil engines for running on the surface the electricity for use when submerged is being made by a dynamo and stored in batteries. From this it will be seen that there are really three separate engines in a submarine:—(1) the oil or petrol motor, which drives the vessel when on the surface, and, at the same time, by a suitable arrangement of gearing, operates a dynamo, (2) which makes the electric current for storage, and (3) an electric engine which drives the vessel when submerged, obtaining the necessary power from the batteries.

It is, however, technically incorrect to say that there are two sources of power in a submarine, for electricity is not, in itself, a source of power, but merely a handy method of storing and transmitting it. The only actual source being the oil or petrol.

There are also numerous small engines to add to the complexity of machinery in a submarine, such as the air compressors used for charging the torpedo tubes with compressed air for expelling the torpedoes and for other purposes, and electric motors for operating the pumps, steering mechanism, and periscopes. In addition to all this, hand-mechanism is provided for use in case of a breakdown to operate most of these important appliances. Then again there is, of course, the armament mechanism for working the torpedo tubes and semi-automatic quick-firing guns.

From the foregoing it may appear that the interior of a submarine presents a picture of mechanical complexity utterly incomprehensible. Yet such is not the case. The fanciful belief that the crew stand, boxed up in these vessels, sweating with the heat, struggling for breath, and with crank-shafts whirling uncomfortably close to the small of their backs, electric motors buzzing within a few inches of their ears, and nervous hands grasping one or other of the levers ranged in rows in front of them, is, doubtless, most romantic, but quite unreal. Much of the undoubtedly complicated machinery in a submarine is tucked away in the conical extremities, under the interior decking, and fixed to the arched steel sides. The centre is left almost entirely clear, so that trestle-tables may be erected for meals, hammocks swung for sleeping, and sufficient space allowed to make these small vessels as habitable as possible. Not the least difficulty of the submarine designer is to create order and leave space among the chaos of machinery which has to be installed in these peculiar and deadly little torpedo craft.

Vision When Submerged.

Perhaps the greatest difficulty which has beset both submarine construction and navigation is the puzzle how to see when submerged. This is now accomplished by means of periscopes, or tubes extending up from the roof of the submarine to a height of several feet above the surface—not unlike hollow masts. By a series of lenses and reflectors a picture of the surface is thrown down these tubes on to reflectors inside the submarine. A man with his eyes at the bottom of a periscope can see the surface clearly. Although it projects above the surface when the whole submarine is submerged, it is far too small an object to be easily seen moving through the water, and extremely difficult to hit by gun-fire.

The latest panoramic periscope—two of which are fitted in modern submarines—has a field of vision of about 60 degrees. The range of vision is, however, very short, owing to the periscopic tube projecting only a few feet above the surface. On a moderately smooth and fairly clear day steering by periscope is not altogether difficult, but at night or in fog this instrument is useless, and for this reason it would be almost impossible for a submarine to effect a submerged attack on an enemy at night. Hence the name given to this type of craft—daylight torpedo-boats—for in the brilliant light of day, when any attempt by ordinary torpedo craft to get sufficiently close to hostile warships to discharge a torpedo with reasonable hope of success would be foredoomed to failure, there is every possibility that submarines would effect a surprise attack.

Armament.

The chief armament of all naval submarines is the torpedo, which is expelled by a blast of compressed air from one of the tubes fitted in the bow and stern. Several torpedoes are usually carried by each boat, so that if one failed to strike the object of attack further attempts can be made.

About the efficiency of torpedoes nothing need be said here, for they now form an important weapon in every navy, and to this subject a future chapter is devoted.

The latest submarines built are also fitted with quick-firing guns for use when these vessels are cruising on the surface. The guns are arranged so that when it is desired to sink they can be made to disappear beneath the narrow deck of the submarine. The provision of guns has been made with the object of giving these vessels a means of defence should they be discovered by prowling hostile torpedo-boat destroyers, or by air-craft.

Habitability.

