THE
WINE PRESS
AND
THE CELLAR.

A MANUAL FOR
THE WINE-MAKER AND
THE CELLAR-MAN.

By E. H. RIXFORD.

San Francisco: New York:

PAYOT, UPHAM & CO. D. VAN NOSTRAND.

1883.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883,
by E. H. RIXFORD,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress,
at Washington.

C. W. Gordon,
Steam Book and Job Printer,
San Francisco, Cal.

PREFACE.

In 1876 the Mission grape sold in California for from $7.50 to $10 per ton, and foreign varieties for from $14 to $18 per ton, and consequently many vineyardists in districts remote from the market turned their hogs into the vineyard to gather the fruit. At this time farmers concluded that it would not pay to grow grapes, and the vines were rooted out of many vineyards, and the land devoted to the production of more profitable crops. In 1878, however, the prices were better, and the Mission grape brought from $12 to $14 per ton, and the foreign varieties from $22 to $26, and under a growing demand for California wines, the wine makers in the counties of Sonoma and Napa have paid during the past three seasons of 1880, 1881, and 1882, prices ranging from $16 to $22 per ton for Mission, and from $22 to $35 for other foreign varieties, and in some cases even as high as $40 per ton for wine grapes of the best varieties; the extremes in prices depending upon the activity of the competition in the different localities. Although in California we are accustomed to speak of the “Mission grape” and the “foreign varieties” in contradistinction, it may not be amiss to state for the benefit of other than California readers, that the “Mission” is undoubtedly a grape of European origin, and was cultivated by the Spanish priests at the missions existing in the country at the advent of the Americans, and hence the name. And notwithstanding the existence of our grape, Vitis Californica, the names “native” and “California grape” have been applied to the Mission, but the word “foreign” is never used in describing it.

The increase in the price of grapes has followed closely upon the increase in the demand for our wines, and the production has kept pace with the demand.

The annual shipments of wine and brandy from California, commencing with 1875, according to the reports published from time to time, are as follows, in gallons:

The figures for 1882, as published, are larger than those for 1881, but the figures furnished by Mr. Stone, the statistician of the Merchants Exchange, give wine 2,721,428, brandy, 218,792; from which I am led to believe that those for 1881 are too large.

The total production of wine for 1878 has been stated to be from 6,000,000 to 7,000,000 gallons, for 1879, 7,790,000, for 1880, 10,000,000 to 12,000,000 gallons. Notwithstanding the increased acreage of our vineyards, the product in 1881 fell off one or two million gallons, and in the second annual report of the State Viticultural Commission, just published, the loss is estimated at one-third of the crop, making the product 9,000,000 gallons, or a little less. That of 1882 is about 10,000,000 gallons.

In 1880 we had about 60,000 acres of vineyards in the State, and according to Mr. Haraszthy’s report as President of the Viticultural Commission, contained in the report of the commission last mentioned, the increase during the first two years after the first organization of the commission in 1880, amounts to 40,000 acres. Since the date of his report, April 19, 1882, the acreage must have been largely increased, and making a liberal allowance for errors, we must have at least 100,000 acres in vineyards in the State at the present time, which ought to produce, at a small estimate, 20,000,000 gallons of wine in five years from now, and in five years more, with the increased product from the greater age of the vines, and from those planted in the meantime, the yield ought to be doubled.

Among those who are now planting vineyards are many who have had no experience in wine making; and in order that such may have the advantage of the experience of those of other countries who have spent their whole lives in perfecting the art, and have had the benefit of the knowledge derived from generations before them, the author has prepared the following work, in which he has attempted to lay before the reader an account of the methods followed in those portions of Europe, especially France, where the finest wines of the world are produced.

What is here given is the result of research on the part of the author chiefly for his own benefit; and in going over the literature of the subject of wine making, he failed to find a work in the English language which is adequate to the needs of the practical wine maker, or one who intends to become such. There are many good books in the French language, and, in fact, the principal works on the subject are to be found in that language. But the authors of many of them have hobbies, and the practice indicated in a certain connection by one often differs from that pointed out by another. It, therefore, became necessary to compare the writings of various authors, and where they differed in points of practice, to try and find out the reason therefor. This was not always an easy task; but the author confidently hopes that the beginner will always find a safe course pointed out to him in the following pages, and that the experienced viniculturist will have brought to his mind many things forgotten in the multitude of affairs, and the experimentalist, to whom we all are looking for further light, will here find many hints which may assist him in finding out what are the best methods under the conditions in which we find ourselves in the infancy of this absorbing industry.

What forcibly strikes one in reading the works of different authors on the subject of vinification is, that, notwithstanding the variations in the methods, there are but few material differences in the practices in different localities in making a given kind of wine. It is true that one method makes a red wine, a different one makes a white wine, that grapes of one degree of ripeness and the corresponding practice in vinification produces a sweet wine, and another a dry wine, but the author is convinced that the method and practice which will produce the best result in a given case in one locality will also produce the best result in any other.

If it is found that in the northern and central portions of France it is insisted that the casks be always kept full, and that in Spain they are left with a vacant space, it will also be found that this practice depends upon the alcoholic strength and robustness of the wine. When the grapes of the more northern regions are artificially matured till their saccharine strength approaches that of grapes of more southern climes, then the wine made from their must may safely be treated according to methods prevailing in the latter regions. If, on the other hand, the grapes of hot countries are gathered as soon as their must indicates a density of 20 to 24 per cent., the wine made from them would be absolutely ruined, if treated as the wine from overripe grapes, and it must be cared for as the weaker wines of the northern climes.

The essentials, then, of good wine making, which include the treatment in the cellar, are everywhere the same, and they only vary with the varieties of wine that are to be produced.

The general climate of California corresponds in many respects with that of the more southern wine-producing regions of Europe; and the percentage of sugar carried in the grapes grown in the southern and interior portions of our State is about the same as that of the musts of those regions. The musts produced in the central coast counties and the bay counties of the State, in average seasons, equal, if they do not exceed, in density the musts of the central and northern portions of France in their very best seasons.

