Photograph by Zumbrun, Peking, China

International group of Army, Navy and Marine officers in full dress uniform.

The nations represented are the United States, Great Britain, France,
Belgium, Italy, Japan, Russia, Holland, Austria and Germany.

Army and Navy
Uniforms and Insignia

How to know Rank, Corps and Service
in the Military and Naval Forces of the
United States and Foreign Countries

By
Colonel Dion Williams
United States Marine Corps

With Eight Illustrations in Color and One Hundred
and Thirty-Eight in Black and White

Revised and Enlarged Edition

New York

Frederick A. Stokes Company

Publishers

Copyright, 1918, by

Frederick A. Stokes Company

All rights reserved

CONTENTS

ARMY AND NAVY UNIFORMS
AND INSIGNIA

CHAPTER I
ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF UNIFORM

In its military sense the word “uniform,” as a noun, is specifically used to denote the distinctive style of dress and equipment established by governmental regulation and worn by any naval or military organization in order that all of the individual elements of that organization will present a homogeneous appearance. In general all uniforms are divided into two principal classes, dress uniforms and undress or service uniforms, the modern field uniforms belonging to the latter class. Dress uniforms are for use on occasions of ceremony and, as in the case of civilian attire, they are usually more ornate and gaudy than the working service uniforms.

The use of some form of uniform dress for fighting men both on land and sea is common to all civilized nations and this general custom has resulted from a gradual growth during the whole Christian era. In this growth military necessity, convenience, economical considerations and sentiment have all played a part.

The famed Legions of Cæsar were by imperial order all garbed and armed alike, which is one of the first recorded cases of the use of a uniform for soldiers. Some of the regiments of Hannibal also wore distinctive colors practically amounting to a uniform. The galley slaves of ancient Rome, the “motive power” of the man-of-war of that day, were all garbed in a costume of identical cut and color bearing the number of the galley in which they served, but this should be looked upon more as a badge of servitude than as a naval uniform.

As time went by the leaders in command of the land forces perceived the necessity for some mark or badge to designate the members of their forces and to distinguish them from the foe. This resulted in the use of various distinctive badges, such as plumes of a certain color to be worn upon the helmet, initials, numbers or devices in the nature of a coat of arms to be worn upon the front of the helmet, on the breast plate of armor, on the tops of the shoulders or upon the shield, a custom which still prevails in the armies of to-day.

When Gustavus Adolphus, “the Whirlwind of the North,” swept down over Europe with his victorious army of Sweden, he marked the brigades of his army with sashes worn diagonally across the body from one shoulder, a distinctive color for each brigade, and as a result history records the valorous deeds of the “Red Brigade” or the “Green Brigade” of that wonderful army. This species of uniform survives in the General’s sash for the dress uniforms of the present time.

Early in the seventeenth century the King of France by royal decree established a uniform dress for his army and regulations were issued prescribing the color and style of the various articles of dress for officers and men and the occasions on which they were to be worn. At that time in England various princes and lords had armed forces of retainers and each such force was dressed and armed according to the individual taste of its overlord.

When the Great Rebellion in England resulted in the establishment of the Commonwealth under Cromwell as Protector in 1653, the New Model army was established as a national force and, while this force was clothed in the style of the day, distinctive colors were ordered so that the whole force was uniform in appearance. The hat of the period was the high crowned, wide brimmed felt “slouch” hat, and in its various shapes this head dress has been retained down to the present. First its brim was pinned up on one side by a rosette of the colors of the government of the date, then to add to its jauntiness it was pinned up in three places resulting in the three-cornered “cocked hat” of the American Revolutionary period, and to-day we see it again almost in its original form in the modern “field hat” of the United States Army and Marine Corps, a head dress which is also worn by the British Colonial troops from Australia, Canada and New Zealand.

The wide brimmed hat was not suitable for wear at sea as it “carried too much sail in a gale,” and the naval officers fastened it up against the crown on both sides and crushed the crown together in a “fore and aft” line. In this form the erstwhile “slouch hat” now appears as the chapeau or cocked hat worn with dress uniforms by the officers of all modern navies and by the general officers of the United States Army with full dress uniform.

Cords of various colors were worn around the base of the crown of the “slouch hat” when it was first adopted, and for ornamentation these cords had tassels at the ends, while the different colors of the hat cords indicated the regiment, corps or service of the wearer. These cords in various colors, depending upon the service or corps of the wearer, are now worn on the field hats of officers and men in the United States Army and Marine Corps, as described later in this book, and the tradition of the hat cord tassels is still kept in the cocked hat of the naval officer by the gold bullion tassels at the front and rear peaks. Likewise the influence of the original loop strap and button for fastening up the brim of the original “slouch hat” is seen in the United States naval officer’s cocked hat in the shape of the gold lace strap and gilt button on the side of the crown.

When the Restoration in England brought Charles II to the throne in 1660 a royal army was organized in England, this action being due to the fact that the success of the revolutionists under Cromwell had proved the unreliability of the previous system. The standard colors chosen by the king for his soldiers were red and blue, the colors of the royal livery, and these colors survive to-day in the British infantry full dress uniforms of red with blue facings.

As time went by various regiments of foot and horse were raised, the men from any given regiment coming as a rule from one locality or county. The officers of these troops were practically all drawn from the nobility and upper classes, and it became common for the colonelcy to be conferred upon the head of the local noble house. These colonels chose many slight variations in uniform for their men in accordance with their tastes in dress and style, in deference to some local habits of dress or as might be limited by the length of their purse.

These regiments came to be known by the name of the county or city from which they were recruited; a custom which still prevails in the British service, and which to a great extent has been followed in the army of the United States, especially with the volunteers of our former wars.

In England this brought about a condition as to uniform that was apparently directly the opposite of uniform, as each territorial regiment had its own distinctive dress and decorations. Gradually, however, with the consolidation of all of the armed forces of the United Kingdom into one national army, the regulars forming the first line and the militia or “Territorials” forming the second line, or reserve, a universal service uniform was adopted for active service and came to be known as a “field” uniform. The older distinctive colors and styles of regimental uniforms were preserved in the full dress uniforms and reserved for peace time parade.

As a result of the use of heraldic devices for badges of the different regiments and corps under the old territorial system, each regiment has its own coat of arms, and in the later national army of Great Britain these were retained as “regimental badges.” These badges bear the coat of arms of some great colonel of the regiment, the name and date of some famous victory in which the regiment won renown, or some distinctive device appropriate to the county or colony from which the men of the regiment are recruited.

Such regimental badges, founded largely upon sentiment but still appealing mightily to the imagination of the young recruit that joins the colors with the high heart of youth, are a great aid to discipline and efficiency, since discipline means the implicit obedience on the part of every one in the service to the orders from higher authority in such a manner as to secure the greatest cohesion and coordination and hence the greatest effect. These little metal badges bearing the symbols and mottoes that bring daily to the minds of their wearers the valorous deeds that their regiment has done in the past arouse the spirit of emulation and competition, the desire to fight as well or better than the old regiment fought on some other bloody field perhaps a century ago, and help to create esprit de corps—the soul of an army.

In the United States services there are also distinctive regimental and corps devices which, while indicating the branch and corps to which the wearer belongs, also keep alive the glorious traditions of the past wars.

