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WALKER’S
MANLY EXERCISES
AND
RURAL SPORTS.
EDITED BY “CRAVEN.”

MANLY
EXERCISES,
SAILING, ROWING,
DRIVING, RIDING, HUNTING,
RACING, SEATING, SWIMMING,
VAULTING, CLIMBING,
RUNNING,
&c. &c.
HENRY G. BOHN,
LONDON.

WALKER’S
MANLY EXERCISES;

CONTAINING

Rowing, Sailing, Riding, Driving, Racing, Hunting,
Shooting,

AND OTHER MANLY SPORTS.

THE WHOLE CAREFULLY REVISED, OR WRITTEN,

BY “CRAVEN.”

NINTH EDITION.

LONDON:
H. G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.
MDCCCLV.

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

The publishers of the present Edition of this popular little volume had a double purpose in entering upon the undertaking,—namely, to offer a carefully-revised copy of Walker’s Manly Exercises, and an outline of Rural Sports, to which they serve as the best elementary introduction. As the execution of that design was committed to me, I can only allude to the nature of the task, and hope that I have not quite failed in the enterprise. This I may be permitted to say,—that if the publishers’ desire to make the work a source of instructive and rational amusement be realized, even to the tithe of its extent and earnestness, the labour of his Editor will not have been wholly without success.

CRAVEN.

CONTENTS.

LIST OF PLATES.

IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES.

Education may be divided into two parts, physical and mental. Of the former, Exercises or Gymnastics are the most extensive and the earliest portion.

Their extent is learnt by an enumeration of them, viz., Walking, Running, Leaping, Vaulting, Pole-leaping, Balancing, Skating, Carrying, Climbing, and Swimming. We have added Throwing the Discus; and, in a course of British Exercises, we think Rowing, Sailing, Riding, and Driving, would be very improperly omitted.

The object of these Exercises is to strengthen the muscular system, by subjecting it to a regular process of training, and to teach the means of employing it most advantageously. The expediency of their early acquisition is rendered evident by the first tendency of youth being directed to them, by the rapid progress made in them, and by the delight derived from them, at a period when the body is incapable, with real or solid advantage, of higher acquirements.

Their general utility will be questioned only by those who are not aware that the health and vigour of all the bodily organs depend on the proportioned exercise of each. In active exertion, the member exercised swells with the more frequent and more copious flow of blood, and heat is developed in it with greater abundance; and if we repeat the same motions many times after intervals of repose, all the muscles exercised become permanently developed; a perfection of action ensues in the member exercised, which it did not previously possess, any deformity by which it is affected is corrected, and strength and activity are acquired. That man, therefore, gains the most strength who engages in muscular exercises that require the application of much power, but which are sufficiently separated by intervals of repose.

It must be remembered, however, that, in exercising particular muscles only, the others become weak. The strength of Marshal Saxe was sufficiently great to stop a chariot drawn at speed by four horses, by merely seizing the wheel: he bent pieces of silver with his fingers, made them into boats as he would with paper, and presented them to the ladies. Count Orloff, a Russian general, broke the shoe of a carriage horse in the same manner; and there are innumerable examples of similar feats of extraordinary strength.

Active exercises, at the same time, confer beauty of form; and they even contribute to impart an elegant air and graceful manners. If the exercise of a limb be continued for some time, the member swells, a painful sensation is experienced, which is termed lassitude, and a difficulty of contraction, which is the result of it. If the motion has been excessive, and the organic elements in the member have been acted upon beyond all physiological laws, inflammation would take place, and its functions be performed with great difficulty, if at all.

Such are the effects of exercise on the locomotive system, to all the functions of animated beings, so long as they are exercised with moderation, equality, and at due intervals, working for their own preservation. Of course, the general effect of active exercises is marked in proportion to the number of parts that share in the motion, or are brought into energetic action. In general exercise, the increase of organic action is not confined solely to the parts which are the seat of muscular contraction, but is repeated throughout all parts of the economy, and influences all the functions.

Thus, as to the vital or nutritive system, exercises taken when digestion is not going on, excite the digestive faculty: taken during its progress, they disorder that function. The arterial and venous circulations become more rapid by active exercise, which concludes by giving greater force to the tissue of the heart. It is the same with respiration and calorification. The same takes place with regard to nutrition, a function which exercise increases, not only in the muscles in movement, as we have just seen, but also in the bones, ligaments, vessels, and nerves.

By inducing cutaneous exhalation, it promotes the expulsion of injurious agents, produces a fresh colour in persons who may have become pale through a sedentary life, and, to a certain extent, renders the human constitution, by means of habit, proof against the action of surrounding objects. The local effects of excessive action, or those which take place in the members themselves, are, as before observed, inflammation of the muscles, rheumatism, like that arising from cold, and inflammation of the serous articular membranes. The general effects of excessive exercise may, in the same manner as all physical and moral stimulants, exhaust the vital faculties too quickly, communicate too much rigidity to the fibres, render the vessels varicose, bring on chronic rheumatism, destroy the freshness of the skin, blight the flower of youth, and produce old age and death before the time ordained by nature.

Ancient writers inform us that it was a rare thing to meet with athletes, who, having signalized themselves from their earliest youth in gymnastic combats, were of so excellent a constitution as to be able, when they had reached a more advanced age, to acquire the same honours on contending for the prize with grown men. Aristotle assures us, that amongst the conquerors in the Olympic Games, not more than two or three at the most could be found to whom nature had granted such an advantage.

In relation to the mental or thinking system, “every movement,” says Cabanis, “becomes in its turn the principle or occasion of new impressions, of which the frequent repetition and the varied character must increase more and more the circle of our judgments, or tend unceasingly to rectify them. It hence follows that labour, giving to this word the most general signification, cannot but have an influence infinitely useful on the habits of the understanding, and consequently also on those of the will.” This argument is evidently applicable to varied exercise. On the contrary, “the great division of labour, so favourable to the perfecting of the arts, contracts more and more the understanding of workmen.” Exercises, moreover, inspire confidence in difficult situations, and suggest resources in danger. Their consequent influence upon the moral conduct of man is such, that, by a courage which is well founded, because it springs from a perfect knowledge of his own powers, he is often enabled to render the most important services to others.

Although the direct effect of exercise is not only to confer power on the muscular and other organs, but to multiply external impressions, and to occupy with them all the senses at once; still minds thus disposed, in general occupy themselves rather with objects of imagination and sentiment, than with those which demand more complicated operation. The sense of muscular power impresses determinations which, carrying man perpetually out of himself, scarcely permit him to dwell upon impressions transmitted to his brain. The only action of that organ, during these exercises, seems to be limited to ordering the movements.

Hence, exercise, especially taken in the open air, amidst new and varied objects of sight, is not favourable to reflection—to labours which demand the assemblage and concentration of all the powers of the mind. It is, on the contrary, in the absence of external impressions, that we become more capable of seizing many relations, and of following a long train of purely abstract reasoning. As life spent chiefly in active muscular exercises would leave in a state of repose those central organs that are subservient to the moral qualities and intellectual faculties, I agree with Seneca and Camper, in proscribing all such exercises, or such degrees of exercise, as would exhaust the mind, and render man incapable of aptitude in science, polite literature, and art.

The cultivation of bodily strength, in preference to every thing else, would establish only the right of the strongest, as it is found to exist in the origin of society. To cultivate the faculties of the mind exclusively, would produce only the weakness of sentiment or excess of passion. There is, for every individual, a means of making all these dispositions act in harmony; and the due blending of physical and moral education alone can produce it. Let it be remembered that young persons will much more easily be withdrawn from the application they ought to pay to the study of the sciences, by insipid recreations and trifling games, than by the fatiguing exercises necessary for their developement and the preservation of their health, which, however, habit soon renders easy and delightful. To what vices do not a sedentary life and the practice of gaming give rise?—whilst well-regulated exercises excite ambition to excel, and energy in the performance of every duty.

The philosophers of antiquity, such as Aristotle and Plato, regarded gymnastic exercises as of vast importance, and considered a state defective and badly organized where these exercises were not instituted. Colleges, called Gymnasia, were therefore established everywhere, and superintended by distinguished masters. Accordingly, the illustrious men of the Grecian and Roman republics, even those who shone in literature and the fine arts, received the same physical education. The gymnastic exercises which are here recommended are not intended to produce athletes, but to strengthen the human constitution. One exercise gives solidity, another address; and we may even say that the various kinds of exercise are sometimes opposed to each other. The strongest peasant is far from being the best runner; and the most vigorous dancer would probably be deficient in strength. There is, however, a mean to be found in the disposition of every individual to preserve both skill and strength, and this is what ought to be sought. For this purpose, it will suffice to practise young persons a few hours every day, sometimes at one exercise, and sometimes at another.

GENERAL DIRECTIONS.

It only remains for us to give a few directions as to the time, place, and circumstances of exercise. The best time for the elementary exercises is when the air is cool, as, even in summer, it is early in the morning, or after the sun has declined; and they should never immediately follow a meal. The best place for these elementary exercises is a smooth grass-plat, or a firm sandy sea-beach. Chasms, stones, and stakes, are always dangerous. At the commencement, the coat and all unnecessary clothes should be laid aside; and all hard or sharp things should be taken from the pockets of the remaining dress. A very light covering on the head, as a straw hat, is best; the shirt-collar should be open, the breast being either exposed or thinly covered; the waistband of the trousers should not be tight, and the boots or shoes should have no iron about them.