The following tables will afford the figures necessary for a comparison between our wines and those of other countries, as to alcoholic strength and acidity. The first table is useful as illustrating an advance in wine making in this State. The earlier wine makers, guided by the experience derived from residence in the northern viticultural regions of Europe, or by the information from writers of those countries, allowed their grapes to arrive at an advanced state of maturity without considering the different conditions of climate. Musts, therefore, that were fit only for sweet wines, were treated according to dry wine methods, and no wonder they were found heady, used as table wines, with so high a percentage of alcohol.

The second table shows that we have learned to produce lighter wines, which means, not only that we are growing grapes that carry less sugar than the Mission, but chiefly that we do not allow the berries to become overripe, dried up, under the ardent rays of our constant sun.

The first figures are from a paper read by the late Major Snyder before the Napa Wine Growers’ Association, and published in the Rural Press, August 3, 1871, Vol. IV, p. 66.

The following figures are from the Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture of the United States, for 1880, report of the Chemist. It will be observed that where the name is followed by a †, it is that of the Eastern dealer, and not that of the maker.

What is particularly striking in the figures last quoted, is the remarkably high percentage of acid, which far exceeds what we had hitherto supposed the acidity of our wines to be. Yet as a large proportion of the total acids was volatile, it may be that the wines had contracted acidity from improper methods of keeping.

From Prof. Hilgard’s report of the work done in the viticultural laboratory of the College of Agriculture of the University of California, during the years 1881 and 1882, we extract Table V given in the appendix. The figures for the averages are our own. This report contains much valuable and interesting information regarding the work done in the laboratory, and gives many details of the analyses of these wines, which the limits of this volume will not permit us to give in full. And those who wish to see the results of the most complete analysis of California wines ever before made, are referred to the report itself.

It will be noticed that the average total acidity of the different wines mentioned in the table is much lower than that found by the chemist of the Department of Agriculture. The wines in this table were furnished by the producer in nearly every case, a few of them having been produced at the University, and were undoubtedly pure, and in a fair condition, as samples of badly kept wine would not likely be furnished by the maker for the purpose of analysis; and the condition of those analyzed by the chemist at Washington is, at least, doubtful.

From analyses by R. Fresenius and E. Borgman, tabulated in the Journal of the Chemical Society, London, for April, 1883, from Zeits. Anal. Chem., XXII, 46-58, we extract the following figures, the alcoholic strength being reduced to volume per cent. as nearly as could be done from the per cent. by weight in volume without the specific gravity:

			Red Main.	White Main.	Hocks.	White French.	Red French.	Moselle.
Alcohol		Max.	11.76	12.54	12.77	12.17	11.52	10.77
		Min.	11.73	11.00	8.00	11.18	9.91	8.77
		Aver.	11.75	11.76	10.83	11.67	10.58	10.02
Acid		Max.	.62	.80	1.01	.71	.58	.95
		Min.	.54	.54	.48	.54	.48	.64
		Aver.	.58	.69	.66	.62	.54	.79

And from the analyses given in the work of Thudichum and Dupré, we deduce the following:

THIRTY-FIVE GERMAN WINES.
Vol. per cent.  Alcohol.		Maximum	14.45	Acid as  tartaric.		Maximum	.823
		Minimum	9.15			Minimum	.416
		Average	10.00			Average	.543
SIX FRENCH CLARETS.
Alcohol.		Maximum	12.38	Acid		Maximum	.645
		Minimum	10.42			Minimum	.548
		Average	10.95			Average	.593
FOUR BURGUNDIES.
Alcohol.		Maximum	14.97	Acid		Maximum	.668
		Minimum	11.54			Minimum	.495
		Average	12.78			Average	.562
ELEVEN SHERRIES.
Alcohol.		Maximum	22.75	Acid		Maximum	.626
		Minimum	17.03			Minimum	.372
		Average	20.93			Average	.476
SIX SO-CALLED NATURAL SHERRIES.
Alcohol.		Maximum	18.87	Acid		Maximum	.510
		Minimum	16.60			Minimum	.397
		Average	17.37			Average	.454
ELEVEN PORT WINES.
Alcohol.		Maximum	23.34	Acid		Maximum	.510
		Minimum	18.04			Minimum	.398
		Average	21.50			Average	.424
TEN HUNGARIAN WINES.
Alcohol.		Maximum	14.55	Acid		Maximum	.716
		Minimum	11.55			Minimum	.570
		Average	12.85			Average	.637

The analyses of many other wines are given, and many other details which would be of little use to the practical man, belonging rather to the domain of the chemistry of wines.

There is a vast field open to the wine maker of this State, for we have differences of soil and climate suitable for the production of a wonderful variety of wines. But every man must decide for himself what kind of wine his soil and situation are best adapted to produce, and his aim then should be to produce the best of that kind.

Thanks to the work of the State Viticultural Commission, we are beginning to learn what varieties of grapes are best suited to the different districts of the State. It is true that only a beginning has been made, and the actual work of experimenting in this direction can only be carried on by the practical viticulturists themselves. It is for the Commission to bring order out of chaos, and furnish for the information of the public the results of the labors of the experimenters in the field.

Through the endeavors of the Commission, and especially of its chief executive Viticultural officer, Mr. Charles A. Wetmore, who has an extended knowledge of the different varieties of grapes grown in the State, and where they are produced, the viticulturists are beginning to compare notes, and an exchange of knowledge is now going on, which without the Commission would be impossible.

It is not within the scope of this work to enter into the details of vine planting, or to point out what particular varieties of grapes should be planted in the different sections, and probably the time to produce a work which would convey definite and satisfactory information on the latter subject has not yet arrived. As fast as reliable information is acquired, it will undoubtedly be made known by the Commission, and every intended vine grower should carefully study its reports, as well as to keep himself familiar with the discussions of the local viticultural societies, and those of the general conventions.

If every grower in the State will only devote a portion of his ground to the cultivation of the choicest varieties of grapes, making sure that he knows what he is cultivating, will use the best methods of vinification, preserve each kind of wine by itself, or keep a careful record of his blends, and will age and rear the different products according to the best and most intelligent methods, the writer confidently expects that favored spots will be found in time which will produce wines that will compare favorably with the fine wines of Europe; and we may even venture to hope that some lucky individual will find that he is possessed of a vineyard that will make his name famous as the producer of a grand wine equal to the most renowned wines of the world.