As France was the first country of modern times to establish by governmental regulation and order a uniform dress for her armed forces on shore, so has she been the most consistent of all countries in dressing all branches of her service on much the same color scheme, though here as in the other countries is sometimes seen the influence of the native dress of the lands into which the French have extended their colonial activities.

Until quite recently the common uniform of the French army consisted of red trousers or breeches, blue coats and red caps. From the Barbary coast of North Africa and especially the French colony of Algeria the French colonial troops derived the style of dress known as “Zouave” uniform, with baggy trousers, short braid decorated jacket and tasselled turban. But even in these uniforms the general color scheme of red trousers and blue coat with red head dress was carried out.

In the United States the influence of the Zouave uniform can be traced to the same style of dress used by certain regiments of our great Civil War of 1860-65. Notable among these regiments were the “Louisiana Tigers” of the Confederate Army and the “Zouave Division” of the Union Army.

In the uniforms of Germany the influence of the many individual states and principalities which went to form the greater Germany of to-day is seen in the colors and styles of the various regiments. The dress uniforms of the German Army still retain some of the distinctive colors of the original armies of Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemburg and Brandenburg, but for field service in war the whole army has a uniform of dull gray color, the various territorial distinctions being indicated by colored stripes and straps only.

The Italian troops have a number of distinctive uniforms for different corps and services, but the universal full dress coat is of a dark blue shade, the color of the trousers varying with the corps, and the different colors are used as cuffs and facings to distinguish different branches. Their field uniform is almost universally of a gray shade, though the influence of the prevailing background upon the color of uniform is seen in the white uniforms worn by the troops that must fight in the snow covered mountains of the northern frontier, and the use of khaki is becoming more common.

In Austria-Hungary the effect of the many different peoples that go to make up that empire has resulted in a great variety of colors and styles for uniforms, almost every color and shade being shown in the dress uniforms of the different corps. But for the field uniforms necessity has again ruled and dull shades of gray and green predominate.

Up to 1866 the Austrian regiments wore a great deal of white in their uniforms, while the picturesque dress of the Hungarian civil population was reflected in the gaudy uniforms of the Hussars, a style copied into all of the cavalry troops of Europe to a greater or lesser extent.

In Russia there is a great variety in full dress uniforms, and the effect of the long coat and turban of the Cossack on one hand and the bright plumes and short jackets of the Central European cavalry on the other is traceable. For field service uniforms dull shades of gray-green have become almost universal, and the cold of the long winters has naturally resulted in the use of long and heavy overcoats. The Russian soldiers all wear top boots instead of the low topped laced shoes common for foot troops in the armies of France, England and America. In this respect the Germans follow the same custom as the Russians.

The uniforms of the United States Army and Marine Corps have resulted from an adoption of the styles of the older nations with such modifications as were from time to time dictated by local conditions or national sentiment. Before the Revolution of 1776 the colonial troops naturally followed the example of the British expeditionary troops serving in the Thirteen Colonies, with modifications to suit the climate and the nature of the country occupied. During the War of the Revolution the effect of the alliance with France was seen in the adoption of certain features of the French uniform, and the service of the Prussian generals Von Steuben and De Kalb also resulted in the adoption of certain features of the Prussian armies of that date.

After the establishment of the United States Government the wars with the Indians caused changes in the uniform of some of the troops by the adoption of some of the articles of the frontiersman’s dress, such as deer-skin jackets, coonskin caps and powder horns.

The original idea of the founders of the country was to have every able-bodied man receive some training as a soldier, and from this came the militia of early days and the volunteers that fought the War of 1812. The militia of the different States and territories were uniformed largely by each State or territory designating its own style of military dress copied from the different armies abroad and with trimmings and colors to distinguish the different arms of the service.

The establishment of a small regular army after the War of 1812 brought with it a government regulation uniform for regular troops, which was in turn followed to some extent by the state troops or militia, but there were still many different styles of uniform in use through the Mexican War and up to the breaking out of the Civil War in 1860. Different units of the forces came to be known by the colors of their uniforms, such as the “Richmond Blues,” the “Red Zouaves,” the “Blue Zouaves,” the “Grays,” and many crack regiments of the militia, or as it came to be known later, the National Guard of the different States, had their own distinctive color and cut of uniform dress.

The great Civil War called such large bodies of men to the colors of the two contending sides that the question of economy demanded that the service uniforms for each side be made of one standard color and style, the armies of the North wearing blue and those of the South wearing gray. In each army, however, the different corps were distinguished by a distinctive color for the trimmings or “facings,” a custom which still prevails for the dress uniforms of our troops.

After the war with Spain in 1898 steps were taken to bring the uniforms of the several State National Guards into general conformity with that of the Regular Army, and, with the granting of national financial aid to these state troops and the issue to them of government regulation clothing and equipment, all of the armed forces of the country, regular, state and volunteer, gradually came to wear the same uniform, the different kinds of troops being distinguished by the design of the buttons or by letters worn on the collars.

In one feature the United States troops of to-day, both in the Army and the Marine Corps, still retain a relic of the “stock” of former times; this is the close fitting, standing collar of the coats for both full dress and service uniforms. The original idea of the stock was to make the soldier hold his head up and stand stiffly erect, and it dates from the time when Frederick the Great introduced mathematical precision into every motion of drill and maneuver.

In the early days when the marines wore a leather stock the sailor in his wide collared shirt dubbed the marine a “leatherneck,” a term still applied to him in the slang phrase of the service.

Military necessity has often dictated the color of the clothing worn by troops in the field. An early example of this was the adoption in 1755 of a dark green uniform by the British Royal American Regiment while fighting against the French and Indians in the forest covered country in the northwest of the original American colonies. The North American Indian was an adept at “bush-whacking” and concealment in the forest, and to meet him on anything like an equal footing it was necessary for the British and colonial troops to wear a color suited to the prevailing background. In later years this regiment’s name was changed to “King’s Royal Rifles” and as an heirloom of its first service the rifle regiments of the British Army still wear green coats for their full dress uniform.

In the days when smooth-bore muskets were the arms of infantry, the range of such weapons was very short and the opposing battle lines approached each other so closely that the figures of the men were plainly visible whatever the color of their clothing might be. Histories of the wars of a century ago tell of the colonels’ commands to “wait till you see the whites of their eyes before you fire” and “hold your fire until you can count their coat buttons.”

Under such circumstances striking and distinctive uniforms of gaudy colors bedecked with gold and silver braid and bright buttons were no detriment, but with the great increase in the range and accuracy of modern rifles it has become necessary to render the men on the battle line as inconspicuous as possible, and, as a result, in all of the great armies of the world dull colored uniforms of neutral shade have replaced the brilliant reds, blues, yellows and greens of former times, and brass buttons have given way to buttons of bronze, leather or iron, the bright hued uniforms with their corresponding brass buttons and braid being kept for full dress and peace time parade.

In the United States Army and Marine Corps the prevalent color for the field service uniforms is some shade of the dull brown commonly known as “khaki,” and the bright gilt and silver buttons, corps and regimental devices and numbers and belt buckles have been replaced to a great extent by dull bronze buttons and ornaments, insignia of rank for officers only being still made of silver and gold.

“Khaki” (pronounced kar-key, with the accent on the second syllable) is an East Indian word meaning “dust color” or “earth color.” In the dry season in India the fields and vegetation turn brown and the roads are heavy with dust which, carried by the winds, soon covers the foliage of trees and shrubbery, so that the whole landscape presents a somber aspect in one brown, dust-colored hue.