Many people imagine the interior of a submarine to resemble a stokehold, hot, stifling, and semi-dark, whereas the exact contrary is the truth. The temperature is but little above the normal for a ship’s engine-room, the air-supply is amply sufficient, and the whole interior is well illuminated by electric lamps.

The necessary supply of pure air is derived either from large steel cylinders containing the air in a highly compressed state or from flasks of oxylithe. The carbonic acid gas of the respired air being at the same time chemically absorbed.

Food is cooked for the crew by electricity, and drinking water obtained from special tanks. Notwithstanding these arrangements, however, it is almost impossible for the crew to live on board for many weeks at a time, owing to the small free space in the interior and to the cramped deck; but as the size and radius of action of these boats increase, so also does the space available for exercise, and thus the habitability.

CHAPTER II
BRITISH SUBMARINES

The British Fleet at the moment when war was declared possessed 82 submarine torpedo-boats built and 22 building. Some of these were, however, stationed at the oversea naval bases. The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of hostilities were as follows:—

Submarines in Home Waters.

Patrol Flotillas.

1st Flotilla. Devonport.

Depôt ship: Onyx.

Submarines: A.8 and A.9.

2nd Flotilla. Portsmouth.

Depôt ship: Dolphin.

Submarines: A.5, A.6, A.13 and B.1.

3rd Flotilla. Devonport.

Depôt ship: Forth.

Submarines: B.3, B.4, B.5, C.14,

C.15 and C.16.

4th Flotilla. Portsmouth.

Depôt ships: Arrogant and Hazard.

Submarines: C.17, C.18, C.31, C.32, C.33, C.34, C.35.

5th Flotilla. Chatham.

Depôt ship: Thames.

Submarines: C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4, C.5, C.6.

6th Flotilla. Chatham.

Depôt ships: Bonaventure and Hebe.

Submarines: C.7, C.8, C.9, C.10, C.12, C.13.

7th Flotilla. Chatham.

Depôt ships: Vulcan and Alecto.

Submarines: C.19, C.20, C.21, C.22, C.23, C.24, C.25, C.26, C.27, C.28, C.29, C.30.

8th Flotilla. Portsmouth.

Depôt ships: Maidstone and Adamant.

Submarines: D.1, D.2, D.3, D.4, D.5, D.6, D.7, D.8, E.1, E.2, E.3, E.4, E.5, E.6, E.7, E.8, E.9.

9th Flotilla. Devonport.

Depôt ship: Pactolus.

Submarines: A.10, A.11, A.12.

Submarines on Foreign Stations.

Attached to Mediterranean Fleet.—Submarines B.9, B.10, and B.11.

At Gibraltar.—Submarines B.6, B.7, and B.8.

Attached to China Squadron.—Submarines C.36, C.37, and C.38.

With Australian Fleet.—Submarines A.E.1[^[2]] and A.E.2.

The statement that the headquarters of the various submarine flotillas in home waters are at Chatham, Portsmouth, and Devonport, must not be taken as indicating that these are the only points along the coast protected by submarines. These places are merely the chief bases of the Patrol Flotillas. The wide range of action of modern submarines enables them to operate several hundred miles from any base or depôt, and consequently Chatham becomes merely the general store, or head-depôt, of what should be termed the North Sea Flotillas, which not only patrol the whole East, North-East and South-East Coasts of England and Scotland, but also have their floating secondary bases in the form of Depôt Ships, which, with their attached submarines, are often at Harwich, Newcastle, Rosyth, etc. In the same way Portsmouth is merely the headquarters of the submarines patrolling the Channel; and Dover, Portland, etc., are seldom without strong flotillas of submarines with their Depôt ships. The Devonport Flotillas have the longest coast-line to patrol, for their area covers not only the West Coast of England, Wales and Scotland, but also the Irish Coast. They are, however, furthest removed from the zone of war.

Considerable alterations have taken place in the composition and distribution of the British submarine flotillas since the outbreak of war, with the object of materially strengthening the Fleet in the main theatre of operations, but the addition to the flotillas of new vessels of the latest “E” type—nearly completed when war broke out—has made this rearrangement possible without materially weakening the flotillas guarding the more distant coasts of Great Britain or recalling vessels from overseas.