The writer lays claim to but very little originality in the following pages. What the intended wine maker wants is not new, untried theories, but the results of the experience of others who have already labored in the field, in order that he may not spend his time in inventing methods which, later he learns, have already been tried by the laborers before him.

In this connection, the author makes his acknowledgments to the following authors and their productions, as well as to others mentioned in the body of the work. And if, in some cases, he has failed to give credit where it is due, it is because the information remains, but the source is forgotten.

A. Du Breuil, Les Vignobles et les Arbres et Fruits à Cidre, Paris, 1875.

Dr. Jules Guyot, Culture de la Vigne et Vinification, Paris, 1861.

Henri Machard, Traité Pratique sur les Vins, Bensançon, 1874.

Raimond Boireau, Culture de la Vigne, Traitement des Vins, Vinification, Distillation, etc., 2 vols., Bordeaux, 1876.

A. Haraszthy, Grape Culture, Wines, and Wine Making, New York, 1862, including translations of Johann Carl Leuchs on Wine Making, and Dr. L. Gall, Improvement in Wine Making.

L. Pasteur, on Fermentation, Annales de Chimie, 3 Series, Vol. LVIII, p. 330.

Joseph Boussingault, Sur la Fermentation des Fruits á Noyau Annales de Chimie, 4 Series, Vol. VIII, p. 210.

M. Boussingault, Expériences pour constater la perte en sucre dans le sucrage du moût de du marc de raisin. Annales de Chimie, 5 Series, Vol. VII, p. 433.

Andre Pellicot, Le Vigneron Provençal, Montpellier, 1866.

Henry Vizitelli, Facts about Sherry, London, 1876; Facts about Port and Madeira, London, 1880.

J. L. W. Thudichum and August Dupre, Origin, Nature, and Varieties of Wine, London, 1872.

N. Basset, Guide Théorique et Pratique du Frabricant d’Alcool et du Distillateur.

J. J. Griffin, Chemical Testing of Wines and Liquors, London.

L. F. Dubief, Traité Complet Théorique et Pratique de Vinification ou Art de Faire du Vin, 4 Ed., Paris.

P. Schutzenberger, On Fermentation, International Scientific Series, New York, 1876.

E. J. Maumene, Traité Théorique et Pratique du Travail des Vins, Paris, 1874.

M. W. Maigne, Nouveau Manuel Complet du Sommelier et du Marchand de Vins (Manuels-Roret), Paris, 1874.

Don Pedro Verdad, From Vineyard to Decanter, a Book about Sherry, London, 1876.

Gen. E. D. Keyes, Letter to Major J. R. Snyder, on Sherry making, published in San Francisco Daily Evening Bulletin, May 29, 1877.

Prof. E. W. Hilgard, Report of work done in the Viticultural Laboratory under the charge of F. W. Morse, University of California, College of Agriculture; Report of 1882, State Printer, Sacramento, 1883. August, 1883.

CONTENTS.

PREFACE.

Prices of grapes in California from 1876 to 1882, the Mission grape, v; annual shipments of wine and brandy from California, annual production of wine, acreage of vines, probable future production of wine, vi; objects of this book, want of works on the subject in English, method of vinification varies with kind of wine rather than with locality or climate, vii; climate of California and density of must similar to those of southern Europe, viii; comparison between California and European wines, viii-xiii; State Viticultural Commission, xiii; advice to grape growers, xiv; acknowledgments by the author, list of authorities, xv.

CHAPTER I.

GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY.

Utensils for picking, number of pickers necessary, when to commence, [1]; when to gather, successive gathering, [2]; sorting the grapes, requisite degree of maturity, [3]; signs of ripeness, gathering before complete maturity, [4]; gathering after complete maturity, ripeness according to required strength, [5].

CHAPTER II.

MUST.

Composition, grape sugar, [6]; must-scale, [7]; testing for sugar, [8]; correcting for temperature, [10]; sugar and alcohol, alcohol in wine, [11].

CHAPTER III.

SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

Sugaring, [13]; nothing gained by adding sugar, [15]; cost of glucose wine, [16]; experiment with glucose, the use of glucose condemned, [17]; watering, [18].

CHAPTER IV.

STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

Diversity of opinion on stemming, effect of stemming, proper practice, [20]; to estimate tannin, stemmers, [21]; how to remove the stems, crushing, methods of crushing, [22]; aerating the must, crushers, [23]; rapidity of operation, special practice, [24].

CHAPTER V.

FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES.

Several different kinds of fermentation, alcoholic fermentation, the yeast plant, [25]; functions of yeast, normal conditions of the life of yeast, [26]; action of various chemical and physical agents, [28]; viscous or mannitic fermentation, lactic fermentation, [29]; acetic fermentation, [30]; origin of ferments, [31]; ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION IN WINE MAKING: vinous or alcoholic fermentation, sugar, [32]; alcohol by weight and by volume, [33]; fermentation, its products, per cent., sugar to per cent. alcohol, different authors, [34]; limits of sugar and spirit, [36]; temperature, [37]; fermenting houses, [38].

CHAPTER VI.

RED WINE.

Coloring matter, fermenting tanks or vats, filling the tanks, [39]; open vats, closed vats, [40]; the best practice, [41]; hermetically sealed tanks, practice in the Médoc, stirring the pomace in the vat, [42]; when to draw from the vat, [43]; the objections to long vatting, in making fine wines, [44]; how to know when to draw from the vat, method of drawing from the vat and filling the casks, [45]; wine presses, [46]; pressing and press wine, special practice for fine wines, TREATMENT OF RED WINES: insensible fermentation, [47]; ulling or filling up, [48]; summary of the rules for the treatment of new red wines, [50]; treatment of old red wines, [51]; summary of rules for the care of old red wines, [53].

CHAPTER VII.

WHITE WINE.