In the earlier days of the British occupation of India the British and loyal Indian troops wore white cotton or duck uniforms in the hot weather of the dry season, but these stood out so plainly against the prevailing dust color of the roads and surrounding country as to make their wearers distinct targets for the bush-whacking snipers of the enemy tribesmen. Learning from bitter experience the necessity for making themselves less conspicuous, the soldiers dipped their uniforms in muddy pools and streams to give them the same color as the background against which they must appear.

This expedient showed good results in reducing the casualty lists, and dust-colored or “khaki” uniforms gradually replaced the white uniforms with bright colored trimmings for summer service, and later for the same reasons the same or a similar color was also adopted for the winter field or “fighting” uniforms of the British Army.

Grim necessity gradually overcame the natural conservatism of the military mind and the sentimental traditions that hung around the colors of the uniforms that the troops had worn in famous campaigns, until all of the great nations have now adopted “khaki” or other dull colored uniforms for their troops in the field. This has taken away from the battlefield much of its former picturesqueness and pomp; gone from the battlefield is the “thin red line” of English poetry and song, the red and blue of the French infantry, the gray and white of the Austrians, and the blue, white and gold of the German Uhlans, while the “American Boys in Blue” no longer charge with bayonets glittering in the sun beneath the Stars and Stripes. To paraphrase a well-known quotation, “It is not magnificent but it is war.”

In the naval services of the world the adoption of a regulation uniform dress for officers and enlisted men came at a much later date than in the armies, although the marines, being essentially “sea soldiers,” followed the uniform regulations of the shore forces to a great extent and were put in uniform much earlier than the sailors of the ships’ crews.

In the British Navy of Nelson’s time the officers wore uniforms following certain prescribed styles, and the rank of the officer was marked by insignia upon the epaulets and by sleeve and cuff decorations as well, but the sailors who set and worked the sails and manned the guns had no prescribed dress. It was the custom of those days for each commodore and captain to prescribe a uniform dress for the crew of his “barge” or “gig” (the “barge” being the special small boat propelled by oars in which the admiral or commodore went from ship to shore and vice versa, and the “gig” being the name for a similar boat used especially by the captain of the ship).

These uniforms for the special boats’ crews were often fanciful in design and gay in color schemes and served to enliven the landing places at many a busy port.

During the Revolution the ships of the American Navy consisted at first of merchantmen armed with a few guns and manned by the hardy seamen of the merchant marine of the colonies. Later men-of-war were especially built for that service and manned by duly commissioned officers and men enlisted into the government service, but the British Navy was so large that the colonials could make no headway against its strong fleets, and a cruising and raiding warfare was resorted to for the purpose of destroying as much British merchant shipping as possible. This warfare was carried on principally by privateers, merchantmen armed and heavily manned for the purpose and in some cases fast ships especially built for such service. These privateers were officered by the splendid sea captains of that date who were granted “letters of marque” by the Colonial Government to carry the flag and prey upon the commerce of the enemy, dividing the profits derived from the captured cargoes in fixed proportion between the owners and crew of the privateers and the Government.

Under such conditions there was no fixed uniform, and though the officers frequently provided themselves with a dress patterned after that of the French Navy with which they were allied, the men wore any kind of clothing suited to their fancy.

After the Revolution the standing or regular army went out of existence, but it soon became necessary to establish a regular navy which consisted of a few fast, heavily gunned sailing frigates of the type of the Constitution, Constellation and Chesapeake. When the War of 1812 came on it was this small but remarkably efficient regular navy that alone saved the United States from disaster and dishonor.

By 1812 a regulation uniform had been prescribed for the officers of the Navy, but the men were still allowed to wear any kind of clothing suited to their work. Long cruises in distant seas made it necessary, however, for a supply of clothing for the members of the crew to be carried by the purser (the paymaster of that day), and as a measure of economy and convenience these clothes were all made in the same style, a custom which gradually brought about a certain uniformity in the garb of the enlisted personnel of the Navy.

Thus it came about that the accepted sailor uniform consisted of easy fitting garments suited to the work of hauling on the ropes, working aloft on the rigging, masts and spars of the sailing ships and pulling at the oars of the small boats. From this beginning came the sailor uniform of to-day, the bell-mouthed trousers that could be rolled up quickly and easily when the barefooted sailors washed down the decks, the easy-fitting, loose-necked shirt or “jumper,” the short overcoat or “peacoat” for winter wear, and the loose-topped, brimless cap which to give it a smarter appearance when going ashore “on liberty” (the sailor term for leave of absence) was provided with a light ring or “grommet” to stretch the crown out flat, resulting in the common sailor “flat-hat” of to-day.

This sailor uniform was originally designed for wear aboard ships driven by sail-power, and though it is not especially suited to the great steam-driven dreadnaughts of the modern navy it is still retained, partly on account of sentiment and tradition and partly on account of the fact that the Navy is probably more conservative than any other profession or calling.

The uniforms of both officers and enlisted men in the United States Navy follow rather closely in style, color and cut those worn in the British Navy, and some interesting traditions of the latter service may be seen even in our naval service. For instance, the black neckerchief worn alike by the British and American sailor was made black after Trafalgar as an emblem of mourning for the Great Nelson, and the three white stripes around the edges of the collar were so placed to commemorate Nelson’s three great victories, Copenhagen, the Nile and Trafalgar.

In all countries naval uniforms follow much the same patterns and practically all are of the same colors; dark blue, the so-called “navy blue,” for winter wear, and white for summer wear.

The need of an inconspicuous uniform for naval officers and men is not so apparent as it is in the case of the land forces, since in the battles of ships at sea it is the ship which is the target and not the personnel as in the battles on land.

Thus we see how tradition, sentiment and military necessity have each played a part in the development of the uniforms worn by the fighting forces of our country on land and sea.

CHAPTER II
SERVICE, CORPS AND RANK

The armed forces of the United States of America provided by the statute law of the land pursuant to the provisions of the Constitution are embraced within two grand divisions, the land forces and the sea forces, under the supreme command of the President as Commander-in-Chief.

These two grand divisions are subdivided into various services according to the duties required of them and the laws establishing and maintaining them.

The Land Forces.—The land forces of the United States are made up of the regular army or as it is sometimes called the “standing army,” the organized land militia when called into the service of the United States which is practically the same as the so-called national guards of the several states, and such volunteers and drafted men as may be authorized by the Congress from time to time as occasion demands.

In times of peace the Army consists of the regular army, but in case of an invasion or threatened invasion of the territory of the United States or of rebellion or threatened war against the constituted government of the nation, this force may be augmented by calling the organized militia into service and further augmented if necessary by the employment of volunteers or drafted men, with the authorization of the Congress.

The land forces, however raised, are also divided into the Mobile Army and the Coast Artillery. The mobile army is intended for active offensive operations against the enemy and is so called on account of the fact that for its duties it requires the greatest degree of mobility possible, while the coast artillery is intended to man and fight the fixed and movable elements of land and coast fortifications including land mines, submarine mines and torpedo defenses pertaining to the fortifications.

These two groups frequently assist each other, the mobile forces protecting the flanks and approaches to the fixed defenses, and the latter being used as turning points or supporting points to the lines of the mobile forces.