As sudden transitions are always bad, exercise should begin gently, and should terminate in the same manner. The left hand and arm being commonly weaker than the right, they should be exercised till they become as strong. This custom is advantageous, not only for all military and mechanical gymnastic exercises, but also for all their operations. The being cooled too quickly is injurious. Therefore, drinking when very hot, or lying down on the cold ground, should be carefully avoided. No exertion should be carried to excess, as that only exhausts and enfeebles the body. Therefore, whenever the gymnast feels tired, or falls behind his usual mark, he should resume his clothes, and walk home. The moment exercise is finished, the clothes should always be put on, and the usual precautions adopted to prevent taking cold.

The necessary fittings-up of an exercising ground are a leaping stand, a vaulting horse, a balancing bar, a climbing stand, with ladders, poles, and ropes, which may be seen united as simply and economically as possible, in a subsequent sketch—([Plate XVIII.] Climbing.)

In most exercises, a belt or cincture is of utility; and it seems, in all ages, to have been naturally employed. The weakest savage, who could not follow others in the course without panting, would find, by placing his hand over his abdomen, and supporting the liver and other organs which descend into that cavity, that he was aided in running, and breathed more easily; and thence he would make for himself a belt. United in societies, men would still preserve their belt, though it might not seem particularly advantageous, except to those whose active mode of life approached a primitive state, such as travellers, couriers, and porters.

The Greeks put on their belts before they commenced wrestling; and many physicians, both ancient and modern, recommend the use of belts, as being to the whole of the body, and to the parts over which they are placed, what the exterior sheaths or aponeuroses are to the muscles—bands which embrace and keep firm the parts over which they are placed. The common belt has leathern straps, and buckles to fasten it, an iron ring and a pocket. A double cincture for wrestling forms a very strong girth, which is put on by pupils who are very strong, when they wrestle. These belts may be made of different sizes, for youths of different ages: of five or six inches for tall youths and men, and of eight or ten inches for wrestlers. Their length is in proportion to the size of the person who uses them. These belts are very useful in strengthening the abdominal region in running and leaping. Riders, also, should furnish themselves with belts before getting on horseback, to prevent too violent motion of the viscera of the abdomen, and the disorders which may result from it. The use, indeed, of belts will by degrees prove their utility, and they will probably be worn even externally, without reference to physical exercises. They deserve this the more, because they give an air of lightness and elegance to the shape, and develope the chest.

The most useful thing in existence is dangerous, if improperly applied. In very young persons, the chest and abdomen have been compressed by fastening the belt too tight, or making it too wide; and disorders of digestion and respiration have consequently been caused by pushing in the false ribs. This is an imprudence that should be avoided. If the belt be too low, it may press too much on the lower part of the belly; if too high, it may disorder the chest. It must therefore be placed on the loins, so as to pass over the navel; and, as said before, it must not be too tight. Having given these ideas of the utility of belts, and the manner of using them, it remains only to explain the triple use of those adopted for exercises: 1st, they fulfil, by their size and other circumstances, all the conditions which render them useful; 2nd, a pocket serves to inclose the articles that may be wanted, according to the class of exercises performing; 3rd, an iron ring is intended to suspend, by means of hooks, any thing we wish to carry, so as to leave the hands at liberty.

TRAINING.

This is important in relation to various exercises to be described. The art of training for athletic exercises, or laborious exertions, consists in purifying the body and strengthening its powers, by certain processes, which are now to be described. The advantages of it, however, are not confined to pedestrians, wrestlers, or pugilists; they extend to every one: for, were training generally introduced, instead of medicine, for the prevention and cure of diseases, its beneficial consequences would assuredly prolong life, and promote its happiness. Every physiologist knows that all the parts which compose the human body—solids as well as liquids—are successively absorbed and deposited. Hence ensues a perpetual renovation of them, regulated by the nature of our food and general habits. The health of all the parts, and the soundness of their structure, depend on this perpetual absorption and renovation. Now, nothing so effectually as exercise excites at once absorption and secretion. It accordingly promotes all the vital functions without hurrying them, renovates all the parts, and preserves them apt and fit for their offices.

It follows, then, that health, vigour, and activity, chiefly depend upon exercise and regimen; or, in other words, upon the observance of those rules which constitute the theory of training. The effect has accordingly corresponded with the cause assigned in this view of the subject, in every instance where it has been adopted; and, although not commonly resorted to as the means of restoring invalids to health, there is every reason to believe that it would prove effectual in curing many obstinate diseases, such as bilious complaints, obesity, gout, and rheumatism.

The Ancients entertained this opinion. They were, says a popular writer on medicine, by no means unacquainted with or inattentive to these instruments of medicine, although modern practitioners appear to have no idea of removing disease, or restoring health, but by pouring drugs into the stomach. Heroditus is said to have been the first who applied the exercises and regimen of the Gymnasium to the removal of disease, or the maintenance of health. Among the Romans, Asclepiades carried this so far, that he is said, by Celsus, almost to have banished the use of internal remedies from his practice. He was the inventor of various modes of exercise and gestation, in Rome. In his own person, he afforded an excellent example of the wisdom of his rules, and the propriety of his regimen. Pliny tells us that, in early life, he made a public profession, that he would agree to forfeit all pretensions to the name of a physician, should he ever suffer from sickness, or die but of old age; and, what is extraordinary, he fulfilled his promise, for he lived upwards of a century, and at last was killed by a fall down stairs.

As to the locomotive system, modern experience sufficiently proves that exercise is the most powerful strengthener of the muscles, and of every part on which activity depends. In its operation on the vital system, training always appears to benefit the state of the lungs. Indeed, one of its most striking effects is to improve the wind: that is, to enable a man to draw a larger inspiration, and to hold his breath longer. As to the intellectual system, Sir J. Sinclair observes, that, by training, the mental faculties are also improved; the attention being more ready, and the perception more acute, owing probably to the clearness of the stomach, and better digestion.

It must, therefore, be admitted, that the most beneficial consequences to general health arise from training. The simplicity of the rules for it is assuredly a great recommendation to a trial of the experiment. The whole process may be resolved into the following principles:—1st, the evacuating, which cleanses the stomach and intestines; 2nd, the sweating, which takes off the superfluities of fat and humours; 3rd, the daily course of exercise, which improves the wind and strengthens the muscles; and, lastly, the regimen, which nourishes and invigorates the body. To those who are to engage in corporeal exercises beyond their ordinary powers, it is indispensably necessary. Pedestrians, therefore, who are matched either against others or against time, and pugilists who engage to fight, must undergo the training process before they contend. The issue of the contest, if their powers be nearly equal, will, in a great measure, depend upon their relative condition, as effected by training, at the hour of trial.

Training was known to the ancients, who paid much attention to the means of augmenting corporeal vigour and activity. Accordingly, among the Greeks and Romans, certain rules of exercise and regimen were prescribed to the candidates for gymnastic celebrity. We are assured, that, among the Greeks, previously to the solemn contests at the public games, the strictest temperance, sobriety, and regularity in living, were indispensably requisite. The candidates were, at the same time, subjected to daily exercise in the Gymnasium, which continued during ten months, and which, with the prescribed regimen, constituted the preparatory training adopted by the athletæ of Greece. Among the Romans, the exercises of the palæstra degenerated from the rank of a liberal art, and became a profession, which was embraced only by the lowest of mankind; the exhibitions of the gladiators being bloody and ferocious spectacles, which evinced the barbarous taste of the people. The combatants, however, were regularly trained by proper exercise, and a strict observance of regimen. Pure and salubrious air was deemed a chief requisite. Accordingly, the principal schools of their athletæ were established at Capua and Ravenna, the most healthy places in Italy; and previous to entering on this regimen, the men were subjected to the evacuating process, by means of emetics, which they preferred to purgatives.

In the more early stages of training, their diet consisted of dried figs, new cheese, and boiled grain. Afterwards animal food was introduced as a part of the athletic regimen, and pork was preferred to any other. Galen, indeed, asserts, that pork contains more real nutriment than flesh of any other kind, which is used as food by man. This fact, he adds, is decidedly proved by the example of the athletæ, who, if they live but for one day on any other kind of food, find their vigour manifestly impaired the next. The preference given to pork by the ancients, however, does not correspond with the practice of modern trainers, who entirely reject it; but in the manner of preparing the food, they exactly agree—roasting or broiling being by both preferred to boiling, and bread unfermented to that prepared by leaven. A very small quantity of liquid was allowed to the athletæ, and this was principally water. They exercised in the open air, and became familiarized by habit to every change of the weather, the vicissitudes of which soon ceased to affect them.

To exercise their patience, and accustom them to bear pain without flinching, they were occasionally flogged on the back with the branches of a kind of rhododendron, till the blood flowed. By diminishing the quantity of the circulating liquid, this rough kind of cupping was also considered salutary! as obviating the tendency to plethora or redundancy of blood, to which they were peculiarly liable—a proof, if true, of the nourishing qualities of their food.