Photo, Cribb, Southsea.]

THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “D.7.”

Displacement, 620 tons; Speed, 16·10 knots; Armament, 2 bow and 1 stern torpedo tube.

There are 8 vessels of this class, completed between 1908–12.

The first submarine torpedo-boat built for the British Navy was launched from the yard of Messrs. Vickers Ltd., Barrow-in-Furness in 1901, and was designated the No. 1. It was constructed from the designs of the famous American inventor, Mr. John P. Holland, and was one of the most successful boats afloat at that time. A series of exhaustive trials with this and the succeeding five vessels, all of the same type and launched during 1901–2, proved conclusively the fighting value of this type of craft, and a further order was given by the British Admiralty for four new vessels embodying the improvements suggested by the trials of the first five. These vessels were the first of the “A” class, and were designated the “A’s 1, 2, 3, and 4.” They had a submerged displacement of 180 tons, a length of 100 feet and a beam of 10 feet. They were propelled by petrol motors of 190 H.-P. on the surface and by electric motors of about 80 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed ranged from 8 knots an hour on the surface to 5 knots when travelling submerged, and their maximum surface endurance (or fuel capacity) was only 400 knots at 8 knots. Their armament consisted of three 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes and one bow tube.

All these vessels were, however, obsolete and therefore scrapped before the opening of hostilities, hence information concerning them is only of interest as showing the rapid growth in size, power and armament of British submarines. The next batch of vessels were the A’s 5 to 13, launched at Barrow in 1904, but these, as will have been seen from the table showing the composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas at the outbreak of war, are still on the effective list. All the following British submarines are now in the fighting line.

“A” Class.

(Completed 1904.)

A’s 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13.

These vessels are the oldest British submarines in commission. They were built at Messrs. Vickers’ works at Barrow, and have a submerged displacement of 204 tons. Their length is 150 feet. They are propelled on the surface by petrol motors of 600 H.-P. and by electric engines of 100 H.-P. when submerged. Their surface and submerged speed is 11 knots and 7 knots respectively. The cruising range, or maximum surface endurance on the fuel carried, is 400 knots at 10 knots an hour, and the endurance submerged three hours at full speed. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Eleven officers and men.

These vessels, which are now used almost entirely for harbour defence, can be distinguished from later types by their high conning-towers and single short periscopes. The A.7 was lost off Plymouth early in 1914, and was never raised.

“B” Class.

(Completed 1904–6.)

B’s 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.

These are submarines of the improved Holland type, and are in every way superior to their predecessors. They may be considered the first of the sea-going type. Their submerged displacement is 316 tons; length 135 feet, and beam 13 ½ feet. The motive power is the same as in the “A’s”—petrol for surface propulsion and electricity for use when submerged. The horse-power of the petrol engines is 600, and that of the electric engines 189. As in most submarines the supply of current for driving the electric engines is derived from storage batteries charged by dynamos driven from the petrol engines while the vessels are running on the surface. In the “B” class a special system of encasing these storage batteries was introduced. Their speed averages 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. The surface cruising range is 1,300 knots at 10 knots per hour, and the maximum submerged endurance 80–100 knots at 5 knots per hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with 4–6 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. Complement: Sixteen officers and men.

The “B” type are vessels about 50 per cent. larger than the “A” type which preceded them. The “B’s” have superstructures extending from the bow to the conning-tower, forming a narrow deck which tends to disperse the wave which heaped around the blunt noses of the “A’s” and original Hollands. Vision when submerged is obtained by two panoramic periscopes, each having an arc of vision of 60 degrees. In the more modern vessels three periscopes are fitted. The twin screws of the “B’s” are placed below the centre line of the vessel and consequently operate in deeper water when the vessels are cruising on the surface. This gives them better surface cruising qualities, as in a sea-way the propellers are liable to race if worked too near the surface. The increase in the speed of these vessels over that of the “A’s” was of great importance, as in this respect lies the weakness of the submarine. The tactical advantages derived from high speed in actual warfare cannot be over-estimated. The speed of a fleet is governed by that of its slowest unit.