Made from both red and white grapes, differences between red and white wine, hygienic effect of red and white wine, [54]; process of making, the barrels, filling the barrels during fermentation, [55]; pressing and filling, different kinds of white wine, dry white wines, mellow white wines, [56]; sweet white wines, grand white wines, [57]; treatment of white wines, to keep sweet, [58]; dry white wines, mellow white wines, [59]; summary of rules, racking, [60].

CHAPTER VIII.

CASKS.

Different woods, oak wood, storing casks, [61]; new casks, [62]; old casks, rinsing chain, visitor to examine the inside of a cask, [63]; empty casks, washing, sulphuring casks, condition to be examined, [64]; flatness in the cask, acidity, mouldy casks, [65]; rottenness, brandy casks, caution as to sulphuring, cask borers, [66]; size of casks, [67].

CHAPTER IX.

SULPHURING. ARRESTING FERMENTATION.

Sulphuring casks, must and wine, sulphurous oxide or sulphur dioxide, the sulphurer or sulphur burner, [69]; sulphur matches or bands, to sulphur a cask, [70]; to sulphur wine, sulphuring should be avoided in certain cases, [71]; arresting fermentation, unfermented must, prepared in two ways, [72]; clarification and care of unfermented must, sulphur flavor, [73]; other substances to arrest fermentation, burning alcohol, aqueous solution of sulphurous acid, bisulphite of lime, [74]; salicylic acid, [75].

CHAPTER X.

AGING.—EFFECTS OF VARIOUS INFLUENCES.

General considerations, how new wine differs from old, development of bouquet and flavor, old wine, characteristics of, [76]; color, aroma, flavor, influences which develop, also destroy, influence of the air, [77]; variations of temperature, influence of heat, [78]; aging by heat, [79]; preserving wine by heat, [80]; influence of cold, treatment of frozen wine, [81]; influence of light, aging by sunlight, effect of motion of voyages, wines suitable for shipment, [82]; shipping new wine, [83]; other motions, aging by fining, aging generally, [84]; wines which gain the most by aging processes, [85].

CHAPTER XI.

GENERAL TREATMENT—CELLARS.

Unfortified or table wines, deposits, lees, etc., [86]; to prevent degeneration, CELLARS: temperature, [87]; dampness, ventilation, evaporation, [88]; other precautions, supports for casks and tuns, [89].

CHAPTER XII.

RACKING.

Object of, time for, conditions indispensable for a good racking, [91]; new red wines, [92]; old red wines, new white wines, first racking, subsequent rackings, [93]; care to be observed, other precautions, [94]; different methods of racking, implements for tipping the cask, [95]; racking without contact with the air, pumps and siphons, [97].

CHAPTER XIII.

CLARIFICATION—FINING.

Objects of fining, different substances employed, gelatinous substances, [99]; gelatine, its preparation, isinglass, fish glue, or ichthyocol, [100]; albuminous substances, blood, milk, white of eggs, [101]; clarifying powders, gum arabic, addition of salt, addition of alcohol, addition of tannin, preparation, [102]; method of operation, implements for stirring, [103].

CHAPTER XIV.

SWEET WINES—FORTIFIED WINES.

Generally, to increase sugar in must, without fermentation, care required, [105]; clarification, boiling must, left on the lees, [106]; sweet muscat, pressing, marc of sweet wines, amount of alcohol to be added, density, furmint wine, [107]; straw wine, PORT WINE in the Upper Douro: the must, lagars, etc., [108]; treading, fermentation, Vizitelli’s description, [109]; lodges or storehouses, mixing, port loses color in wood, alcoholic strength and loss by evaporation, [112]; MADEIRA: making, casks, treatment, heating house, heating, [113]; solera system, ullage, alcohol, [114]; SHERRY: climate, vintage, crushing, gypsum, [115]; pressing, [116]; plastering, fermenting, adding spirit, [117]; bodegas or storehouses, changes in the wine, fino, oloroso, basto, flowers, [118]; sweet wine, vino dulce, color wine, vino de color, arrope, [119]; mature wine, THE SOLERA SYSTEM: establishing a solera, [120]; standard soleras and their foundation, [121]; blending for shipment, [122]; formulas, fining, [124].

CHAPTER XV.

DEFECTS AND DISEASES.

Divided into two classes, general considerations, [125]; NATURAL DEFECTS: earthy flavor, its causes, [126]; how prevented, treatment, [127]; wild taste and grassy flavor, greenness, causes, [128]; prevention, treatment, [129]; roughness, causes, not a fault, disappears in time, how avoided, [130]; how removed, bitterness, causes, how prevented, treatment, taste of the stems, [131]; sourness, causes, how prevented, treatment, [132]; alcoholic weakness, how avoided, treatment, [133]; want of color, causes, how guarded against, treatment, dull, bluish, lead-colored wine and flavor of the lees, causes, [134]; treatment, [135]; putrid decomposition, causes, [136]; how avoided, treatment, different defects together, ACQUIRED DEFECTS AND DISEASES: flat wines, flowers, causes, [137]; prevention, [138]; treatment, [139]; sourness, acidity, pricked wine, causes, what wine liable to, [140]; how prevented, treatment, [141]; experiment before treatment, [142]; Machard’s treatment, other methods, [144]; cask flavor, barrel flavor, causes, [145]; treatment, [146]; mouldy flavor, causes, prevention and treatment, foreign flavors, [147]; ropiness, causes, treatment, ropy wines in bottles, and other treatment, [148]; acrity, treatment, bitterness, [149]; treatment, two kinds according to Maumené, [150]; fermentation, taste of the lees, yeasty flavor, [151]; how prevented, treatment, degeneration, putrid fermentation, duration of different wines, [152]; treatment, [153].

CHAPTER XVI.

WINE IN BOTTLES.

When ready for bottling, how long to remain in wood, [154]; how prepared for bottling, the most favorable time for bottling, [155]; bottles, [156]; filling the bottles, [157]; corks, [158]; corking machines, [159]; preparation of the corks, driving in corks, [160]; sealing corks, sealing wax, applying the same, coloring same, [161]; capsules, capsuling, piling bottles, [162]; racks and bins for bottles, [164]; treatment of wine in bottles, fermentation in bottles, [165]; deposits and turbidity, [166]; bitterness and acrity, ropiness, degeneration and putridity, [167]; decantation, [168]; operation, instrument, [169].