The Army is divided into various arms or corps according to the duties required, as follows: infantry, cavalry, field artillery, coast artillery corps, engineer corps, signal corps including aviation section, quartermaster corps, ordnance corps, judge advocate’s corps, inspector general’s corps and medical corps. Each of these arms or corps has a distinctive badge to be worn on all uniforms and a distinctive color for the facings and trimmings of dress uniforms, as described and illustrated in [Chapter IV].

For purposes of administration and control under war conditions the mobile land forces are organized into Field Armies, the basis of the organization being the Division. The division as prescribed in the United States Army is an organization containing all of the arms and services necessary for independent action.

A field army may be divided into army corps, each such being composed of two or more divisions.

Divisions are subdivided into brigades, which are in turn subdivided into regiments. A regiment of infantry is usually composed of three battalions of four companies each; a regiment of cavalry of three squadrons of four troops each; and a regiment of field artillery of two battalions of three batteries each. Engineers are formed into regiments according to the special requirements of their duties. The Coast Artillery is organized into companies, the number of companies in any one command depending upon the size of the forts to be garrisoned.

Signal Corps troops are organized into companies and larger organizations according to the duties assigned to them.

The Quartermaster Corps is charged with providing the supplies required and with the transportation of both men and supplies.

The Medical Corps has charge of the hospitals and the personnel required by them both at the permanent stations and in the field, and for this purpose the corps is organized into ambulance companies and field hospitals.

Chaplains are assigned to regiments and other organizations as may be required.

Veterinarians, who are commissioned officers, are assigned to the cavalry, field artillery and quartermaster transport trains, and also have charge of such veterinary hospitals as may be required at permanent posts or in the field.

The command of the Army is exercised by the President as Commander-in-Chief through the medium of the Secretary of War and the Chief of Staff, the latter officer having the rank of General and taking the place of the former Commanding General of the Army.

The General Staff Corps of the Army, consisting of commissioned officers detailed from the various branches of the Army for a term of four years’ service, is charged with the duties of effecting under the direction of the Chief of Staff the coordination and harmonious cooperation of all branches of the military service, both line and staff, in the execution of the military policies of the Government in peace and war.

The administration of the Army and the War Department is effected under the Secretary of War through the Chief of Staff by various bureaus or offices, as follows: the Coast Artillery under a chief with the rank of Major General; the Adjutant General’s Department under an Adjutant General with the rank of Major General, which is the department of records, orders and correspondence of the Army and the Militia; the Judge Advocate General’s Department, under a Judge Advocate General with the rank of Major General, which is the legal department of the Army; the Inspector General’s Department under an Inspector General with the rank of Major General; the Quartermaster Department, under a Quartermaster General with the rank of Major General, which has charge of supply and transportation; the Medical Department, under a Surgeon General with the rank of Major General; the Corps of Engineers, under a Chief of Engineers with the rank of Major General; the Ordnance Corps, under a Chief of Ordnance with the rank of Major General; and the Signal Corps, under a Chief Signal Officer with the rank of Major General.

The Sea Forces.—The sea forces of the United States consist of the regular Navy, the Marine Corps, the Naval Militia of the several States and territories when mustered into the service of the United States, and the Coast Guard and Lighthouse Service when transferred to the jurisdiction of the Navy Department in time of war or when war is imminent, including in each case both the vessels and the personnel pertaining to them, afloat and ashore. The vessels of the Coast and Geodetic Survey and of the Bureau of Fisheries may also be transferred to the jurisdiction of the Navy in time of war.

The vessels of the Navy are organized into fleets which are divided for purposes of administration and tactics into forces, squadrons, divisions, and sections.

A “Fleet” is an aggregation of vessels of various classes in one organization under one command.

Fleets are subdivided into “Forces,” each “Force” being made up of the vessels of a fleet that are of the same class or type that are assigned to perform the same duty.

A “Force” is subdivided into “Squadrons,” and in turn, a “Squadron” is subdivided into “Divisions,” and a “Division” is subdivided into “Sections.”

A “Section” consists of two vessels of the larger classes or three vessels of the smaller classes; a “Division” normally consists of two “Sections,” and a “Squadron” usually consists of two “Divisions,” although the numbers in each subdivision may be varied to suit special occasions or duties.

A squadron of torpedo vessels is called a “Flotilla,” in deference to long established custom.

A completely organized Fleet is composed of a Battleship Force, a Scout Force, a Cruiser Force, a Destroyer Force, a Submarine Force, a Mine Force and a Train Force, the latter consisting of the supply ships and repair vessels and transports and being usually referred to as the “Train.”

The Navy is administered ashore by a bureau system, consisting of a number of bureaus and offices having charge of the various activities required for the building and upkeep of the fleets at sea, and all directed by the Secretary of the Navy through the Office of Naval Operations, the Chief of Naval Operations with the rank of Admiral being the senior or ranking officer of the Navy.

The bureaus are the Bureau of Navigation, whose Chief has the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the issuing and enforcing of orders to officers and enlisted men and the keeping of the records; the Bureau of Ordnance, whose Chief has the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the design, manufacture and repair of guns, torpedoes and ammunition; the Bureau of Construction and Repair, whose head is the Chief Constructor of the Navy and has the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the designing, construction and repair of all of the vessels of the Navy; the Bureau of Steam Engineering, whose head is the Engineer in Chief of the Navy, with the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the designing, construction and repair of the engines and boilers in the ships of the Navy; a Bureau of Supplies and Accounts, whose head is the Paymaster General of the Navy, with the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the purchase and issue of supplies and provisions for the Navy and the paying of the officers and enlisted men; the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, whose head is the Surgeon General of the Navy, with the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the hospitals ashore, the hospital ships, and the health and sanitation of the Navy both afloat and ashore; the Bureau of Yards and Docks, whose Chief has the rank of Rear Admiral, and which has charge of the designing and construction and repair of the buildings and docks at the shore establishments of the Navy; and the Office of the Judge Advocate General, whose head is the Judge Advocate General of the Navy with the rank of Captain, and which has charge of the courts-martial and legal affairs of the Navy.

For purposes of command and organization afloat and ashore the officers of the Navy are divided into the “Line,” composed of the officers holding the military command in the various ranks, and of a number of “Staff Corps,” composed of officers who have charge of the various coordinate duties.

These “Staff Corps” are the Medical Corps, the Pay Corps, the Chaplains, the Corps of Naval Constructors, the Corps of Civil Engineers and the Professors of Mathematics. Prior to 1899 there was also a separate Corps of Engineers, but in that year this corps was consolidated with the Line and since that time the only officers holding the ranks of Chief Engineer, Passed Assistant Engineer and Assistant Engineer in the Navy are officers of the old Engineer Corps who are now carried on the Retired List of Officers.

The Marine Corps.—The Marine Corps is a distinct military organization normally forming an integral part of the Navy, but when the President so orders any portion of the corps may be detached for service with the Army, and in every war in which the United States has been engaged the marines have fought as a part of the crews of the fighting ships of the Navy, as landing forces and expeditionary forces with the Navy and also on detached service with the Army.

The Marine Corps is commanded by a Major General Commandant whose station is at Headquarters of the Corps in Washington, and who is assisted by a staff consisting of an Adjutant and Inspector’s Department, a Quartermaster’s Department and a Paymaster’s Department, each headed by a Brigadier General.