The distinguishing feature of the “B” type is the straight bow, the forward superstructure, and the two periscopes. The B.2 was run down by the liner Amerika in the Straits of Dover in October, 1912, and was never recovered.

“C” Class.

(Completed 1906–10.)

C’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38.

This class of submarines is composed of vessels of the improved “B” type. They have a submerged displacement of 320 tons and are 135 feet long and 13 ½ feet broad. The petrol motors develop 600 H.-P. and give to these vessels a speed of 14 knots an hour on the surface. The power of the electric engines was increased to 300 H.-P., giving a submerged speed of just over 9 knots an hour. The surface cruising range is 2,000 knots at the most economical speed, and the submerged endurance 100 knots at 5 knots an hour. Their armament consists of two bow tubes with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes; and their complement sixteen officers and men.

In the later vessels of the “C” class heavy oil is used instead of petrol, giving a great increase in power without the comparative additional weight; enabling a wider radius of action. The vessels of both the “B” and “C” classes are fitted with air-traps and safety-helmets, giving the crew a possible means of escape in the event of disaster while submerged.

The distinguishing feature of the “C” class is the sloping bow. The C.11 collided with the steamer Eddystone in the North Sea in 1909 and was irretrievably lost.

“D” Class.

(Completed 1908–11.)

D’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.

These are all modern vessels of the sea-going type, and are of considerable fighting value. They, however, differ slightly from each other: D.1 has a submerged displacement of 595 tons; D.2 of 600 tons; and the remaining vessels of this class of 620 tons. They have an approximate length of 150 feet and a beam of 15 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,200 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 16 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. give them a submerged speed of just over 10 knots an hour. All these vessels have twin-screws situated below the centre line. Their cruising range on the surface is 4,000 miles, and when submerged 120 knots at 7 knots an hour. These vessels were the first to be fitted with a special and more efficient pattern of electric storage battery and a safer type of electric motor. The armament of the “D’s” consists of two bow and one stern tube with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. D’s 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 are also fitted with a small quick-firing, high-angle gun for defence against air-craft. This gun is fixed on a disappearing mounting, enabling it to be quickly and almost automatically lowered into a watertight cavity in the superstructure before the submarine dives below the surface. The complement of these vessels is twenty-one officers and men.

Photo, Cribb, Southsea.]

THE BRITISH SUBMARINE “C.34.”

Displacement, 320 tons; Speed, 14·9 knots; Armament, 2 bow torpedo tubes.

There are 37 vessels of this class, completed between 1906–12.

“E” Class.

(Completed 1912–14.)

E’s 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18.

These fine ocean-going submarines are the latest additions to the British Flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 800 tons, are 176 feet long and 22 ½ feet in beam. The heavy-oil engines of nearly 2,000 H.-P. give them a surface speed of over 16 knots, while the electric engines of 800 H.-P. drive them at a maximum speed of 10 knots an hour when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 5,000 miles at economical speed, and the submerged endurance 140 knots at 8 knots an hour. In point of armament the “E’s” are far more powerful than their predecessors, being fitted with four tubes and carrying six of the largest and most powerful Whitehead torpedoes. They are also equipped with two 3-inch quick-firing guns on high-angle disappearing mountings for defence against air-craft and hostile torpedo-boats and destroyers. They have wireless telegraphic apparatus; and, like the vessels of the “B,” “C” and “D” classes, have armoured conning towers and decks. Three tall panoramic periscopes are fitted, and their high superstructures and increased buoyancy when travelling on the surface enable them to keep the sea in almost any weather.

Australian Submarines:

A.E.1 and A.E.2.

These vessels are exactly the same as the “E” class. The fact that they both accomplished the 13,000-mile voyage from Barrow to Sydney under their own power and without convoy is practical proof of the wide range, seaworthiness and general efficiency of the latest British Naval Submarines. The A.E.1 mysteriously disappeared in Australian waters in October, 1914, and has not been recovered.