CHAPTER XVII.

CUTTING OR MIXING WINES.

Most French wines mixed, when necessary, effect of, [171]; wines of same nature should be used, fine wines, [173]; ordinary wines, must be allowed sufficient time, large quantities, new and old wine, green wines, [174]; white and red wines, diseased wines, mixing grapes, precaution, [175].

CHAPTER XVIII.

WINE LEES, MARC, AND PIQUETTE.

Pomace and lees often placed in the still, WINE LEES: the lees should be cared for, quantity of wine in lees, constituents of dry lees, analysis, vary, [176]; treatment of lees, [177]; extraction of wine from the lees, [178]; fining the wine from the lees, [179]; red wine from lees, white wine from lees, pressing the sediment, [180]; use of dry lees, MARC OR POMACE—PIQUETTE: unfermented marc of white wine or of red wine not entirely fermented, fermented marc of red wine, washing the marc, Pezeyre’s method, [183].

CHAPTER XIX.

THE COMPOSITION OF WINE.

Generally, [185]; table of substances recognized, [186]; alcohol, estimate of, [187]; ethers, sugar, estimate of, [190]; mannite, mucilage and mellowness, [191]; pectose, pectin, fatty matter, glycerin, coloring matter, aldehydes, [192]; acids, tartaric, malic, citric, pectic, tannic, carbonic, [193]; acetic, lactic, valeric, succinic, total acids, the bouquet, artificial bouquet, [194]; Maumené’s experiment, [195]; different substances employed, iris, [196]; strawberry, gillyflower or stockgilly, [197]; vine flowers, mignonette, nutmeg, bitter almonds and fruit pits, sassafras, [198]; other aromas, effects, [199].

CHAPTER XX.

GENERAL CHAPTER—MISCELLANEOUS.

Proportion of juice to marc, [200]; proportion of wine to grapes, [201]; wooden and metal utensils, [202]; cleanliness, [203]; different cellar utensils, [204], [205]; USEFUL RULES: to ascertain the weight of a given number of gallons of a liquid, for reducing must, for sugaring must, [206]; for fortifying and reducing wines, to reduce with water, [207]; to reduce with weaker or fortify with stronger wine or alcohol, PLASTERING, [208]; common practice in Spain and southern France, objects, chemical effects, [209]; effects on health, [210]; plastering sherry, quantity used, [212]; by adding water, sherry flavor, [213].

APPENDIX.

Sugar tables: [Table I], Balling’s degrees (per cent. sugar), corresponding degrees Baumé, and specific gravity at 63½° F., 215; [Table II], Baumé’s degrees, corresponding degrees Balling (per cent. sugar), and specific gravity at 63½° F. 216; [Table III], Baumé’s degrees and corresponding per cent. sugar, at 60° F. 217; Alcohol table, [Table IV], showing per cent. by volume for every one-tenth per cent. from 0.1 to 30 per cent., corresponding per cent. by weight, and specific gravity, 218-19; [Table V], showing amount of alcohol and acid in different California wines, 220-23.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.				Page.
1.	HYDROMETER			[ 8]
2.	HYDROMETER-JAR			[ 9]
3.	WOODEN STEMMER			[21]
4.	CRUSHER			[23]
5.	FERMENTING VAT			[41]
6.	WINE PRESSES			[46]
7.		ULLING POTS		[49]
8.
9.		Z FUNNELS		[49]
10.
11.	RINSING CHAIN			[63]
12.	VISITOR FOR EXAMINING THE INSIDE OF A CASK
13.	SULPHURER			[69]
14.	MAUMENE’S SULPHURER
15.	CASK AND SUPPORT			[89]
16.	JACK FOR TIPPING A CASK			[95]
17.	FORK FOR TIPPING A CASK
18.		IMPLEMENTS FOR TIPPING A CASK		[96]
19.
20.	A METHOD OF RACKING			[97]
21.		SIPHONS
22.
23.	ROTARY FORCE PUMP			[98]
24.		IMPLEMENTS FOR STIRRING		[103]
25.
26.
27.	BOTTLE WASHER			[156]
28.		BOTTLE DRAINERS
29.
30.	RESERVOIRS FOR FILLING BOTTLES			[157]
31.	BUNG SCREW			[158]
32.	CORKING MACHINES			[159]
33.	CORKING MACHINES AND NEEDLES			[160]
34.	PINCERS FOR REMOVING WAX			[162]
35.	CAPSULER
36.	PILING BOTTLES			[163]
37.		BOTTLE RACKS		[164]
38.
39.	BURROW’S SLIDER BIN			[165]
40.	DECANTING BASKET			[169]
41.	CORKSCREWS
42.	DECANTING INSTRUMENT

ERRATA

On page 216, Table II, read 63½° F, instead of 93½° F.

On page 218, Table IV, opposite 13.6 by volume, read 11.00 per cent. by weight, instead of 10.10.

On page 219, Table IV, opposite 17.03 by weight, read 20.9 by volume, instead of 20.7; and opposite 23.4 by volume, read .97251 specific gravity, instead of .96251.

On page 222 read Tienturier instead of Tenturier.

THE WINE PRESS AND
THE CELLAR.

CHAPTER I.
GATHERING THE GRAPES—MATURITY.

The first step in wine making proper, is the gathering of the grapes, or “picking,” as it is usually termed in California.

Utensils for Picking.—Knives, scissors, and pruning shears are used to cut the stems, and every one will adopt the tool that he finds most convenient in practice; but if the berries are inclined to drop off, scissors or pruning shears are preferable. Some authors give minute descriptions of receptacles of various sizes and forms in which to gather the grapes, but the practice in that respect usually followed in this State will be found the most convenient. The grapes here are generally picked directly into boxes holding about fifty pounds. The box is provided with an oblong hole at each end near the top, or three or four holes bored with an inch auger, by which the picker can easily move it from vine to vine, and one man can carry it with both hands to the wagon. These boxes are piled on the wagon without emptying, transported to the wine house, and brought back empty, to be filled again.