The officers of the Adjutant and Inspector’s Department perform the duties that are performed in the Army by the Departments of the Adjutant General and the Inspector General; the Quartermaster’s Department has charge of the supplies, provisions, transportation and the construction and maintenance of barracks and buildings; and the Paymaster’s Department has charge of the accounts and pay of the officers and enlisted men of the Corps.

Detachments of the marines are stationed at all of the Navy Yards and Naval Stations of the United States both at home and abroad, and they also serve as Legation Guards for American Legations in countries where such guards are considered necessary, as expeditionary forces with the Fleet and for the protection of Americans and their rights in foreign countries during revolutions and disorders, on detached duty with the Army as circumstances require in time of war, and aboard the battleships and cruisers of the Navy as a part of the crew, their special duties aboard ship being as crews for the Torpedo Defense batteries of guns of intermediate caliber and rapid-fire guns.

The Marines of a Fleet are organized into a regiment for duty as a landing force, the detachment from each ship forming one of the companies, and the Colonel commanding the regiment serves on the Staff of the Admiral in command of the Fleet.

When assigned to shore duty the Marines are organized into permanent companies, these companies being combined into provisional battalions, regiments and brigades according to the service or duty required.

The Marine Detachment or company serving on board a ship of the Navy is paraded as the guard of honor when such a guard is turned out to receive the President, the ruler of any foreign country, or any lesser officer or official entitled to such honors.

The Coast Guard.—The Coast Guard was established by act of Congress in January, 1915, which provided that the then existing Revenue-Cutter Service and Life-Saving Service should be combined into one service to be known as the Coast Guard, which shall constitute a part of the military forces of the United States and which shall operate under the Treasury Department in time of peace and operate as a part of the Navy, subject to the orders of the Navy Department, in time of war, or at other times when the President shall so direct.

In time of peace the Coast Guard is charged with the enforcement of the revenue laws as applying to sea-borne commerce, with giving aid to vessels in distress at sea, with the protection of the seal fisheries, and with maintaining and operating the life-saving stations along the coasts of the United States and its insular possessions. In time of war or when so directed by the President it acts as a part of the Navy, and the ships and personnel of the service become to all intents and purposes a portion of the regular navy.

The Lighthouse Service.—This service is charged with the duties of establishing and maintaining the lighthouses and other aids to navigation, such as buoys and beacons and range marks on shore, that are required for the safe navigation of the waters adjacent to our coasts, the harbors and the channels leading to them, and the inland waterways.

In normal times the Lighthouse Service is operated under the Department of Commerce, but by act of Congress of August, 1916, the President is authorized to transfer the stations, vessels, equipment and personnel of the service, as may be required, to the jurisdiction of the Navy Department or to that of the War Department.

When so transferred to the Navy Department or to the War Department, the Lighthouse Service becomes for the time being a portion of the Navy or of the Army, as the case may be, and its officers and men are subject to the laws and regulations of the service to which it is so transferred.

The Coast and Geodetic Survey.—This branch of the government service is charged with surveying the harbors and waters contiguous to the coasts of the United States and the insular possessions thereof and the lakes and inland waterways contained therein, and with making charts from such surveys for use in navigation.

The service is under the jurisdiction of the Department of Commerce, but in time of war its vessels may be transferred to the Navy Department and their crews taken into the naval service, in which case they become subject to the laws and regulations of the Navy.

Rank, Title and Precedence

Rank in its military sense is the character or quality bestowed upon the men of the military and naval services which carries with it the eligibility to exercise command or authority over other members of the services within the limits prescribed by law and regulation. Rank is divided into many different grades to mark the relative positions of the persons upon whom it is conferred and to limit the extent of the authority carried with it.

In all of the services of the United States, “Commissioned Officers” are those who have received a commission from the President “by and with the advice and consent of the Senate of the United States”; and “Appointed Officers” are those who are appointed by the President or by his order but who are not “commissioned” and confirmed by the Senate.

In the Army the “Appointed Officers” are Aviators, Army Field Clerks, Field Clerks Quartermaster Corps, and Cadets at the Military Academy.

In the Navy the “Appointed Officers” are Warrant Officers and Midshipmen.

In the Marine Corps the “Appointed Officers” are Warrant Officers.

In the Army and Marine Corps “Noncommissioned Officers” are selected enlisted men who are appointed to the various ranks of enlisted authority by orders from their proper military commanders.

“Petty Officers” in the Navy are appointed enlisted men corresponding to noncommissioned officers in the Army and Marine Corps.

The “Title” of an officer is the name of the rank or grade in which he holds a commission, the formal term by which he is officially addressed in communicating with him, although custom sanctions some variations from this general rule.

In the Army and the Marine Corps all commissioned officers, line and staff, have positive rank in the several grades, and it is customary to address them when communicating orally with them by the name of the rank they hold, the variations being that all General Officers (Generals, Lieutenant Generals, Major Generals and Brigadier Generals) are commonly addressed as “General,” that Lieutenant Colonels are addressed as “Colonel,” and that all subalterns (First Lieutenants and Second Lieutenants) are addressed as either “Lieutenant” or as “Mister.”

In the Navy it is customary to address officers of the Line (the command branch of the service) by the name of their rank, and to address officers of the Staff Corps either by the name of their rank or as “Mister,” for all except officers of the Medical Corps, who are usually addressed as “Doctor.” The exceptions to this rule are that all Flag Officers (Admirals, Vice Admirals and Rear Admirals) are usually addressed orally as “Admiral,” and that Lieutenant Commanders, Lieutenants and Ensigns are often addressed as “Mister.”

It is customary to address the Warrant Officers of the Navy and Marine Corps as “Mister.”

The precedence of the commissioned officers and other officers of the Army, Navy and Marine Corps is determined first by the grade or rank which the officers hold by virtue of their commissions or appointments, and if of the same grade or rank, then by the date of commission or appointment in the grade. There are certain exceptions to this latter rule in the case of some grades in the Staff Corps of the Navy.

The precedence of the warrant officers, noncommissioned officers and petty officers of all the services is determined upon the same principle, the seniority of the different grades and the relative seniority of the grades in different services being determined by regulations and orders, and the precedence in each grade being determined by the dates of the warrants or appointments.

The accompanying table shows the rank and title of each grade in the Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard, all of the grades having the same relative rank being on the same horizontal line.

TABLE OF RELATIVE RANK OF OFFICERS IN THE NAVAL
AND MILITARY SERVICES OF THE UNITED STATES

[A] In accordance with an Act of Congress of October 6, 1917. Brigadier Generals of the Army and Marine Corps take relative rank with Rear Admirals of the lower half of the grade of Rear Admiral.

The personnel of the Army, as provided by statute law, consists of commissioned officers, appointed officers, noncommissioned officers and privates as follows, according to grade or rank:

Officers

• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS
• 1. General.
• 2. Lieutenant General.
• 3. Major General.
• 4. Brigadier General.
• 5. Colonel.
• 6. Lieutenant Colonel.
• 7. Major.
• 8. Captain.
• 9. First Lieutenant.
• 10. Second Lieutenant.
• APPOINTED OFFICERS
• 11. Aviator, Signal Corps.
• 12. Cadet.
• 13. Field Clerk, Field Clerk Quartermaster Corps.