British Submarines Building.

At the commencement of the great war there were 22 British submarines in course of construction at the various shipbuilding works and naval dockyards. Up to 1909 Messrs. Vickers Ltd., had constructed all the British submarines, but in that year the vessels C.17 and C.18 were laid down at Chatham Dockyard. Since then several other boats have been constructed there, and of those now in hand some are being built by Messrs. Vickers Ltd. at Barrow, others at Messrs. Scott’s shipbuilding yards at Greenock, and a few by Messrs. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co. Ltd. at Newcastle-on-Tyne, and at H.M. Dockyard at Chatham.

Hitherto, British submarines, although divided into classes—each of which has shown a marked improvement on the preceding class—have been all of one type—the “Improved Holland.” Among the vessels being constructed at the opening of hostilities they were, however, no less than three different types. Those being built at Barrow and Chatham were of the original design with modern improvements, but the submarines under construction at Greenock were of the Laurenti, or Italian type, and those at Newcastle-on-Tyne of the Laubeuf, or French type. In addition to this wise departure from previous practice, two of the new vessels have been given the names of Nautilus and Swordfish.

The haze of war has obscured these vessels, and it is impossible to say definitely which of them have taken their place in the active flotillas, and further the necessity for observing the very strictest secrecy regarding new types of warships at a time like the present makes it advisable to give here only the briefest particulars and not to discuss too freely the peculiarities of their design or their probable capabilities.

“F” Class.

There are several vessels of this class now being constructed. They are the latest improvement of the original Holland design and are sea-going submarines of wide range, high speed and great fighting power. The F.1, which was built at Chatham Dockyard, has a submerged displacement of 1,500 tons. Heavy-oil engines of about 5,000 H.-P. give her a maximum speed of 20 knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 2,000 H.-P. drive her at 12 knots when submerged. The armament consists of six torpedo tubes, ten torpedoes, and two quick-firing, high-angle guns.

“V” Class. “W” Class. “S” Class.

Nautilus and Swordfish.

These three classes include the vessels of entirely different design to those now forming the British flotillas. The “V,” or Vickers’ type, of which four were under construction at the beginning of the war, are large sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons, and a probable surface speed of 20 knots. The “W” Class, of which four are being built at Elswick, comprise vessels of the French Laubeuf type. The “S” Class, building at Greenock, and four in number, are of the Italian, or F.I.A.T.—Laurenti type. The two named vessels—Nautilus and Swordfish—are large sea-going submarines of wide range and high speed. Their submerged displacement is about 1,000 tons, and their speed 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. The armament is six tubes, with eight torpedoes, and two quick-firing guns. The complement of all these large submarines is about 25 officers and men.

CHAPTER III
FRENCH SUBMARINES

France possessed 92 submarines in active service when war was declared. In addition to these, nine large and powerful vessels were in various stages of construction. The flotillas of the French Navy are composed of two different types of vessels: Submarines Defensive and Submersibles. The former are intended, as their name implies, solely for coast and harbour defence; their radii of action is very small, and they are incapable of action independent of a naval base. The submersibles are like the large sea-going submarines of England and Germany, and have a wide radius of action, high speed, and great offensive power.

The first naval submarine (Gymnôte) was launched in 1888, giving to France the honour of being the first Naval Power to adopt the submarine torpedo-boat as a vessel of war. The pioneers of submarine construction in France were Captain Burgeoise, Engineer Brun, M. Dupuy de Lome, M. Gustave Zédé, and Admiral Aube. The second submarine ordered for the French Navy was the Gustave Zédé, launched in 1893. So successful did this vessel prove that another of the same type, and named the Morse, was launched at Cherbourg Dockyard in 1899. In the same year four vessels of a new type were laid down in the dockyard at Rochefort, and named Lutin, Farfâdet (re-named Follet), Korrigan, and Gnôme. These, with the exception of the ill-fated Lutin, are still in the active flotillas.

Lutin Class.

(Completed 1901–2.)