Number of Pickers necessary—When to Commence.—There ought to be a sufficient number of men employed in picking to fill at least one fermenting vat in a day, in making red wine. If, however, circumstances render this impossible, it would be well to pile up the grapes on a good clean floor, under cover, till sufficient are gathered to fill the tank, and then crush them, and fill the tank in one day. (See [Red Wine].) Picking ought to commence as soon as the grapes are of a fair average ripeness, beginning with the earliest and ending with the latest variety. In the chapter on musts, we shall endeavor to indicate the requisite maturity of the grapes, and it will there appear that they may become too ripe by remaining too long on the vine, so that it is very important that a sufficient number of pickers should be employed to finish the gathering as promptly as possible, and before too much sugar is developed. (See [Musts].)

When to Gather.—It is of little importance at what time of the day the grapes are picked, whether in the cool of the morning or the heat of mid-day, or whether the dew is on or off, as long as they are ripe. In some countries, however, and in what are known as bad years, the grapes do not arrive at complete maturity, and therefore great care is taken to gather them only in dry weather, and after the dew has disappeared. (See [Fermentation]—[ Temperature].) If they are picked during the heat of the day, fermentation will commence sooner than if picked in the cool of the morning; and for this reason, in making white wine from colored grapes, care should be taken to pick and press them when cool, if it is desired that the wine should be free from color; for if the slightest fermentation sets in before pressing, as it is apt to do if the grapes are warm, some of the coloring matter is pretty sure to be extracted from the skins and will discolor the wine.

Successive Gathering.—It is sometimes recommended that the grapes should be gathered as they ripen, by going over a vineyard two or three times, and picking off not only the bunches that are ripe, leaving the green ones, but even picking off separately three or four grapes from each bunch where it is not evenly ripened, and this is the practice that is followed to-day in making the great white wines of France and Germany; but it certainly will not be adopted in this State while labor is as dear, and wine is as cheap as it is at present. Instead, that practice will be followed which is recommended by those writers who advise that the grapes of each variety be left on the vines till they are all fairly ripe, and that they be gathered clean at one picking. Where, however, different varieties are planted in the same vineyard, which ripen at different periods, those only should be picked at the same time which ripen together. Gather the early ones first, and the later ones successively as they ripen, but pick clean. The same rule also applies to grapes of the same variety, but grown on different soils and in different situations, as it is well known that the same variety of vine will ripen its grapes on high land and poor soil, earlier than on low land and rich soil.

Sorting the Grapes.—It will frequently happen, however, that there are some bunches of green grapes, and they should always be thrown aside, if picked with the others. Sometimes, also, there is what is called a second crop, which ripens so much later than the main one that two gatherings are necessary. In that case it would be injurious to the grapes of the earlier crop to leave them on the vine till the complete maturity of those of the second. Careful wine makers, therefore, will find it to their advantage, either to leave the green grapes upon the vines for a second picking, or, if all are picked together, to throw the green ones into a separate receptacle, or to sort them out from the ripe ones before crushing. Those who wish to take extra care will even have the unripe, rotten, and dried berries clipped from the bunches with scissors. These extra precautions are those which are observed in making the great wines of Europe; but they are not suggested here in the expectation that they will be generally followed by the wine makers of California, but rather for the purpose of indicating the best practices to those who may find out that on account of the varieties they cultivate, and of the situation and soil of their vineyards, they too can produce such wines by using the same care.

Requisite Degree of Maturity.—It is insisted by all intelligent writers on the subject, that, with possible exceptions, which will be mentioned, the grapes should not be gathered till they have arrived at a state of complete maturity. Without this, wines from the finest varieties of grapes would not possess that beauty of color, that delicious flavor, that fragrant bouquet, and that alcoholic strength which they possess in so eminent a degree. And if it is so necessary that the grapes of fine varieties should be thoroughly ripe, it is quite as important that those of the poorer varieties should be equally so. For these latter are generally wanting in sugar, and consequently their wines are feeble in strength, and as the sugar increases directly with the degree of maturity of the grape, so the quantity of alcohol in their wines increases accordingly, and thus by ripeness they make up for their natural defects.

Signs of Ripeness.—Complete maturity of the grape is indicated by the concurrence of the following signs:

1. The stem of the bunch changes from green to brown.

2. The bunch becomes pendant.

3. The berry has lost its firmness; the skin has become thin and translucent.

4. The berries are easily separated from the stem.

5. The juice of the grape has acquired an agreeable flavor; has become sweet, thick, and glutinous.

6. The seeds have become void of glutinous substances.

These are the signs given by several French authors, and are here taken from Prof. Du Breuil, who says, nevertheless, that, under some circumstances the grapes should be gathered before arriving at the state of maturity indicated by these signs, and under other conditions should be gathered even later. He says:

Gathering before Complete Maturity.—1. In certain localities north of the viticultural region the grape hardly ever arrives at the degree of maturity just indicated. Yet the crop must be gathered, or otherwise it would rot on the vines. Under these circumstances, the only thing that can be done is to leave the grapes on the vine as long as they derive any benefit from it.

2. Grapes intended to make sparkling wine should also be gathered before the moment of absolute maturity.

3. In the southern part of France, white grapes intended for the making of dry wines, ought to be picked before reaching the last degree of maturity. Otherwise, in that hot climate, the quantity of sugar in the grape would increase to such an extent that it would be impossible to make a dry wine. This is the practice in making the dry white wines of Lunel, of Coudrieux, of the Hermitage, and of Saint Peray.

4. For all the ordinary red wines of the region inhabited by the olive, if the gathering of the grapes is delayed till the last degree of ripeness, the must will contain more sugar than can be transformed into alcohol by fermentation. The result will be that these wines will undergo a sort of continuous fermentation, which will make its appearance whenever they are moved, and which will soon change into acetic fermentation. The only way to cure this tendency and to render the wines capable of shipment, is to strongly fortify them by the addition of spirits. To prevent this difficulty in the first place, the grapes should be gathered before complete maturity.

Some very respectable authors, whose experience has been confined to the colder wine making regions, tell us that in all cases the grapes should be allowed to remain on the vine as long as they gain in sugar, and that in order to correct the excess that they would thus in many cases acquire, they recommend that the must be reduced by water. (See [Watering Musts].)