When the daily exercises of the athletæ were finished, they were refreshed by immersion in a tepid bath, where the perspiration and sordes—scurf, pustules, or filthy adhesions—were carefully removed from the surface of the body by the use of the strygil.[1] The skin was then diligently rubbed dry, and again anointed with oil. If thirsty, they were permitted to drink a small quantity of warm water. They then took their principal repast, after which they used no more exercise that day. They occasionally also went into the cold bath in the morning. They were permitted to sleep as many hours as they chose; and great increase of vigour, as well as of bulk, was supposed to be derived from long-continued and sound repose.[2] The sexual intercourse was strictly prohibited.

[1] For this instrument, rough coarse cloths are adopted, but not with advantage.

[2] Little sleep is now prescribed; but its quantity should depend upon circumstances of fatigue, &c.

The manner of training among the ancients bears some resemblance to that practised by the moderns. Perhaps it is because their mode of living and general habits were somewhat different from those of the present age, that a difference of treatment is now required to produce the same effects. The great object of training for running or boxing matches, is to increase the muscular strength, and to improve the free action of the lungs, or wind, of the person subjected to the process. Seeing that the human body is so capable of being altered and renovated, it is not surprising that the art of training should be carried to a degree of perfection almost incredible; and that, by certain processes, the muscular power, the breath (or wind), and the courage of man, should be so greatly improved as to enable him to perform the most severe or laborious undertakings.

That such effects have been produced is unquestionable: they are fully exemplified in the astonishing exploits of our most celebrated pedestrians and pugilists, which are the infallible results of such preparatory discipline. The skilful trainer attends to the state of the bowels, the lungs, and the skin; and he uses such means as will reduce the fat, and at the same time invigorate the muscular fibre. The patient is purged by drastic medicines; he is sweated by walking under a load of clothes, and by lying between feather beds; and his limbs are roughly rubbed. His diet is beef or mutton: his drink strong ale. He is gradually inured to exercise, by repeated trials in walking and running. By extenuating the fat, emptying the cellular substance, hardening the muscular fibre, and improving the breath, a man of the ordinary frame may be made to fight for one hour, with the utmost exertion of strength and courage, or to go over one hundred miles in twenty-four hours.

The most effectual process for training appears to be that practised by Captain Barclay, which has not only been sanctioned by professional men, but has met with the unqualified approbation of amateurs. We are here, therefore, almost entirely indebted to it for details. According to this method, the pedestrian, who may be supposed in tolerable condition, enters upon his training with a regular course of physic, which consists of three doses. Glauber’s salts are generally preferred; and from one ounce and a half to two ounces are taken each time, with an interval of four days between each dose. After having gone through the course of physic, he commences his regular exercise, which is gradually increased as he proceeds in the training.

When the object in view is the accomplishment of a pedestrian match, his regular exercise may be from twenty to twenty-four miles a day. He must rise at five in the morning, run half a mile at the top of his speed up-hill, and then walk six miles at a moderate pace, coming in about seven to breakfast, which should consist of beef-steaks or mutton-chops under-done, with stale bread and old beer. After breakfast, he must again walk six miles at a moderate pace, and at twelve lie down in bed, without his clothes, for half an hour. On getting up, he must walk four miles, and return by four to dinner, which should also be beef-steaks or mutton-chops, with bread and beer, as at breakfast. Immediately after dinner, he must resume his exercise, by running half a mile at the top of his speed, and walking six miles at a moderate pace. He takes no more exercise for that day, but retires to bed about eight; and next morning he proceeds in the same manner.

Animal diet, it will be observed, is, according to this system, alone prescribed, and beef and mutton are preferred. All fat and greasy substances are prohibited, as they induce bile, and consequently injure the stomach. The lean of meat contains more nourishment than the fat; and, in every case, the most substantial food is preferable to any other kind. Fresh meat is the most wholesome and nourishing. Salt, spiceries, and all kinds of seasonings, with the exception of vinegar, are prohibited. The lean, then, of fat beef cooked in steaks, with very little salt, is the best; and it should be rather under-done than otherwise. Mutton, being reckoned easy of digestion, may be occasionally given, to vary the diet and gratify the taste. The legs of fowls are also esteemed.

It is preferable to have the meat broiled, as much of its nutritive quality is lost by roasting or boiling. It ought to be dressed so as to remain tender and juicy; for it is by these means that it will be easily digested, and afford most nourishment. Biscuit and stale bread are the only preparations of vegetable matter which are permitted to be given; and every thing inducing flatulency must be carefully avoided. In general, the quantity of aliment is not limited by the trainer, but left entirely to the discretion of the pedestrian, whose appetite should regulate him in this respect.

With respect to liquors, they must be always taken cold; and home-brewed beer, old, but not bottled, is the best. A little red wine, however, may be given to those who are not fond of malt liquor; but never more than half a pint after dinner. It is an established rule to avoid liquids as much as possible; and no more liquor of any kind is allowed to be taken than is requisite to quench the thirst.

After having gone on in this regular course for three or four weeks, the pedestrian must take a four-mile sweat, which is produced by running four miles in flannel, at the top of his speed. Immediately on returning, a hot liquor is prescribed, in order to promote the perspiration; and of this he must drink one English pint. It is termed the sweating liquor, and is composed of one ounce of carraway seed, half an ounce of coriander seed, one ounce of root-liquorice, and half an ounce of sugar-candy, mixed with two bottles of cyder, and boiled down to one-half. He is then put to bed in his flannels, and, being covered with six or eight pair of blankets, and a feather bed, must remain in this state from twenty-five to thirty minutes, when he is taken out, and rubbed perfectly dry. Being then well wrapt in his great coat, he walks out gently for two miles, and returns to breakfast, which, on such occasions, should consist of a roasted fowl. He afterwards proceeds with his usual exercise.

These sweats are continued weekly, till within a few days of the performance of the match; or, in other words, he must undergo three or four of these operations. If the stomach of the pedestrian be foul, an emetic or two must be given about a week before the conclusion of the training. He is now supposed to be in the highest condition.

Besides his usual or regular exercise, a person under training ought to employ himself, in the intervals, in every kind of exertion which tends to activity, such as golf, cricket, bowls, throwing quoits, &c., so that, during the whole day, both body and mind may be constantly occupied. Although the chief parts of the system depend upon sweating, exercise, and feeding, yet the object to be obtained by the pedestrian would be defeated, if these were not adjusted each to the other, and to his constitution. The trainer, before he proceeds to apply his theory, should make himself acquainted with the constitution and habits of his patient, that he maybe able to judge how far he can, with safety, carry on the different parts of the process. The nature of the patient’s disposition should also be known, that every cause of irritation may be avoided; for, as it requires great patience and perseverance to undergo training, every expedient to sooth and encourage the mind should be adopted.

The skilful trainer will, moreover, constantly study the progress of his art, by observing the effect of its processes, separately and in combination. If a man retain his health and spirits during the process, improve in wind, and increase in strength, it is certain that the object aimed at will be obtained; but, if otherwise, it is to be apprehended that some defect exists, through the unskilfulness or mismanagement of the trainer, which ought instantly to be remedied by such alterations as the circumstances of the case may demand. It is evident, therefore, that in many instances the trainer must be guided by his judgment, and that no fixed rules of management can, with absolute certainty, be depended upon, for producing an invariable and determinate result. In general, however, it may be calculated, that the known rules are adequate to the purpose, if the pedestrian strictly adhere to them, and the trainer bestow a moderate degree of attention to his state and condition during the progress of training.

It is impossible to fix any precise period for the completion of the training process, as it depends upon the previous condition of the pedestrian; but from two to three months, in most cases, will be sufficient, especially if he be in tolerable condition at the commencement, and possessed of sufficient perseverance and courage to submit cheerfully to the privations and hardships to which he must unavoidably be subjected. The criterion by which it may be known whether a man is in good condition—or, what is the same thing, whether he has been properly trained—is the state of the skin, which becomes smooth, elastic, and well-coloured, or transparent. The flesh is also firm; and the person trained feels himself light, and full of spirits. In the progress of the training, his condition may also be ascertained by the effect of the sweats, which cease to reduce his weight; and by the manner in which he performs one mile at the top of his speed. It is as difficult to run a mile at the top of one’s speed as to walk a hundred; and therefore, if he performs this short distance well, it may be concluded that his condition is perfect, or that he has derived all the advantages which can possibly result from the training process.