• Follet.
• Korrigan.
• Gnôme.

These are the oldest submarines in the French Navy, and are all of the defensive type. They have a displacement of about 185 tons, with electric engines for propulsion both on the surface and when submerged. Their speed is 12 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged. Their range of action is about 200 miles at 7 knots. The armament consists of one bow tube and two holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is nine officers and men.

Photos, M. Bar.]

A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE HARBOUR DEFENCE TYPE. (top)

A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE COAST DEFENCE TYPE. (bottom)

Française Class.

(Completed 1901–2.)

• Française.
• Algérien.

These two vessels are of the improved Morse type, and are intended solely for coast and harbour defence. Their surface displacement is 146 tons, and they have electric engines of 350 H.-P. for both surface and submerged propulsion, giving them a speed of 12 knots and 8 knots an hour, respectively. Their surface radius is about 80 miles at 8 knots. They have one bow tube and two holders, with four torpedoes. The complement is nine officers and men.

Triton Class.[^[3]]

(Completed 1901–2.)

• Triton.
• Sirene.
• Espadon.
• Silure.

These four vessels were the first of the submersible type and were designed by M. Laubeuf, who has since designed many vessels for both France and other countries (Laubeuf type). They have a submerged displacement of 200 tons, and are 111 feet long and 12 ½ feet in beam. Steam is used for surface propulsion (217 H.-P.) and electricity when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots on the surface and 8 knots when submerged, with a cruising radius of 600 miles at 8 knots. They are armed with four holders fitted with 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes, and have a complement of ten officers and men.

Naiade Class.

(Completed 1902–4.)

• Naiade.
• Loutre.
• Protée.
• Lynx.
• Perle.
• Truite.
• Castor.
• Oursin.
• Meduse.
• Otarie.
• Phoque.
• Ludion.
• Alose.
• Anguille.
• Grondin.
• Dorade.
• Souffleur.
• Thon.
• Bonite.
• Esturgeon.

Twenty small harbour defence submarines, having a displacement of about 67 tons. They have petrol and electric motors, giving them a speed of 8 ½ knots on the surface and 5 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow tube and two holders; four torpedoes are carried. Their complement is six officers and men.

Aigrette Class.

(Completed 1904.)

• Aigrette.
• Cicogne.

These two vessels are submersibles of the Laubeuf type, and were great improvements on their predecessors, the Triton Class. Their submerged displacement is 351 tons, and their dimensions 118 × 12 × 12 feet. A triple expansion steam engine of 200 H.-P. is used for surface propulsion and an electric motor of 150 H.-P. when submerged. Their speed is 10 knots and 8 ½ knots. Their maximum surface endurance is 700 miles at 8 knots, and submerged 60 miles at 6 knots. Their armament consists of one bow tube with four 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is about fifteen officers and men.

Argonaute.

(Completed 1905.)

A submersible designed by M. Bertin (late Chief Constructor French Navy). This vessel, which was first named Omega, has a displacement of about 300 tons. She is driven by steam and electricity, and has a speed of 11 knots and 9 knots. Her armament consists of two bow tubes and two holders, with six 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The complement is about seventeen officers and men.

Emeraude Class.

(Completed 1906–8.)

• Emeraude.
• Saphir.
• Opale.
• Topaz.
• Rubis.
• Turquoise.

These six vessels are of the Maugas type and are sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of over 400 tons. They have petrol and electric motors of 600 H.-P. and 450 H.-P., respectively. Their surface speed is 12 knots and submerged 8 ½ knots. Their surface cruising radius is just over 1,000 miles at economical speed. Their armament consists of two tubes and four holders with 8 torpedoes of the usual pattern. Their complement is seventeen officers and men.

Circe Class.

(Completed 1907.)

• Circe.
• Calypso.

These two vessels are of the Laubeuf type, and are improvements on the Aigrette class. They have a submerged displacement of about 450 tons and are 160 feet in length. They are driven by a steam engine of 440 H.-P. (flash boiler and oil fuel) when on the surface, and by electric motors when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots and 8 knots; and the range of action 1,000 miles. Their armament comprises two tubes and four holders with eight torpedoes. The complement is 21 officers and men.