Gathering after Complete Maturity.—To make sweet wines, the grapes should remain on the vine until they have developed the greatest possible quantity of sugar. For this purpose the grapes are not only allowed to shrivel before gathering, but also artificial means are resorted to, such as twisting the stem, or drying them on straw after picking, and even applying heat to them in various ways. (See [Sweet Wines].)

Ripeness according to Required Strength.—If the wine maker will first determine how strong in alcohol he wishes his wines to be, he may anticipate the result approximately by testing from time to time the amount of sugar contained in the grapes, and by gathering them at the period when the sugar in the juice shows that, fermented, it will produce the desired percentage of spirit. This testing is easily performed by the use of the must-scale or the saccharometer; and for information on this subject, the reader is referred to the chapter on musts.

CHAPTER II.
MUST.

Must is the name applied to the juice of the grape before fermentation.

Composition.—A good, average must, contains in 100 parts by weight, the following ingredients, and in the proportions as indicated, by weight, according to Dr. Guyot; but the amount of sugar would be considered too small in California:

Pure water,		78
Grape sugar (glucose),		20
Free acids (tartaric, tannic, etc.),		00.25
Salts, or organic acids (bitartrate),		1.50
Mineral salts,		0.20
Nitrogenous, fermentive matter,		.05
Essential oils,
Mucilaginous and starchy substances,

These constituents vary, however, according to variety of grape, degree of maturity, soil, climate, etc.; and some of them may rise in amount to double the average quantity given, or may even, under some circumstances, descend to the one-fourth of it. Although all these ingredients doubtless have important effects upon the quality of the wine produced by fermentation, the acid giving zest and freshness of taste, and the other minor ingredients, smoothness or harshness, as the case may be, yet the principal one that we have to deal with is the sugar, and it is the only one that the practical wine maker will give much attention to, although in those countries where the grape in some seasons does not ripen, the amount of acid is an important element to be taken into consideration in testing the specific gravity of the must. (See [Composition of Wines], for further details.)

Grape Sugar, or glucose, as it is known in chemical language, as already remarked, is the most important element entering into the composition of must, and upon its quantity depends directly the amount of alcohol contained in the wine. The intelligent wine maker, then, who wishes to know what will be the alcoholic strength of the wine produced by the must which he is about to subject to the action of fermentation, will test the must to ascertain what percentage of sugar it contains. This is very easily done by the use of an instrument prepared for the purpose.

Fig. 1.

Hydrometer.

Must-Scale.—A certain quantity of sugar being heavier than the same volume of water—pure cane sugar weighing about one and six-tenths to one of water—it follows that the more sugar there is added to a given quantity of water the heavier it becomes, and the more it will bear up anything floating on it; or, as it is generally stated, the less of the liquid will be displaced by the floating body. On this principle, the specific gravity of liquids, or their weight as compared with water, is ascertained. The instrument employed is known by the general name of areometer, but it is now more commonly called a hydrometer, and various specific names are given to it according to the uses for which it is intended. When constructed for testing the strength of sugar syrups it is called a syrup-scale, saccharometer, pèse-sirop, etc., and those especially for testing musts are called must-scales, pèse-moût, etc. These latter are constructed on the theory that the liquid contains only cane sugar and water—the difference in specific gravity between cane sugar and grape sugar being disregarded—and that its density depends on the quantity of sugar; and although the density of must is somewhat affected by other solid matters than sugar contained in it, yet these instruments, whether syrup-scales or must-scales proper, will give results sufficiently accurate for the purposes of the wine maker, a small allowance being made for the other solids, as hereafter mentioned. There are three instruments which are the most generally used in this country: Oechsle’s must-scale, Balling’s saccharometer or syrup-scale, and Baumé’s syrup-scale, or pèse-sirop. The degrees of Oechsle’s instrument indicate specific gravity in the manner mentioned under Table I; Balling’s indicates percentages of sugar directly; and Baumé’s degrees are arbitrary. (See Tables [II] and [III].) There are other instruments used in France—the gleuco-œnometer, reading upwards for spirit and down for sugar on the same stem, corresponding in degrees to Baumé’s—and the gleucometer, which indicates at once the percentage of alcohol which the wine will contain after fermentation. Baumé’s and Balling’s instruments are better suited for use in California, where the musts often show a specific gravity higher than is indicated by Oechsle’s scale, which frequently is graduated only up to 80 deg., or 19.75 per cent. of sugar. They are all made on the same general plan, and are usually constructed of glass. The instrument consists of a tube about the size of a pipe-stem, terminating below in a bulb or expansion, weighted at the bottom so that it will stand upright and float when placed in a liquid. The scale is marked on the stem, commencing at the top and numbering downward. The first mark is zero, and shows how far the hydrometer sinks in pure water. ([Fig. 1].) As hydrometers are not always accurate, it is safer before using one to have it tested by a chemist or a gauger, as but few others have the necessary skill or the instruments requisite for that purpose. If, however, an instrument which has been tested is accessible, another one can be easily compared with that by ascertaining if both sink to the same point in the same sugar solutions.

TESTING FOR SUGAR.

Any person, provided with one of the hydrometers mentioned, can easily ascertain the percentage of sugar contained in any must with tolerable accuracy, providing the grapes from which it is pressed are ripe; for if they are green, and contain an undue amount of acid, the density will be materially affected by that. There is no occasion, however, for making wine from green grapes in this State.

Fig. 2.

Hydrometer-Jar.