A few words may be here added on the comparative strength of different races of men. In order to procure some exact results on this point, Peron took with him on his voyage an instrument called a dynamometer, so constructed as to indicate on a dial-plate the relative force of individuals submitted to experiment. He directed his attention to the strength of the arms and of the loins, making trial with several individuals of each of the races among whom he then was, viz., twelve natives of Van Diemen’s Land, seventeen of New Holland, fifty-six of the Island of Timor, seventeen Frenchmen belonging to the expedition, and fourteen Englishmen in the colony of New South Wales. The following numbers express the mean result in each case, but all the details are given in a tabular form in the original:—

The highest numbers in the first and second class were, respectively, 60 and 62; the lowest in the English trials 63, and the highest 83, for the strength of the arms. In the power of the loins, the highest among the New Hollanders was 13; the lowest of the English 12.7, and the highest 21.3. “These results,” observes Mr. Lawrence, “offer the best answer to declamations on the degeneracy of civilized man. The attribute of superior physical strength, so boldly assumed by the eulogists of the savage state, has never been questioned or doubted. Although we have been consoled for this supposed inferiority by an enumeration of the many precious benefits derived from civilization, it has always been felt as a somewhat degrading disadvantage. Bodily strength is a concomitant of good health, which is produced and supported by a regular supply of wholesome and nutritious food, and by active occupation. The industrious and well-fed middle classes of a civilized community may, therefore, be reasonably expected to surpass, in this endowment, the miserable savages, who are never well-fed, and too frequently depressed by absolute want and all other privations.

POSITION.

Before entering into a detail of exercises, it is necessary to attend to what is termed position.—A standing position is the action by which we keep ourselves up. Indeed, this state, in which the body appears in repose, is itself an exercise, for it consists in a continued effort of many muscles; and the explanation we shall give of it will much facilitate that of walking.

Every one has observed that during sleep, or a fainting fit, the head inclines forward and falls upon the breast. In this case, it is in accordance with the laws of gravity; for the head, resting upon the vertebræ which support it at a point of its basis which is nearer the posterior than anterior part, cannot remain in an upright position in standing, except by an effort of the muscles at the back of the neck: it is the cessation of this effort that causes it to fall forward. The body also is unable to remain straight without fatigue. The vertebral column being placed behind, all the viscera or parts contained by the chest and belly are suspended in front of it, and would force it to bend forward unless strong muscular fibres held it back. A proof of this may be seen in pregnant and dropsical women, who are compelled, in consequence of the anterior part of the body being heavier than usual, to keep the vertebral column more fixed, and even thrown backward. The same observation may be made with regard to the pelvis, basin, or lowest part of the trunk, which by its conformation would bend upon the thighs, if not kept back by the great mass of muscular fibres that form the hips. In front of the thighs, again, are the muscles which, by keeping the kneepan in position, are the means of preventing the leg from bending. Lastly, the muscles forming the calves, by contracting, are the means of preventing the leg from bending upon the foot.

Such is the general mechanism of the standing position. It is, therefore, as we observed, a concurrence of efforts: almost all the extending muscles are in a state of contraction all the time that this position is maintained, and the consequence is, a fatigue which cannot be endured for any great length of time. Hence we see persons in a standing position rest the weight of their body, first on one foot, then on another, for the purpose of procuring momentary ease to certain muscles. For this reason, also, standing still is more fatiguing than walking, in which the muscles are alternately contracted and extended.

A question of importance on this subject is, what position of the feet affords the greatest solidity in standing? We will not enter into a detail of the numerous controversies by which some have defended or repudiated the position with the toes turned forward or outward: it will be sufficient to state the fact, that the larger the base of support, the firmer and more solid will the position be, and to adopt, as a fundamental one, the military position, which has been found practically the best by those who have nothing else to do but to walk. The equal squareness of the shoulders and body to the front, is the first great principle of position. The heels must be in a line, and closed; the knees straight; the toes turned out, with the feet forming an angle of sixty degrees; the arms hanging close to the body; the elbows turned in, and close to the sides; the hands open to the front, with the view of preserving the elbow in the position above described; the little fingers lightly touching the clothing of the limbs, with the thumb close to the forefinger; the belly rather drawn in, and the breast advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, but inclining forward, so that the weight of it may principally bear upon the fore part of the feet; the head erect, and the eyes straight to the front—(as in [Plate I.] fig. 1.)

To these brief directions I must add, that, in standing, the whole figure should be in such a position that the ear, shoulder, haunch, knee, and ankle are all in a line; that it must be stretched as much as possible, by raising the back of the head, drawing in the chin, straightening the spine, rising on the hips, and extending the legs; that the object of keeping the back thus straight is to allow of standing longer without fatigue; that it is important to expand the chest, and to throw the shoulders back, with the shoulder-blades, or scapulæ, quite flat behind; and that though, in military instructions, the body is thus inclined forward in standing without arms, yet when these are assumed, the body is immediately thrown about two inches backward, into a nearly perpendicular position. This position, therefore, will be modified in walking, and especially in ordinary walking; but it is an excellent fundamental position, and it cannot be too accurately acquired.

This is the amount of the drill-sergeant’s instructions as to position, though this last part is omitted in the Manual describing the Field Exercise and Evolutions of the Army.

EXTENSION MOTIONS.

In order to supple the figure, open the chest, and give freedom to the muscles, the first three movements of the extension motions, as laid down for the sword exercise, are ordered to be practised. It is indeed, observed, that too many methods cannot be used to improve the carriage, and banish a rustic air; but that the greatest care must be taken not to throw the body backward instead of forward, as being contrary to every true principle of movement. I accordingly here introduce these extension motions, adding the fourth and fifth, and prefixing to each the respective word of command, in order that they may be the more distinctly and accurately executed.

Plate I

[Page 20].

Extension Motions.

Attention.—The body is to be erect, the heels close together, and the hands hanging down on each side. First Extension motion.—This serves as a caution, and the motions tend to expand the chest, raise the head, throw back the shoulders, and strengthen the muscles of the back.

One—Bring the hands and arms to the front, the fingers lightly touching at the points, and the nails downwards; then raise them in a circular direction well above the head, the ends of the fingers still touching, the thumbs pointing to the rear, the elbows pressed back, and shoulders kept down. ([Plate I.] fig. 2.)

Two—Separate and extend the arms and fingers, forcing them obliquely back, till they come extended on a line with the shoulders; and as they fall gradually from thence to the original position of Attention, endeavour, as much as possible, to elevate the neck and chest. These two motions should be frequently practised, with the head turned as much as possible to the right or left, and the body kept square to the front: this tends very materially to supple the neck, &c.

Three—Turn the palms of the hands to the front, pressing back the thumbs with the arms extended, and raise them to the rear, till they meet above the head; the fingers pointing upwards, with the ends of the thumbs touching.

Four—Keep the arms and knees straight, and bend over from the hips till the hands touch the feet, the head being brought down in the same direction. ([Plate I.] fig. 3.)

Five—With the arms flexible and easy from the shoulders, raise the body gradually, so as to resume the position of Attention. The whole should be done very gradually, so as to feel the exertion of the muscles throughout. To these extension motions, drill-sergeants, in their instructions, add the following:

One—the forearms are bent upon the arms upward and toward the body, having the elbows depressed, the shut hands touching on the little-finger sides, and the knuckles upward, the latter being raised as high as the chin, and at the distance of about a foot before it. ([Plate I.] fig. 4.)

Two—While the arms are thrown forcibly backward, the fore-arms are as much as possible bent upon the arms, and the palmar sides of the wrists are turned forward and outward ([Plate I.] fig. 5.) The two motions are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed. A modification of the same movement is performed as a separate extension motion, but may be given in continuation, with the numbers following these, as words of command.

Three—The arms are extended at full length in front, on a level with the shoulder, the palms of the hands in contact. ([Plate I.] fig. 6.)

Four—Thus extended, and the palms retaining their vertical position, the arms are thrown forcibly backward, so that the backs of the hands may approach each other as nearly as possible. These motions, also, are to be repeatedly and rather quickly performed. Another extension motion, similarly added, consists in swinging the right arm in a circle, in which, beginning from the pendent position, the arm is carried upward in front, by the side of the head, and downward behind, the object being in the latter part of this course to throw it as directly backward as possible. The same is then done with the left arm. Lastly, both arms are thus exercised together. These motions are performed quickly.

THE INDIAN CLUB EXERCISE.

THE PORTION ADOPTED IN THE ARMY.

1st. A club is held by the handle, pendent on each side ([Plate II.] fig. 1);—that in the right hand is carried over the head and left shoulder, until it hangs perpendicularly on the right side of the spine ([Plate II.] fig. 2); that in the left hand is carried over the former, in exactly the opposite direction ([Plate II.] fig. 2), until it hangs on the opposite side; holding both clubs still pendent, the hands are raised somewhat higher than the head ([Plate II.] fig. 3); with the clubs in the same position, both arms are extended outward and backward ([Plate II.] fig. 6); they are lastly dropped into the first position. All this is done slowly.

Plate II

[Page 22].

Indian Club Exercise.

Plate III

[Page 22].

Indian Club Exercise.

Plate IV

[Page 22].

Indian Club Exercise.

2nd. Commencing from the same position, the ends of both clubs are swung upward until they are held, vertically and side by side, at arm’s length in front of the body, the hands being as high as the shoulders ([Plate II.] fig. 4); they are next carried in the same position, at arm’s length, and on the same level, as far backward as possible ([Plate II.] fig. 5); each is then dropped backward until it hangs vertically downward ([Plate II.] fig. 6); and this exercise ends as the first. Previous, however, to dropping the clubs backward, it greatly improves this exercise, by a turn of the wrist upward and backward, to carry the clubs into a horizontal position behind the shoulders, so that, if long enough, their ends would touch ([Plate III.] fig. 1); next, by a turn of the wrist outward and downward, to carry them horizontally outward ([Plate III.] fig. 2); then by a turn of the wrist upward and forward, to carry them into a horizontal position before the breast ([Plate III.] fig. 3); again to carry them horizontally outward; and finally to drop them backward as already explained; and thence to the first position. All this is also done slowly.