Pluviôse Class.

(Completed 1907–12.)

• Pluviôse.
• Nivôse.
• Ventôse.
• Messidor.
• Thermidor.
• Fructidor.
• Brumaire.
• Frimaire.
• Florèal.
• Prairial.
• Germinal.

Submarines of the Laubeuf type with a submerged displacement of nearly 600 tons. All built at Cherbourg. The Brumaire and Frimaire are driven by petrol motors of 700 H.-P. when cruising on the surface, but all the others have small steam turbines with a special type of flash-boiler. Electric motors are used for submerged propulsion. Their speed is 12 knots above and 9 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes. Their complement is 22 officers and men.

Fresnel Class.

(Completed 1908–12.)

• Fresnel.
• Berthelot.
• Papin.
• Monge.
• Ampère.
• Gay-Lussac.
• Cagnot.
• Faraday.
• Giffard.
• Montgolfier.
• Newton.
• Volta.
• Watt.
• Euler.
• Faucault.
• Franklin.
• Arago.
• Permouilli.
• Joule.
• Coulomb.
• Curie.
• Le Verrier.

Twenty-two submarines of the largest sea-going Laubeuf type. Only three of these are steam driven, the others using heavy-oil engines for surface propulsion. They are in all respects similar to vessels of the Pluviôse class, and have a displacement of about 600 tons. Their speed is 12 knots above, and 9 knots below, and the armament seven 18-inch torpedoes. These vessels are fitted with stern as well as bow tubes. Their surface cruising range is over 2,000 miles.

Amiral Bourgeoise.

(Completed 1912.)

An experimental boat of the Bourdelle type, built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement is just under 800 tons and the length 190 feet. She is driven on the surface by heavy-oil engines of 1,600 H.-P., which give a speed of 15 knots. The electric motors for submerged propulsion are of 700 H.-P., giving a speed of 10 knots. The armament consists of seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the cruising range is 3,500 miles.

Archimède.

(Completed 1912.)

Another experimental boat built at Cherbourg. The submerged displacement is about 810 tons, and the length and beam 212 feet and 22 feet respectively. Steam turbines are used for surface propulsion and electric motors when submerged. Her speed is 15 knots above and 10 knots below. The armament is seven 18-inch torpedoes, and the complement 24 officers and men.

Photo, M. Bar.]

A FRENCH SUBMARINE OF THE SEA-GOING TYPE.

Mariotte.

(Completed 1912.)

The third experimental boat, of the Rodiquet type, built at Cherbourg. The displacement when submerged is 650 tons and the length about 200 feet. Petrol motors of 1,500 H.-P. drive her at 15 knots an hour on the surface and electric motors of 550 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her radius of action is 3,000 miles, and her armament seven 18-inch torpedoes, which can be fired from both bow and stern tubes. The complement is about 25 officers and men.

Charles Brun.

(Completed 1912.)

The fourth experimental vessel, built at Cherbourg during 1909–12. The submerged displacement is 450 tons and the length 145 feet. Steam turbines of 1,300 H.-P. drive her at 15 ½ knots an hour on the surface, and electric motors of 500 H.-P. at 10 knots when submerged. Her armament consists of six 18-inch torpedoes. The complement is 22 officers and men.

Clorinde Class.

(Completed 1913–14.)

• Clorinde.
• Cornélie.
• Amphritrite.
• Astree.
• Artémis.
• Aréthuse.
• Atalante.
• Amaranthe.
• Ariane.
• Andromaque.

These ten vessels are the very latest additions to the French Submarine flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of about 550 tons, a length of 177 feet and a beam of 16 feet. Heavy-oil engines of 1,300 H.-P. give them a speed of 15 knots on the surface, and electric motors of 550 H.-P. enable them to travel at 9 ½ knots an hour when submerged. They carry eight torpedoes, and have a complement of 25 officers and men.

Gustave Zede Class.

(Completed 1913–14.)