Enlisted Men

NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS AND PRIVATES

14. (a) Sergeant major, regimental; sergeant major, senior grade, Coast Artillery Corps; (b) quartermaster sergeant, senior grade, Quartermaster Corps; master hospital sergeant, Medical Department; master engineer, senior grade, Corps of Engineers; master electrician, Coast Artillery Corps; master signal electrician; band leader; (c) hospital sergeant, Medical Department; master engineer, junior grade, Corps of Engineers; engineer, Coast Artillery Corps.

15. Ordnance sergeant; quartermaster sergeant, Quartermaster Corps; supply sergeant, regimental.

16. Sergeant major, squadron and battalion; sergeant major, junior grade, Coast Artillery Corps; supply sergeant, battalion.

17. (a) First sergeant; (b) sergeant, first class, Medical Department; sergeant, first class, Quartermaster Corps; sergeant, first class, Corps of Engineers; sergeant, first class, Signal Corps; electrician sergeant, first class, Coast Artillery Corps; electrician sergeant, Artillery Detachment, United States Military Academy; assistant engineer, Coast Artillery Corps; (c) master gunner, Coast Artillery Corps; master gunner, Artillery Detachment, United States Military Academy; band sergeant and assistant leader, United States Military Academy Band; assistant band leader; sergeant bugler; electrician sergeant, second class, Coast Artillery Corps; electrician sergeant, second class, Artillery Detachment, United States Military Academy; radio sergeant.

18. Color sergeant.

19. Sergeant; supply sergeant, company; mess sergeant; stable sergeant; fireman, Coast Artillery Corps.

20. Corporal.

21. (a) First Class Private; (b) Private.

The personnel of the Navy, pursuant to the provisions of the statute law, consists of commissioned officers, appointed officers, warrant officers, petty officers and seamen, in the various grades as follows:

Officers of the Navy

• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE LINE
• 1. Admiral of the Navy.
• (This rank is now vacant. By special act of Congress it was conferred upon Admiral George Dewey on March 2, 1899, and held by him until his death on January 16, 1917. The rank is the same as that of Admiral of the Fleet in foreign navies and that of Field Marshal in foreign armies.)
• 2. Admiral.
• 3. Vice Admiral.
• 4. Rear Admiral.
• 5. Commodore.
• (This rank was abolished for the active list by act of Congress on March 3, 1899, and since that date has been held by officers of that rank on the Retired List of the Navy only.)
• 6. Captain.
• 7. Commander.
• 8. Lieutenant Commander.
• 9. Lieutenant.
• 10. Lieutenant Junior Grade.
• 11. Ensign.
• 12. Chief Boatswain.
• Chief Gunner.
• Chief Machinist.
• (The commissioned officers of these three titles are of the same grade; they rank next after ensigns.)
• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE MEDICAL CORPS
• 1. Medical Director with the rank of Rear Admiral.
• 2. Medical Director with the rank of Captain.
• 3. Medical Inspector with the rank of Commander.
• 4. Surgeon with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.
• 5. Passed Assistant Surgeon with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.
• 6. Passed Assistant Surgeon with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 7. Assistant Surgeon with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 8. Assistant Surgeon with the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
• 9. Dental Surgeon with the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
• 10. Chief Pharmacist.
• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE PAY CORPS
• 1. Pay Director with the rank of Rear Admiral.
• 2. Pay Director with the rank of Captain.
• 3. Pay Inspector with the rank of Commander.
• 4. Paymaster with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.
• 5. Passed Assistant Paymaster with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.
• 6. Passed Assistant Paymaster with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 7. Passed Assistant Paymaster with the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
• 8. Assistant Paymaster with the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
• 9. Assistant Paymaster with the rank of Ensign.
• 10. Chief Pay Clerk.
• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE CORPS OF NAVAL CONSTRUCTORS
• 1. Naval Constructor with the rank of Rear Admiral.
• 2. Naval Constructor with the rank of Captain.
• 3. Naval Constructor with the rank of Commander.
• 4. Naval Constructor with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.
• 5. Naval Constructor with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 6. Assistant Naval Constructor with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 7. Assistant Naval Constructor with the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
• 8. Chief Carpenter.
• Chief Sailmaker.
• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE CORPS OF CIVIL ENGINEERS
• 1. Civil Engineer with the rank of Rear Admiral.
• 2. Civil Engineer with the rank of Captain.
• 3. Civil Engineer with the rank of Commander.
• 4. Civil Engineer with the rank of Lieutenant Commander.
• 5. Civil Engineer with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 6. Assistant Civil Engineer with the rank of Lieutenant.
• 7. Assistant Civil Engineer with the rank of Lieutenant, Junior Grade.
• 8. Assistant Civil Engineer with the rank of Ensign.

Chaplains hold the relative rank of Captain, Commander, Lieutenant Commander, Lieutenant or Lieutenant, Junior Grade, according to length of service.

Professors of Mathematics hold the rank of Captain, Commander, Lieutenant Commander or Lieutenant according to length of service. This corps was established to provide especially trained mathematicians for duty as astronomers at the Naval Observatories and as Instructors at the Naval Academy, but pursuant to the act of Congress of August 29, 1916, no further officers are to be commissioned in this corps.

In the days of sailing ships officers having the title of Sailmaker were provided for the then important work of superintending the manufacture of sails, but since the advent of steam and electricity this branch has been discontinued and only a few are still borne on the official register. The commissioned officers of this branch have the title of Chief Sailmaker and relative rank the same as that of Chief Boatswain, Chief Gunners, Chief Machinists, Chief Carpenters, Chief Pay Clerks and Chief Pharmacists, that is, they rank with but next after Ensigns.

MIDSHIPMEN

Midshipmen are appointed officers undergoing the course of instruction at the Naval Academy at Annapolis, Maryland. Each senator, representative and delegate in Congress has the appointment of three midshipmen to be at the Naval Academy at any one time, the President is empowered to appoint two midshipmen and the Secretary of the Navy is empowered to appoint one hundred midshipmen each year to be selected from enlisted men of the Navy and Marine Corps who are not over the age of twenty years.

The Corps of Midshipmen consists of four classes, the First Class corresponding to “seniors” at universities, the Second Class corresponding to “juniors,” the Third Class corresponding to “sophomores,” and the Fourth Class corresponding to “freshmen.”

The regular course of study is four years although the President was authorized by the act of Congress of March 4, 1917, to reduce the course to three years for a period of two years from the passage of the act, owing to the urgent need of more officers in the Navy.

WARRANT OFFICERS

Warrant officers form an intermediate class between the commissioned officers and the enlisted personnel. They receive appointments from the President but are not confirmed by the Senate. They are appointed by selection from the most efficient and deserving enlisted petty officers. After six years’ service as warrant officers, if found qualified, they are commissioned by the President, “by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,” as Chief Boatswains, Chief Gunners, Chief Machinists, Chief Carpenters, Chief Sailmakers, Chief Pharmacists and Chief Pay Clerks, as the case may be, to take rank with but next after Ensigns.

All warrant officers take rank and precedence next after commissioned officers, their relative rank among themselves being determined by date of appointment.

Warrant officers are eligible to be commissioned as Ensigns after passing the prescribed examination, in which case they are advanced to higher rank in the same manner as other Ensigns commissioned after graduation from the Naval Academy. In this manner a young man who proves himself worthy of the honor may rise from the lowest enlisted grade to be an Admiral.