3rd. The clubs are to be swung by the sides, first separately, and then together, exactly as the hands were in the last extension motion.

THE NEW AND MORE BEAUTIFUL PORTION NOW ADDED FROM THE INDIAN PRACTICE.

1st. A club is held forward and upright in each hand, the fore-arm being placed horizontally, by the haunch on each side ([Plate IV.] fig. 1); both are thrown in a circle upward, forward, and, by a turn of the wrist, downward and backward, so as to strike under the arms ([Plate IV.] fig. 2); by an opposite movement, both are thrown back again in a similar circle, till they swing over the shoulders ([Plate IV.] fig. 3); and this movement is continued as long as agreeable.

2nd. The clubs are held obliquely upward in each hand, lying on the front of the arms ([Plate IV.] fig. 4); that in the right hand is allowed to fall backward ([Plate IV.] fig. 5), and swings downward, forward to the extent of the arm, and as high as the head ([Plate IV.] fig. 6); the moment this club begins to return from this point, in precisely the same direction, to the front of the arm, that in the left hand is allowed to drop backward, and to perform the advancing portion of this course in the time that the other performs the returning portion, so that each is at the same time swinging in an opposite direction.

3rd. From either of the first positions now given, the clubs are, by a turn of the body and extension of the arms, thrown upwards and laterally ([Plate V.] fig. 1);—make, at the extent of the arms, and in front of the figure, a circle in which they sweep downward by the feet and upward over the head ([Plate V.] fig. 2), and fall in a more limited curve towards the side on which they began ([Plate V.] fig. 3), in such a manner that the outer one forming a circle around the shoulder and the inner one round the head, (both passing swiftly through the position in the last figure of the first exercise,) they return to the first position;—this is repeated to the other side;—and so on alternately.

4th. Beginning from either first position, the body being turned laterally,—for example, to the left, the club in the right hand is thrown upward in that direction at the full extent of the arm ([Plate VI.] fig. 1), and makes the large circle in front and curve behind as in the last exercise ([Plate VI.] fig. 2), while the club in the left hand makes at the same time a smaller circle in front of the head and behind the shoulders ([Plate VI.] figs. 1, 2, and 3), until crossing each other before the head (rather on the right side), their movements are exactly reversed, the club in the right hand performing the small circle round the head, while that in the left performs the large one,—and these continue to be repeated to each side alternately.

Plate V

[Page 24].

Indian Club Exercise.

Plate VI

[Page 24].

Indian Club Exercise.

Plate VII

[Page 25].

Indian Club Exercise.

5th. The clubs being in either first position, the body is turned to one side—the left for example, and the clubs being thrown out in the same direction, make each, by a turn of the wrist, a circle three times on the outer side of the outstretched arms ([Plate VII.] fig. 1):—when completing the third circle, the clubs are thrown higher to the same side, sweeping together in the large circle in front, as in the second exercise, the body similarly turning to the right; but, instead of forming the smaller curve behind, both are thrown over the back ([Plate VII.] fig. 2);—from this position the clubs are thrown in front, which is now toward the opposite side, and the same movements are reversed;—and so it proceeds alternately to each side.

6th. In this exercise, the clubs are reversed, both being pendent in front, but the ends of their handles being upward on the thumb sides of the hands. ([Pl VII.] fig. 3.) The exercise consists chiefly in describing with the ends of the clubs two circles placed obliquely to each other over the head. For this purpose, the club in the right hand is, in a sweep to that side, first elevated behind the head, and thence passing to the left ([Plate VII.] fig. 4), the front, the right ([Plate VII.] fig. 5) behind, (where its continuation is indicated in fig. 5, and completed in fig. 6), thus forms its circle;— meanwhile the club in the left hand, commencing when that in the right was behind the head, has passed on the back of its circle to the right, ([Plate VII.] fig. 5,) while that in the right hand has passed on the front of its circle to the same side ([Plate VII.] fig. 5, the parts performed in both being marked by complete lines, and the parts to be done merely indicated);—and they continue, that in the right hand by the back, and that in the left hand by the front, toward the left side ([Plate VII.] fig. 6), and so on at pleasure, circling over the head.

[Although but two-thirds of the body, viz., from the loins upward, are called into operation in this exercise, its importance must be estimated by the fact that they are precisely those requiring constant artificial practice, being naturally most exempted from exertion. As an adjunct to Training, there is nothing in the whole round of gymnastic performances that will be found of more essential service than this exercise with the Indian clubs. It demands but little muscular exertion, and such as it does require calls chiefly upon that portion of the system which it finds in a state of comparative repose.]

LOCOMOTIVE EXERCISES.

In Walking, the position is nearly the same as that already described under the head Position.

The head should be upright, easy, and capable of free motion, right, left, up, or down, without affecting the body. The body must be kept erect and square to the front, having the breast projected, and the stomach retracted, though not so as to injure either freedom of respiration or ease of attitude. The shoulders should be kept moderately and equally back and low; and the arms should hang unconstrainedly by the sides. The balance on the limbs must be perfect. The knees straight, and the toes turned out as described, the weight of the body should be thrown forward, as this facilitates progression. The military position in walking does not essentially differ from this, except in points that exclusively regard the soldier; as that the head be kept well up, and straight to the front, and the eyes not turned to the right or left; the arms and hands kept perfectly steady by the sides, and on no account suffered to move or vibrate: care, however, being taken that the hand does not cling to the thigh, or partake in the least degree of the movement of the limb.

THE BALANCE STEP.

The object of this is to teach the free movement of the limbs, preserving at the same time perfect squareness of the shoulders, with the utmost steadiness of body; and no labour is spared to attain this first and most essential object, which forms, indeed, the very foundation of good walking. The instructor must be careful that a habit be not contracted of drooping or throwing back a shoulder at these motions, which are intended practically to show the true principles of walking, and that steadiness of body is compatible with perfect freedom in the limbs.

1.—WITHOUT GAINING GROUND.

To insure precision, the military words of command are prefixed.

Caution—Balance step without gaining ground, commencing with the left foot. The left foot is brought gently forward with the toe at the proper angle to the left, the foot about three inches from the ground, the left heel in line with the toe of the right foot.

Rear—When steady, the left foot is brought gently back (without a jerk), the left knee a little bent, the left toe brought close to the right heel. The left foot in this position will not be so flat as to the front, as the toe will be a little depressed.

Front—When steady, the word Front will be given as above, and repeated to the Rear three or four times.

Halt—To prevent fatigue, the word Halt will be given, when the left foot, either advanced, or to the rear, will be brought to the right. The instructor will afterwards cause the balance to be made on the left foot, advancing and retiring the right in the same manner.

2.—GAINING GROUND BY THE WORD “FORWARD.”

Front—On the word Front, the left foot is brought gently to the front, without a jerk; the knee gradually straightened as the foot is brought forward, the toe turned out a little to the left, and remaining about three inches from the ground. This posture is continued for a few seconds only in the first instance, till practice gives steadiness in the position.

Forward—On this word of command, the left foot is brought to the ground, at about thirty inches from heel to heel, while the right foot is raised at the same moment, and continues extended to the rear. The body remains upright, but inclining forward; the head erect, and neither turned to the right nor left.

Front—On the word Front, the right foot is brought forward, and so on.

WALKING.

Of all exercises, this is the most simple and easy. The weight of the body rests on one foot, while the other is advanced; it is then thrown upon the advanced foot, while the other is brought forward; and so on in succession. In this mode of progression, the slowness and equal distribution of motion is such, that many muscles are employed in a greater or less degree; each acts in unison with the rest; and the whole remains compact and united. Hence, the time of its movements may be quicker or slower, without deranging the union of the parts, or the equilibrium of the whole. It is owing to these circumstances, that walking displays so much of the character of the walker,—that it is light and gay in women and children, steady and grave in men and elderly persons, irregular in the nervous and irritable, measured in the affected and formal, brisk in the sanguine, heavy in the phlegmatic, and proud or humble, bold or timid, &c., in strict correspondence with individual character.

The utility of walking exceeds that of all other modes of progression. While the able pedestrian is independent of stage coaches and hired horses, he alone fully enjoys the scenes through which he passes, and is free to dispose of his time as he pleases. To counterbalance these advantages, greater fatigue is doubtless attendant on walking: but this fatigue is really the result of previous inactivity; for daily exercise, gradually increased, by rendering walking more easy and agreeable, and inducing its more frequent practice, diminishes fatigue in such a degree, that very great distances may be accomplished with pleasure, instead of painful exertion.