• Gustave Zede.
• Néréide.

These two vessels are the largest submarines in the French flotillas. They have a submerged displacement of 1,000 tons, a length of 240 feet, and a beam of 20 feet. Heavy-oil engines give them a surface speed of 16 knots and electric motors a submerged speed of 10 knots. Their armament consists of two bow and two stern tubes with eight 18-inch torpedoes. They are also equipped with two 14-pdr. quick-firing guns on high-angle, disappearing mountings. The cruising range is 4,000 miles, and the complement 27 officers and men.

Bellone Class.

(Completed 1914.)

• Bellone.
• Hermione.
• Gorgone.

Fast sea-going submarines with a submerged displacement of 610 tons. They have heavy-oil engines of about 2,000 H.-P., which give them a surface speed of 17 ½ knots. Electric motors of 950 H.-P. drive them at 12 knots when submerged. Their surface cruising range is 4,000 miles. Their armament consists of eight 18-inch torpedoes and two 14-pdr. quick-firing, high-angle guns. The complement is 30 officers and men.

French Submarines Building.

On the day when war was declared nine submarines were in the early stages of construction. The two most advanced of these were the Diane and Daphne. These vessels have a submerged displacement of about 800 tons, and the anticipated speed is 18 knots and 10 knots. Their armament will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be 30 officers and men.

The other seven vessels are of the improved Gustave Zede Class. They will have a submerged displacement of over 1,000 tons and a speed of 20 knots on the surface and 12 knots when submerged. Their armament will consist of ten torpedoes and four 9-pdr. guns. The complement will be about 35 officers and men.

CHAPTER IV
RUSSIAN SUBMARINES

The Imperial Russian Navy at the commencement of hostilities included 37 submarines in active service, and 19 in various stages of construction. The composition and distribution of the submarine flotillas was as follows:—

Baltic Flotilla: 14 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 12 vessels building. Bases: Kronstadt, Port Peter the Great (Reval) and Port Alexander III. (Libau) (ice free).

Black Sea Flotilla: 11 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and several new vessels building. Bases: Sevastopol and Nikolaieff.

Siberian Flotilla: 12 Submarines with depôt ships in commission, and 6 vessels building. Base: Vladivostok.

The first Russian naval submarine was completed at Kronstadt in 1902, and named the Petr Kochka. She was built in sections to facilitate transport over the Siberian Railway, being intended for the defence of Port Arthur, and had a surface displacement of only 20 tons. Her armament consisted of two holders, or Darzewiecki launching apparatus, containing two small Whitehead torpedoes. The maximum speed was 8 knots on the surface and 4 knots when submerged. The second submarine ordered for the Russian Navy was the Delphin, which foundered off Kronstadt, but was subsequently raised and is now used as a training ship for the submarine service. These two vessels have been removed from the active flotillas, but the third vessel to be built for the Russian Navy—the Graf Cheremetieve—is still in commission.

Graf Cheremetieve Class.

(Completed 1904–5.)

• Graf Cheremetieve.
• Kasatka.
• Nalim.
• Skat.

These are the oldest submarines in the Russian Navy, and are small vessels of the Holland-Bubnoff type. They have a submerged displacement of 200 tons. Petrol and electric engines drive them at 9 knots on the surface and 6 knots when submerged. Their armament consists of one bow torpedo tube and two exterior holders, with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes.

Ostr Class.

(Completed 1904–6.)

• Ostr.
• Byts-chok.
• Kefal.
• Platus.
• Plotva.

These five submarines are of the American Lake type. The Ostr was originally the American Lake Co.’s boat Protector. They have a submerged displacement of 175 tons, are 65 feet in length and 11 feet in breadth. Have petrol engines of 250 H.-P. for surface propulsion and electric motors for use when submerged. Their speed is 11 knots above and 7 knots below. The surface cruising radius is 450 knots at full speed. The armament consists of two bow and one stern tube with four 18-inch Whitehead torpedoes. The special characteristics of the American Lake type will be seen on pages [119–120].

Som Class.