Enlisted Men of the Navy

The highest grade of enlisted men in the U. S. Navy is that of Mate. Mates are rated by authority of the Secretary of the Navy from seamen of over two years’ service. They have no relative rank, but take precedence over all other enlisted men. They wear a uniform like that of warrant officers with a distinctive insignia as later described.

The classes of enlisted men in the Navy corresponding to the “noncommissioned officers” of the Army and Marine Corps are styled “Petty Officers.”

All of the enlisted men of the Navy are divided into branches according to their principal duties, the different grades in these several branches being as follows:

The personnel of the Marine Corps, in accordance with the provisions of the statute law, consists of commissioned officers, warrant officers, noncommissioned officers and privates, in the various grades as follows:

Officers of the Marine Corps

• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE LINE AND STAFF
• 1. Major General Commandant.
• 2. Brigadier General.
• 3. Colonel.
• 4. Lieutenant Colonel.
• 5. Major.
• 6. Captain.
• 7. First Lieutenant.
• 8. Second Lieutenant.
• WARRANT OFFICERS
• Marine Gunner.
• Quartermaster Clerk.

Enlisted Men of the Marine Corps

• 1. Sergeant Major.
• Quartermaster Sergeant.
• 2. First Sergeant.
• Gunnery Sergeant.
• 3. Drum Major.
• 4. Leader of Band.
• 5. Second Leader of Band.
• 6. Sergeant.
• 7. Corporal.
• 8. Principal Musician.
• 9. Musician first class.
• 10. Musician second class.
• 11. Musician third class.
• 12. Drummer.
• Trumpeter.
• Private.

The personnel of the Coast Guard, in accordance with the statute law, consists of commissioned officers, appointed officers, warrant officers, petty officers and seamen as follows:

Officers of the Coast Guard

• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF THE LINE
• 1. Captain Commandant.
• 2. Senior Captain.
• 3. Captain.
• 4. First Lieutenant.
• 5. Second Lieutenant.
• 6. Third Lieutenant.

• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF ENGINEERS
• 1. Engineer in Chief.
• 2. Captain of Engineers.
• 3. First Lieutenant of Engineers.
• 4. Second Lieutenant of Engineers.
• 5. Third Lieutenant of Engineers.
• COMMISSIONED OFFICERS OF CONSTRUCTION BRANCH
• 1. Constructor (with rank of first lieutenant).
• APPOINTED OFFICERS
• Cadet
• Undergoing three years course
• of instruction at the
• Coast Guard Academy at
• New London, Connecticut.
• Cadet Engineer.
• WARRANT OFFICERS
• Master’s Mate.
• Keeper. (In charge of Life-Saving Station).
• Boatswain.
• Gunner.
• Machinist.
• Carpenter.
• Sailmaker.

Enlisted Men of the Coast Guard

The enlisted men of the Coast Guard have ratings, or grades, similar to those of the Navy, as follows:

The personnel of the Lighthouse Service pursuant to statute law consists of the officers and enlisted men in the following grades:

FOR SERVICE AFLOAT IN LIGHTSHIPS AND TENDERS

Command

Since rank and grade carry with them the corresponding responsibilities and duties appropriate to the office it is necessary to know the commands to which the various grades are ordinarily assigned in order to properly understand the meaning of rank and grade.

In the Army the commands considered appropriate for the officers of the various grades are as follows:

COMMISSIONED OFFICERS

General		Two or more Field Armies operating together.
Lieutenant General		A Field Army.
Major General		A Corps or a Division.
Brigadier General		A Brigade.
Colonel		A Regiment.
Lieutenant Colonel		Second in Command of a Regiment.
Major		A Battalion of Infantry or Artillery
		or a Squadron of Cavalry.
Captain		A Company of Infantry, a Battery
		of Artillery or a Troop of Cavalry.
First Lieutenant		Junior Officers of a Company,
Second Lieutenant		Battery or Troop.

The duties of the corresponding grades of noncommissioned officers as given in the list on [pages 30 and 31] are explained to a great extent by their titles.

The Privates are the enlisted men of the rank and file who form the great body of the fighting force of the Army in all of its arms and branches.

In the Navy the commands usually assigned to the Line officers of the various grades are as follows:

WARRANT OFFICERS

The duties assigned to the Commissioned Warrant Officers and Warrant Officers aboard ship are as follows:

The Chief Boatswain or Boatswain attached to a ship has general charge of all of the rigging, anchors, chains, hawsers, boat gear and tackles of the ship and is responsible for the condition of such stores.

The Chief Gunner or Gunner attached to a ship is assigned to ordnance duty under the Gunnery Officer and has charge of the ordnance stores and ammunition and the repairs to guns and their gear.

The Gunner assigned to Electrical duty has general charge of the electrical plants and wiring of the ship and the stores pertaining thereto.

The Chief Carpenter or Carpenter attached to a ship has charge of the repairs to the structure of the ship which are made by the ship’s force and the stores for this purpose, including paint.

The Chief Sailmaker or Sailmaker has charge of the sails and awnings and the repairs to them.

The Chief Pay Clerk or Pay Clerk is the assistant to the Paymaster in the Commissary and Supply Department of the ship.

The Chief Pharmacist or Pharmacist is attached to the Medical Department of a ship and has charge of the medical stores and their issue under the orders of the Surgeon.

PETTY OFFICERS

Petty Officers in the Navy correspond to the noncommissioned officers of the Army, and they are divided into three general Branches, the Seaman Branch consisting of the deck force which mans the guns of the battery and performs the strictly “sailor” duties; the Artificer Branch composed of the engineering force, the electricians, the carpenters and the painters; and the Special Branch made up of yeomen, or clerical force, the commissary stewards, cooks and bakers, the hospital nurses and the bandsmen.

As a rule the special duties of each of the Petty Officers are indicated by their titles, or “ratings,” as it is styled in the Navy, as given in the list on [pages 37-40], but a few words of explanation may not be amiss.

Masters-at-Arms are the policemen of the ship; boatswain’s mates are the petty officers who assist the boatswain and see that the orders of the officer of the deck are carried out in the different parts of the ship; turret captains are the petty officers who have charge of the turret guns crews under the Division Officer; gunner’s mates are the petty officers who assist the gunner and see to the repairs of the guns of the battery and have charge of the issue of powder and shell from the magazines to the guns; gun captains are the petty officers in charge of the individual gun crews; quartermasters are the petty officers who stand the watch at the wheel and steer the ship under the orders of the Officer of the Deck; machinist’s mates are the petty officers on duty at the engines and machinery; water tenders see that the proper amount of water is kept in the boilers, and the duties of the other petty officers are as indicated by their “ratings.”

The ordinary enlisted men are apportioned to the three branches in the same manner as the petty officers, the Seaman Branch having seamen gunners especially trained for duty at the guns, seamen, ordinary seamen and apprentice seamen under training; the Artificer Branch having firemen who tend the fires under the boilers, coal passers who transfer the coal from the bunkers to the firerooms and landsmen or untrained men; and the Special Branch having the musicians of the band and buglers, and the lower ratings of cooks, bakers and hospital men.

In the Marine Corps the commands considered appropriate for the officers of the different grades are as follows:

WARRANT OFFICERS

Marine Gunners perform duty in the Marine Corps analogous to that performed by Gunners in the Navy.

Quartermaster Clerks perform duties as assistants to the officers of the Paymaster and Quartermaster Departments of the Marine Corps corresponding to the duties of Pay Clerks in the Navy.