Moderate walking exercises the most agreeable influence over all the functions. In relation to health, walking accelerates respiration and circulation, increases the temperature and cutaneous exhalation, and excites appetite and healthful nutrition. Hence, as an anonymous writer observes, the true pedestrian, after a walk of twenty miles, comes in to breakfast with freshness on his countenance, healthy blood coursing in every vein, and vigour in every limb, while the indolent and inactive man, having painfully crept over a mile or two, returns to a dinner which he cannot digest. In all individuals, walking is indispensably joined with the exercise of one or more of the external senses. It receives from the cerebral faculties a powerful influence, by which it is either accelerated or prolonged. Walking upon soft even ground, at a moderate pace, is an exercise that may be taken without inconvenience, and even with advantage, after a meal. It is adapted for convalescents, who are not yet allowed to take stronger exercise. A firm, yet easy and graceful walk, is by no means common. There are few men who walk well if they have not learnt to regulate their motions by the lessons of a master, and this instruction is still more necessary for ladies. Having, now, therefore, taken a general view of the character and utility of walking, I subjoin some more particular remarks on the

GENERAL MECHANISM OF WALKING.

For the purpose of walking, we first bear upon one leg the weight of the body, which pressed equally on both. The other leg is then raised, and the foot quits the ground by rising from the heel to the point. For that purpose, the leg must be bent upon the thigh, and the thigh upon the pelvis: the foot is then carried straight forward, at a sufficient height to clear the ground without grazing it. To render it possible, however, to move this foot, the haunch, which rested with its weight upon the thigh, must turn forward and out. As soon as, by this movement, this foot has passed the other, it must be extended on the leg, and the leg upon the thigh, and in this manner, by the lengthening of the whole member, and without being drawn back, it reaches the ground at a distance in advance of the other foot, which is more considerable according to the length of the step, and it is placed so softly on the ground as not to jerk or shake the body in the slightest degree. As soon as the foot which has been placed on the ground becomes firm, the weight of the body is transported to the limb on that side, and the other foot, by a similar mechanism, is brought forward in its turn. In all walking, the most important circumstance is, that the body incline forward, and that the movement of the leg and thigh spring from the haunch, and be free and natural. Viewed in this way, the feet have been well compared to the spokes of a wheel: the weight of the body falling upon them alternately.

This exercise puts in action the extensors and flexors of the thighs and legs, a great number of the muscles of the trunk, and more or less those of the shoulder, according to the rapidity of the pace, and the greater or less degree of projection communicated to the arm, which, in this exercise, acts as a balancer of the body, the motion being exactly the reverse of that of the corresponding leg. It draws the fluids more into the inferior than superior members: it gives but little strength to the latter. Walking may be performed in three different times,—slow, moderate, or quick—which somewhat modify its action.

THE SLOW WALK, OR MARCH.

In the march, the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the instep, and the toes are turned out. This being done, one foot, the left for instance, is advanced, with the knee straight, and the toe inclined to the ground, which, without being drawn back, it touches before the heel, in such a manner, however, that the sole, at the conclusion of the step, is nearly parallel with the ground, which it next touches with its outer edge; the right foot is then immediately raised from the inner edge of the toe, and similarly advanced, inclined, and brought to the ground; and so on in succession. ([Plate VIII.] figs. 1 and 2.) Thus, in the march, the toe externally first touches, and internally last leaves the ground; and so marked is this tendency, that, in the stage step, which is meant to be especially dignified,—as the posterior foot acquires an awkward flexure when the weight has been thrown on the anterior,—in order to correct this, the former is for an instant extended, its toe even turned backwards and outwards, and its tip internally alone rested on the ground, previous to its being in its turn advanced. Thus the toe’s first touching and last leaving the ground, is peculiarly marked in this grandest form of the march. This pace should be practised until it can be firmly and gracefully performed.

THE MODERATE AND THE QUICK PACE.

These will be best understood by a reference to the pace which we have just described; the principal difference between them being as to the advance of the weight of the body, the turning out of the toes, and the part of the foot which first touches and last leaves the ground. We shall find that the times of these two paces require a further advance of the weight, and suffer successively less and less of turning out the toes, and of this extended touching with the toe, and covering the ground with the foot.

Plate VIII

[Page 32].

Walking.

THE MODERATE PACE.

Here the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the ball of the foot; the toes are less turned out; and it is no longer the toe, but the ball of the foot, which first touches and last leaves the ground; its outer edge, or the ball of the little toe, first breaking the descent of the foot, and its inner edge, or the ball of the great toe, last projecting the weight—([Plate VIII.] figs. 3 and 4). Thus, in this step, less of the foot may be said actively to cover the ground; and this adoption of nearer and stronger points of support and action is essential to the increased quickness and exertion of the pace.

The mechanism of this pace has not been sufficiently attended to. People pass from the march to the quick pace they know not how; and hence all the awkwardness and embarrassment of their walk when their pace becomes moderate, and the misery they endure when this pace has to be performed by them, unaccompanied, up the middle of a long and well-lighted room, where the eyes of a brilliant assembly are exclusively directed to them. Let those who have felt this but attend to what we have here said: the motion of the arms and of every other part depends on it.

THE QUICK PACE.

Here, the weight of the body is advanced from the heel to the toes; the toes are least turned out; and still nearer and stronger points of support and action are chosen. The outer edge of the heel first touches the ground, and the sole of the foot projects the weight.

These are essential to the increased quickness of this pace—([Plate VIII.] figs. 5 and 6); and it is important to remark, as to all these paces, that the weight is successively more thrown forward, and the toes are successively less turned out. In the grandest form of the march, the toes, as we have seen, are, in the posterior foot, though but for a moment, even thrown backwards; in the moderate pace, they have an intermediate direction; and in the quick pace, they are thrown more directly forward, as in the six figures of [Plate VIII.]

It is this direction of the toes, and still more the nearer and stronger points of support and action, namely, the heel and sole of the foot, which are essential to the quick pace so universally practised, but which, together with the great inclination of the body, being ridiculously transferred to the moderate pace, make unfortunate people look so awkward, as we shall now explain. The time of the moderate pace is, as it were, filled up by the more complicated process of the step—by the gradual and easy breaking of the descent of the foot on its outer edge, or the ball of the little toe, by the deliberate positing of the foot, by its equally gradual and easy projection from its inner edge, or the ball of the great toe. The quick pace, if its time be lengthened, has no such filling up: the man stumps at once down on his heel, and could rise instantly from his sole, but finds that, to fill up his time, he must pause an instant; he feels he should do something, and does not know what; his hands suffer the same momentary paralysis as his feet; he gradually becomes confused and embarrassed: deeply sensible of this, he at last exhibits it externally; a smile or a titter arises, though people do not well know at what, but, in short, the man has walked like a clown, because the mechanism of his step has not filled up its time, or answered its purpose.

I trust that the mechanism and time of the three paces are here simply, clearly, and impressively described. The following is the more imperfect, but still useful, military description, with its words of command:—

SLOW STEP.

March.—On the word March, the left foot is carried thirty inches to the front, and, without being drawn back, is placed softly on the ground, so as not to jerk or shake the body: seventy-five of these steps to be taken in a minute. (The recruit is ordered to be carefully trained, and thoroughly instructed in this step, as an essential foundation for arriving at accuracy in the paces of more celerity. This is the slowest step at which troops are to move.)

QUICK STEP.

The cadence of the slow pace having become perfectly habitual, a quick time is next taught, which is 108 steps in a minute, each of thirty inches, making 270 feet in a minute.

Quick March.—The command Quick March being given with a pause between them, the word Quick is to be considered as a caution, and the whole to remain perfectly steady. On the word March, the whole move off, conforming to the directions already given. (This pace is applied generally to all movements by large as well as small bodies of troops; and therefore the recruit is trained and thoroughly instructed in this essential part of his duty.)

DOUBLE MARCH.

The directions for the march apply, in a great degree, to this step, which is 150 steps in a minute, each of thirty-six inches, making 450 feet in a minute.

Double March.—On the word Double March, the whole step off together with the left feet, keeping the head erect, and the shoulders square to the front; the knees are a little bent; the body is more advanced than in the other marches; the arms hang with ease down the outside of the thighs. The person marching is carefully habituated to the full pace of thirty-six inches, otherwise he gets into the habit of a short trot, which defeats the obvious advantages of this degree of march. In the army, great advantage attends the constant use of the plummet; and the several lengths swinging the times of the different marches in a minute, are as follow:—

A musket ball, suspended by a string which is not subject to stretch, and on which are marked the different required lengths, answers the above purpose, may be easily acquired, and is directed to be frequently compared with an accurate standard in the adjutant’s possession. The length of the plummet is to be measured from the point of suspension to the centre of the ball. In practising all these paces, the pupils should also be accustomed to march upon a narrow plane, where there is room for only one foot, upon rough uneven ground, and on soft ground which yields to the foot.

Walking exercises a greater influence over the economy when it takes place on inclined planes than on a flat surface. In ascending, the effort is made in a direction directly opposed to the general tendency of heavy bodies: the body is strongly bent, the upper part of the trunk in advance; the action of the posterior and anterior muscles of the thigh is considerable; and circulation and respiration are speedily accelerated by the violence of the muscular contractions. In descending, on the contrary, effort is requisite to keep up the body, which tends to obey the laws of gravitation; and to moderate the tendency of gravity to project forward in the centre, the body is thrown back, the sacro-spinal mass, and the posterior muscles of the neck, are strongly contracted, the knees bent, and the steps much shorter. Men with long flat feet, and the heel bone little projecting, are bad walkers.

FEATS IN WALKING.

The power of walking great distances without fatigue is an important matter, in which the English have of late excelled. A good walker will do six miles an hour, for one hour, on a good road.[3] If in perfect training, he may even do twelve miles in two hours. Eighteen miles in three hours is a much more doubtful affair, though some are said to have achieved it.

[3] Seven miles in one hour are said to have been done by some.

A Cork paper, of recent date, describes a match of ten miles in 120 minutes, on the Mallow and Fermoy road, by Captain John T. G. Campbell, of the 91st (Argyleshire) Regiment, accoutred in heavy marching order of a private soldier, viz., with knapsack and kit, great-coat and mess-tin, musket, bayonet, and sixty rounds of ball cartridge: total, fifty pounds’ weight. Heavy bets were pending on the issue. The captain started at eight o’clock, A.M., and performed this undertaking in the short time of 107 minutes and a quarter, thus winning the match, and having twelve minutes and three quarters to spare.

At the rate of five miles an hour, pedestrians of the first class will do forty miles in eight hours, and perhaps fifty in ten.[4] At the rate of four miles an hour, a man may walk any length of time. Robert Skipper walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive half-hours, on the same ground Captain Barclay walked 1000 miles in 1000 successive hours.

[4] A clever writer in Blackwood’s Magazine says, “There can be no doubt that, out of the British army, on a war establishment, ten thousand men might be chosen, by trial, who would compose a corps capable of marching fifty miles a day, on actual service, for a whole week. The power of such a corps is not to be calculated: it would far outgo cavalry.”

In the art of walking quickly, the circumstance perhaps most important is, to keep the knees somewhat bent and springy.

RUNNING.

“Running,” says one of our gymnasiarchs, “only differs from walking by the rapidity of the movement.” This is quite incorrect. Running is precisely intermediate to walking and leaping; and, in order to pass into it from walking, the motion must be changed. A series of leaps from each foot alternately must be performed, in order to constitute it; the foot which is left behind quits the ground before the foot in advance is firmly fixed, so that the centre of gravity remains uncertain in passing from one leg to the other, which forms a series of leaps, and renders a fall a common occurrence.

POSITION IN RUNNING.

The upper part of the body is slightly inclined forward; the head slightly thrown backward, to counteract the gravity forward: the breast is freely projected; the shoulders are steady, to give a fixed point to the auxiliary muscles of respiration: the upper parts of the arms are kept near the sides; the elbows are bent, and each forms an acute angle; the hands are shut, with the nails turned inwards; and the whole arms move but slightly, in order that the muscles of respiration on the chest may be as little as possible disturbed, and follow only the impulse communicated by other parts—([Plate IX.] fig. 1). There exists, in fact, during the whole time of running, a strong and permanent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder and arm, which, though very violent, is less serviceable to the extended movements, than to keep the chest immoveable, toward which the arms are brought close, the flexors and adductors of which are especially contracted.

ACTION IN RUNNING.

At every step, the knees are stretched out; the legs kept as straight as possible; the feet almost graze the ground; the tread is neither with the mere balls of the toes, nor with the whole sole of the foot; and the spring is made rapidly from one foot to the other, so that they pass each other with great velocity—([Plate IX.] fig. 2).

But the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion, although it is in them that the greatest developement takes place. Throughout the whole time of running, a strong and permanent contraction of the muscles of the shoulder, arm, and forearm takes place: this, though very violent, is less for the purpose of aiding motion than of preserving the immobility of the thorax, which is pressed upon the whole thoracic member, whose flexors and adductors are strongly contracted. The degree of velocity, however, must be proportioned to the length of the steps. Too slow and long, as well as too quick and short, steps, may be equally injurious.

Plate IX

[Page 38].

Running.

RESPIRATION.

Speed, and still more duration in running, are in proportion to the developement of the lungs, and consequently the volume of oxygen and blood which they can combine in their parenchyma at each respiratory movement. Thus, of two men, one having the abdominal members developed, and the other possessing good lungs, the former will run with the greatest speed for a short distance, but if the distance be considerable, he will soon be gained upon by the latter. A runner, after performing a certain space, is seized with a difficulty of breathing, long before the repetition of the contractions has produced fatigue in the abdominal members. To excel, therefore, in running, requires, like walking and dancing, a peculiar exercise. As the muscular contractions depend, for their principle of excitement, on the respiration, the chest should be firmly fixed, so as both to facilitate this, and to serve as a point of support for the efforts of the lower members. The best runners are those who have the best wind, and keep the breast dilated for the longest time.

During the whole time of running, long inspirations and slow expirations are of the greatest importance; and young persons cannot be too early accustomed to them. To facilitate respiration towards the end of the race, the upper part of the body may be leant a little forward. Running should cease as soon as the breath becomes very short, and a strong perspiration takes place.

MODERATE RUNNING.

This is performed gently and in equal time, and may be extended to a considerable space. In practising this pace, it is necessary to fix the distance to be run; and this should always be proportioned to the age and strength of the runners. This exercise, more than all others, requires to be proceeded with in a progressive manner. If, at the first trial, you run too fast or too long a time, it may produce spitting of blood and headache, or aneurisms of the heart and principal vessels, especially if the weather be dry and cold.

A moderately cool day may accordingly be chosen, a distance of three hundred feet measured, and the runners placed in a line at one end. They may then start, trot at the rate of about seven feet in a second to the opposite end, turn, and continue until they reach the spot whence they started. Frequent repetition of this is sufficient at first. Afterwards, they may run over this space, two, three, or four times without stopping; and the exercise may then be limited to this. It may, on subsequent days, be extended to five, six, and seven times the distance.

Fatigue is then generally quite removed; and the run may either be continued farther, or the runners, if neither heated nor winded, may accelerate their pace. They may next attempt a mile in ten minutes; and repeat this, till, being gradually less and less heated, they can either extend the distance, or diminish the time, in any measured proportion. At this pace, six miles may afterwards be run in an hour.

RAPID RUNNING.

This is best applied to a short space in a little time. Three hundred feet upon an open plain will not generally be found too great. At each end of this, a cross line may be drawn, and the runners may arrange themselves on one line, while the umpire is placed at the other. On the latter giving the signal, the running commences, and he who first passes him gains the race. It is extremely useful always to run beyond the line at a gentler pace, as it gradually lowers the actions of the respiratory and circulating systems.

Running is more easy on a level surface, but should be practised on ground of every variety: upon long, square, and circular plots of ground. The pupils should be accustomed to turn promptly out of the direct line—a faculty not possessed by animals, and exceedingly useful when pursued. They should also run up hill, and particularly down, as it is dangerous unless frequently practised.

FEATS IN RUNNING.

The practice of running may be carried to a great degree of perfection.

A quarter of a mile in a minute is good running; and a mile in four minutes, at four starts, is excellent.

The mile was perhaps never run in four minutes, but it has been done in four minutes and a half.[5]

[5] Half a mile was recently run in two minutes; but it was down a fall as precipitous as a mountain’s side, and the performer was blind in the last twenty yards.—Ed. Fifth Edition.

A mile in five minutes is good running. Two miles in ten minutes is oftener failed in than accomplished. Four miles in twenty is said to puzzle the cleverest.

Ten miles an hour is done by all the best runners. Fifteen miles in an hour and a half has never perhaps been done.

It is reported that West ran forty miles in five hours and a half. This, it is said, was done by one individual in four hours and three quarters, or less.

As to great distances, Rainer failed in two attempts to accomplish 100 miles in eighteen hours. West is said to have accomplished this.

EFFECTS OF RUNNING.

In running, the mass of our organs is agitated by violent and constant shocks, which succeed with rapidity; but the abdominal members are not the only ones in motion, although they are those in which the developement is most considerable. Running developes not only the abdominal members, but has a strong influence upon the respiratory parts. This exercise is particularly suited to young persons, especially those of a lymphatic temperament. It should not, however, be practised after meals.

LEAPING.

Leaping consists principally in the sudden straightening of the articulations, performed by a strong and instantaneous contraction of the extensors, by which the body is rapidly projected from the ground.

The leaping-stand consists of two moveable posts, above six feet high, having, above the second foot from the ground, holes bored through them, at the distance of an inch from each other; two iron pins to be placed in the holes at any height; a cord, at least ten feet long, passed over these pins, and kept straight by two sand-bags at its ends; and weights upon the feet of the posts, to prevent them from falling—([Plate X.] fig. 1). The leap over the cord is made from the side of the stand towards which the heads of the pegs are turned; so that, if the feet touch the cord, it will easily and instantly fall.

In all kinds of leaping, it is of great importance to draw in and retain the breath at the moment of the greatest effort, as it gives the chest more solidity to support the rest of the members, impels the blood into the muscular parts, and increases their strength. The hands, also, should be shut, and the arms pendent. The extent of the leap in height, or horizontally, is proportioned to the power employed, and the practice acquired. As it is performed with facility only in proportion to the strength exerted, and the elasticity and suppleness of the articulations and muscles of the lower extremities, much exercise is necessary to attain that degree of perfection which lessens all obstacles, and supplies the means of clearing them without danger. Lightness and firmness are the qualities necessary for leaping: every thing should be done to acquire these two qualifications, for without them leaping is neither graceful nor safe.