NONCOMMISSIONED OFFICERS

The noncommissioned officers of the Marine Corps perform duties ashore similar to those performed by noncommissioned officers of infantry and artillery in the Army and also perform duties aboard ship similar to those performed by certain of the petty officers of the Navy.

The Marine Detachments assigned to some of the smaller ships of the Navy are commanded by First Sergeants.

Gunnery Sergeants are assigned duties afloat similar to those performed by Gunner’s Mates in the Navy, while on shore their duties are normally in connection with the care and repair of the guns of the artillery, both heavy and light.

In the Coast Guard in times of peace when the service is operating under the Treasury Department the duties of the various grades of officers are as follows:

COMMISSIONED OFFICERS

Captain Commandant		In charge of the service at the Headquarters in Washington, D. C.
Senior Captain		In charge of a Division of the Service.
Captain		Command of a Cruising Cutter.
First Lieutenant		Command of a Harbor Cutter or Executive Officer of a Cruising Cutter.
Second Lieutenant		Watch Officer on a Cruising Cutter.
Third Lieutenant

Engineer Captains and Lieutenants perform engineering duty on the cruising and harbor cutters in accordance with their rank.

WARRANT OFFICERS

Keepers are in charge of the Life-Saving stations all along the coast of the United States, while the other warrant officers, Boatswains, Gunners, Machinists and Carpenters, perform duties of the same nature as the corresponding ranks in the Navy.

The petty officers and seamen perform the duties as indicated by their “ratings,” similar to those performed by men of like “ratings” in the Navy.

In the Lighthouse Service the appropriate commands and duties performed by the officers and men in the various ranks and ratings are as indicated by their titles and ratings, these duties in general being similar to those performed by the officers and men of various grades in the other Sea Services in so far as these duties apply to the peculiar needs of the Lighthouse Service afloat and ashore.

UNITED STATES

NATIONAL FLAG

PRESIDENT’S FLAG

SECRETARY OF WAR	UNION JACK	SECRETARY OF THE NAVY
For Asst. Sec’y. white flag with red stars and emblem		For Asst. Sec’y. white flag with blue stars and anchor

ENSIGNS, FLAGS AND PENNANTS.

CHAPTER III
ENSIGNS, FLAGS AND PENNANTS

The National Flag of a country is the flag which bears the device of the nation, the emblem by which the nationality of the state is shown.

An Ensign is the flag or insignia used to show the nationality of the armed forces of a nation; more properly speaking, it is the colors displayed by a ship of war or carried by a regiment of soldiers.

In some countries flags of different designs from those of their national flags are prescribed to be carried by the troops of the armies or displayed as “colors” by the ships of war, but in the United States of America the National Flag, the “Stars and Stripes,” is carried by the Army and displayed as the colors by all ships of the Navy.

The flag of the United States was authorized by a resolution of Congress of June 14, 1777, reading as follows:

Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation.

For the design of the flag made in accordance with this resolution it was decided to make the stripes of equal width and the stars five-pointed.

Vermont was admitted as a State in 1791 and Kentucky was admitted in 1792, and as a result an act of Congress approved on January 13, 1794, provided:

That from and after the first day of May, Anno Domini one thousand seven hundred and ninety-five, the flag of the United States be fifteen stripes, alternate red and white. That the union be fifteen stars, white in a blue field.

The rapid increase in the number of States in the succeeding years caused much confusion regarding the exact design of the flag and there came to be a great diversity as to the numbers of stars and stripes. In order to clear up all doubt the Fifteenth Congress passed an act, which was approved by the President on April 4, 1818, entitled,

An Act to Establish the Flag of the United States

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in congress assembled, That from and after the fourth day of July next, the flag of the United States be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be twenty stars, white in a blue field.

Section 2. And be it further enacted, That on the admission of every new state into the Union, one star be added to the union of the flag; and that such addition shall take effect on the fourth day of July then next succeeding such admission.

In accordance with this law there are at present forty-eight stars in the union of the flag. The proportions of the national flag as prescribed by the Presidential Executive Order No. 1637, dated October 29, 1912, are as follows:

GREAT BRITAIN

WHITE ENSIGN	UNION FLAG	RED ENSIGN
BLUE ENSIGN	JACK FOR VESSELS IN THE EMPLOY OF PUBLIC OFFICES	ADMIRALTY FLAG
ADMIRAL	VICE ADMIRAL	REAR ADMIRAL
PENNANT

FRANCE

NATIONAL FLAG

ADMIRAL OF FRANCE	VICE ADMIRAL	REAR ADMIRAL
PENNANT

ENSIGNS, FLAGS AND PENNANTS.

There is an exception made in these proportions in the case of the flags carried by the troops, in which case the sizes are established by special orders for the Army and Navy.

For the small flags flown by the small boats and launches of the ships of war and other government ships the executive order places the number of stars in the union at thirteen on account of the fact that the identity of the several stars would be lost if the whole number of forty-eight were used.

The Union Jack is a flag consisting of the union of the national flag, and it is flown at the jackstaff in the bow of ships of war. Its size should be the same as that of the union of the flag with which it is flown.

A pennant is triangular shaped, in some cases having a V-shaped notch cut in the outer end of the fly.

The “commission pennant” is long and narrow, the portion next the hoist, or mast, having a blue field with thirteen white stars and the remainder being divided longitudinally into two parts, red and white. It is flown at the mainmast head of all ships in commission which have no officer on board above the rank of Captain in the Navy, and indicates that the ship carrying it is “in commission,” or on active service.

On ships of war carrying an officer senior in rank to a Captain the prescribed distinctive flag for such officer is flown at the mainmast head in place of the commission pennant, and the ship is known as a “Flagship.”

Naval officers above the rank of Captain in the Navy are called “Flag Officers.”

These distinctive flags of higher command are shown in the illustrations. When two or more flag officers of the same grade are in the same fleet the senior one flies the blue flag of his grade and all the others fly the red flag of the grade.

On any one ship of war only the distinctive flag of the senior officer of flag or higher rank is flown; thus, if the President is aboard an Admiral’s flagship the flag of the President is flown but not that of the Admiral.

In former times the flag was carried into the front line of battle by the troops who used it as their rallying point, but in the battles of to-day, where every attempt is made to disguise and screen the lines of troops from the enemy, the flags and standards of the brigades and regiments would serve to mark the exact position of the lines and thus convey valuable information to the enemy and enable him to concentrate the fire of artillery and machine guns upon them. Therefore the flags are kept far in the rear to be carried in parades and ceremonies only or when the victorious troops march in triumph through the streets of cities captured from the enemy.

In the accompanying illustrations the ensigns, flags and pennants of the principal maritime nations are shown, the national flag and the ensigns carried by the land troops being indicated in each case.

In addition to the flags of the United States shown in the illustrations special flags are provided as distinguishing insignia for the Naval Reserve, the Naval Militia of the several States and territories, and for the merchant ships operated under the United States Shipping Board.

BELGIUM

ADMIRAL Vice Admiral 3 upper circles Rear Admiral 2 upper circles	ENSIGN & MERCHANT FLAG	COMMODORE
PENNANT

ITALY

ENSIGN	JACK	MERCHANT
ADMIRAL	VICE ADMIRAL	REAR ADMIRAL
PENNANT

RUSSIA