THE HIGH LEAP.

Without a Run.

In this, the legs and feet are closed; the knees are bent till the calves nearly touch the thighs; the upper part of the body, kept straight, is inclined a little forward; and the arms thrown in the direction of the leap, which increases the impulse, preserves the balance, and may be useful in a fall. ([Plate X.] fig. 1.)

Plate X

[Page 42].

Leaping.

Leaping.

The vertebral column, and consequently the whole of the trunk, being thus bent forward, a strong contraction of the muscles preserves this bending till the moment when the leap takes place; then, by sudden contraction of the extensors, the body stretches out like a bow when the string breaks, is thus jerked forward, and remains suspended a longer or shorter time in the air.

In descending, the person should be rather inclined forward; and the fall should take place on the fore part of the feet, bending the knees and haunches, to deaden the shock and descent; for, the direct descent in this leap, if not thus broken, would send its shock from the heels to the spine and head, and might occasion injury. To perpendicularity in this leap, should be added lightness, so that scarcely any noise from the leap should be heard.

This leap, without a run, may be practised at the height,—

• 1. Of the knees.
• 2. Of the middle of the thighs.
• 3. Of the hips.
• 4. Of the lower ribs.

With a Run.

The run preceding the leap should never exceed ten paces, the distance between the point of springing and the cord being equal to half the cord’s height from the ground. The view of the leaper should be directed first to the spot whence he is to spring; and, the moment he has reached that, to the cord, accustoming himself to spring from either foot, and from both feet.

The instant the spring is made, or (if it be made with one foot) immediately after, the feet should be closed, and the knees drawn forcibly towards the chin. Throughout, flexibility and skill, not violent exertion, should be displayed. This leap, with a run, may be practised at the height,—

• 1. Of the hips.
• 2. Of the lower ribs.
• 3. Of the pit of the stomach.
• 4. Of the breast.
• 5. Of the chin.
• 6. Of the eyes.
• 7. Of the crown of the head.

Feats in High Leaping.

A good high leaper will clear five feet; a first-rate one, five and a half; and an extraordinary one, six feet. Ireland is mentioned as having cleared an extended cord at the height of fourteen feet. Another man, it is said, jumped to the height of seventeen feet, which was three times the height of his own body.[6]

[6] The author means, with the aid of a spring-board.—Ed. Fifth Edition.

THE LONG LEAP.

Without a Run.

This is generally performed upon straight firm ground, on which there are marks, or parallel lines, at equal distances. The first of these lines is the place to leap from. The leapers succeed each other, and clear a greater number of lines according to their strength and skill. Here the feet are closed; the whole weight rests upon the balls of the toes; and the body is inclined forward. Both arms are then swung forward,—backward,—then drawn strongly forward,—and at the same instant the limbs, having been bent, are extended with the utmost possible force.

In performing this leap, the hands and body must be bent forward, especially at the end of the movement, when the leaper alights. On level ground twelve feet is a good standing leap; and fourteen is one of comparatively rare occurrence.

With a Run.

This leap is best executed with a run; and we have therefore dwelt less upon the former. Here, also, the body must be inclined forward.

The run should be made over a piece of firm, and not slippery ground, to the extent of ten, fifteen, or twenty paces; should consist of small steps, increasing in quickness as they approach the point of springing; and these should be so calculated as to bring upon the point that foot with which the leaper is accustomed to spring. The spring, as here implied, should be performed with one foot, and the arms thrown forcibly towards the place proposed to be reached. The height as well as the length of the leap, must be calculated; for the leap is shortened by not springing a proper height. ([Plate X.] fig. 2.)

In the descent, the feet are closed, the knees bent, the upper part of the body inclined forward, and the toes first touch the ground, at which moment, a light spring, and afterwards some short steps, are made, in order to avoid any sudden check. In a much extended leap, however, alighting on the toes is impossible. A sort of horizontal swing is then achieved, by which the leaper’s head is little higher than his feet, and his whole figure is almost parallel with the ground; and, in this case, to alight on the toes is impossible. Care must here be taken not to throw the feet so much forward as to cause the leaper to fall backward at the moment of descent. The ground must be cleared, or the leap is imperfect and unfair.

This leap may be practised at,—

• 1. Double the length of the body.
• 2. Twice and a half that length.
• 3. Three times that length.

Feats in Long Leaping.

On level ground, twenty feet is a first-rate leap; twenty-one is extraordinary; and twenty-two is very rarely accomplished.[7] With a run and a leap, on a slightly inclined plane, twenty-three feet have been done.

[7] I have seen twenty-two feet covered forwards and backwards, by an Irish tailor.—Ed. Fifth Edition.

Of the various kinds of leaps, the first or simple leap, which is produced principally by the extension of the abdominal members, which impel the body either straight upwards, in the vertical leap, or obliquely upwards and forwards, in the horizontal or rather parabolic leap, requires, in addition to the contraction of the abdominal members, especially if the leap be executed with the feet close together, a violent action of the muscles of the abdomen, upper parts of the back, anterior parts of the loins, and of the thorax and shoulders.

THE DEEP LEAP.

This may be made either with or without the hands. In either way, to avoid the shock, the body must be kept in a bent position, and the fall be upon the balls of the toes. When the hands are used, the leaper places them in front of the feet; and during the descent, the weight of the body is checked by the former, and passes in a diminished state to the latter; so that the shock is obviated.

A flight of steps serves the purpose of this exercise. The leaper ascends a certain number; leaps from the side; gradually increases the number; and, by practising progressively higher, finds it easy to leap from heights which at first appalled him. He afterwards combines the long and deep leaps. For this purpose, a rivulet, which has one bank high and the opposite one low, is very favourable. Children can easily take a leap of nine feet in descending.

THE DEEP LEAP BACKWARDS, FROM A REST ON THE HANDS.

This exercise is first performed from platforms of various heights, and from walls of various elevations. The object is to lessen the shock that the legs and body experience in reaching the ground at a depth of more than six or seven feet, and to diminish the distance if possible, at the same time that it diminishes the violence and velocity of the fall. All this is easily managed by observing the following rules.

Suppose the pupil placed upon a platform of four or six feet in height, he must first examine the place he is about to leap to, so as to select the most favourable part, free from stones and other obstacles. He will then approach the extremity of the platform, with his back towards it, and bend his body, placing his hands in the position shown in [Plate X.] fig. 3. Having taken up this position securely, he will lean his head a little forward, raise his toes from the platform, and remain for an instant supported by the arms. The body then begins to extend, and the legs to lengthen downward and backwards; the arms follow this movement, bend, and support the body by the hands, which have a secure resting-place on the edge of the platform, as in [Plate X.] fig. 4. This descending movement is executed as slowly as possible: the arms stretch out to their utmost length, till the body is sustained by the last phalanx of the fingers, or touches the ground with the feet. If it does not reach the ground, the pupil drops gently down on the tips of his toes, bends himself, and recovers his upright position.

There is another mode of descending, when the last resting-place for the hands is the top of a counterfort, or prop on a wall without a counterfort. This consists (see [Plate X.] fig. 3) in seizing the last hold with the right hand for instance, and in hanging firmly by that hand, whilst the left, being at liberty, is lowered and pushes back the body from the projecting stones in the walls, to prevent injury in the descent. The impulse thus given is, however, very trifling, and solely to avoid hurt, without increasing the violence of the fall, which ought to be facilitated on reaching the ground by the rules already given. By these means, the height of a wall is relatively diminished, for a man who hangs suspended by his arms, has six feet less to drop than he who has his feet where he might put his hands.

The down leap, unless gradually practised, may produce ruptures of the diaphragm. When, however, the elevation from which the leap is taken is gradually increased, the eye becomes accustomed to measure the most extensive distances fearlessly, at the same time that by practice the abdominal members learn to bend properly under the weight of the trunk, and thereby preserve the organs contained in it from serious injuries. In this kind of leap, the shocks will be diminished by retaining the air in the chest, which may be done by closing the glottis.

Persons who have long toes, powerful calves, and prominent heels, are the best adapted for leaping.

VAULTING.

In vaulting, by a spring of the feet, the body is raised, and by leaning the hands upon a fixed object, it at the same time receives, in oblique vaulting, a swing which facilitates the action. As the inclination thus given to the body depends not merely on the feet, but on the hands, we have the power to guide the body in any direction.

This exercise is conveniently practised on the vaulting bar, which rests upon two or three posts. It may be performed with or without running. The beginner may at first be allowed a run of a few paces, ending in a preparatory spring; and he may afterwards be allowed only a spring.

OBLIQUE VAULTING.

To mount, the vaulter must place himself in front of the bar; make a preparatory spring with the feet close; fix at that moment both hands upon the bar; heave himself up, and swing the right leg over. The body, supported by the hands, may then easily descend into the riding position. To dismount, the vaulter, supported by the hands, must extend the feet, make a little swing forward, and a greater one backward, so as to heave both feet behind over the bar, and spring to the ground with them close.