In addition to the hydrometer, it is necessary to be provided with a thermometer with which to ascertain the temperature of the must. Besides the hydrometer and the thermometer, the only other article necessary is a glass tube closed at the bottom and provided with a foot, so that it will stand upright, called the hydrometer-jar. ([Fig. 2].) This jar should have a diameter a little greater than that of the bulb of the hydrometer, and must be of such a height that the latter instrument will stand upright and float freely in it, when filled with a liquid. In the absence of the hydrometer-jar, an empty fruit jar, or a tall tin cup or can will answer its purpose. In performing the operation, see that all the articles used are perfectly clean, more particularly the hydrometer, for anything that would slightly affect its weight would render the result of the test useless. Having taken this precaution, press the juice from a small quantity of grapes and strain it through a cloth, and pour sufficient into the hydrometer-jar, that when the hydrometer is plunged into it, it will just bring the level of the liquid to the upper edge of the vessel, or to such a height that the figure on the stem can easily be read. Now place the thermometer in the must and ascertain its temperature, for the instruments are intended to be used at a certain degree of heat, although three or four degrees variation either way will not materially affect the result. Baumé’s instrument, as originally constructed, was graduated for a temperature of 10° Reamur, which corresponds with 54½° F.; but as constructed now-a-days, is generally graduated for a temperature of 58° or 60° F.; and Balling’s and Oechsle’s for a temperature of 63½° F. Some of Balling’s instruments sold in the market are graduated for 62° F. If it is found that the temperature is above or below the degree indicated, it may be lowered by cooling, or raised by warming, till about the right temperature is reached. Then the hydrometer, being clean, should be taken by the stem at the top and gradually lowered into the must until it floats. Press it down slightly with the finger and let it come to equilibrium, being careful that there is not a drop of water on the stem above the surface of the liquid, nor a bubble of air below. On looking at the stem where it meets the surface, it will be seen that the liquid there curves upwards around the instrument, and that the top of this curve marks one degree higher than the general surface. If the reading is taken from the point marked by the top of the curve (the figures reading downwards), add one degree, or in other words, ascertain the mark on the stem corresponding to the general surface of the liquid. If Balling’s scale is used, the number at this mark shows the percentage of sugar which the must contains; if Baumé’s is used, consult Table II or III, and opposite this number will be found the corresponding per cent. of sugar. If Oechsle’s scale is used, find from Table I or II the specific gravity and the corresponding sugar per cent. Under Table I instructions will be found for reading Oechsle’s scale. If Baumé’s instrument is used, and a table is not at hand, multiply the observed figure by 1.8, and the product will be nearly the per cent. of sugar.

Correction for Temperature.—It is known that a sugar solution or a must expands as the temperature increases, and contracts as it diminishes; and nice experiments have been performed to show the amount of dilatation and contraction at different temperatures, and the consequent variation in the specific gravity of the liquid, but there is considerable difference in the results of the researches of different authors, and it would seem that further experiments are necessary; but a rule may be deduced which may be used instead of changing the temperature of the must to make it correspond with that for which the instrument is graduated, and although not strictly correct, is sufficient for our purpose; and that is to add one-half per cent. to the sugar per cent. indicated by the hydrometer for every 15° F. above the standard temperature, and subtract ½ per cent. for every 15° below. For instance, if Baumé’s instrument shows 22½ per cent. of sugar at 75° F., the actual strength is 23 per cent., and it would mark that at 60°. If the same instrument shows 23½ per cent. at 45° F., the real strength is 23 per cent. In using Balling’s scale graduated at 63½° F., the 15° in our example would make 78½° for the first supposed case, and 48½° for the second.

In most cases the variation in temperature will be so little that it may be disregarded; but if the test is made soon after the grapes have been exposed to a hot sun, the must may show a temperature of 90° or 95° F., and it would indicate one per cent. less than its real sugar strength. But the temperature would go below the freezing point of water before the must would mark one per cent. too much.

As the must contains a small quantity of acids and extractive matter which affect its density, some authors recommend that from one-tenth to one-fifteenth of the figures indicating the density by Baumé should be deducted, calling the remainder sugar, and this is about equivalent to deducting one for every twelve per cent. of sugar. But if the grapes are ripe and the must is strained, for all practical purposes all of the solid matter may be called sugar, considering that we make a pretty liberal allowance of sugar for one per cent. of alcohol. Fresh must should always be taken for the purpose of testing for sugar, for as alcohol is much lighter than water, if fermentation has commenced, it will be impossible to ascertain the amount of sugar by means of the hydrometer.

Sugar and Alcohol.—It will be shown in the chapter on fermentation that, in actual practice, it takes about two per cent. of sugar, as indicated by the hydrometer, to produce one per cent. by volume of alcohol; therefore, divide the percentage of sugar contained in the must, as shown by the hydrometer, by two, and the quotient is approximately the per cent. of alcohol which will be contained in the wine after complete fermentation.

Alcohol in Wine.—A good, saleable dry wine ought to contain from eleven to twelve or thirteen per cent. of alcohol; and to produce such a wine the must should indicate from 22 to 26 per cent. of sugar by the hydrometer. A wine which is soon to be consumed at home does not require that degree of strength necessary for shipment abroad and for keeping, and may contain only ten per cent. of alcohol, and even less, and be found a very palatable drink, and less “heady” than that of a higher degree of spirit. And a wine may contain as much as 14 per cent. of spirit, and be very acceptable to the wine merchant for mixing with weaker wines.

A must which does not contain more than 24 per cent. of sugar per hydrometer, if properly managed, will complete its fermentation, and if it does not contain less than 22 per cent., will make a good, sound, shipping wine, which will keep in almost any climate. Mr. Crabb, a well known wine maker of Oakville, in this State, writes me that such a must will ferment dry in six days, but that if it contains more than 24 per cent. of sugar, fermentation is likely to be arrested by the amount of alcohol, when it amounts to 12 per cent. This gentleman is an intelligent viniculturist and a practical man, and it would be safe to follow his advice. Mr. Arpad Haraszthy, who is noted in this connection, in his lecture on fermentation before the convention of wine growers, held at San Francisco in September, 1882, indicated 22 per cent. as a proper degree of sugar in the must; and it is reported that the wine makers of Los Angeles county, in fixing the prices of grapes in 1882, adopted 23 per cent. as the standard. Undoubtedly the fermentation will be finished sooner, and will be less troublesome, if the must contains sugar within the limits of 22 and 24 per cent., than if allowed to go beyond. (See [Maturity].) If it should go to 26 per cent. and beyond, the chances are that the fermentation will be incomplete, and that a portion of the sugar will remain in the wine, which will cause it to ferment when exposed to changes of temperature; it may become milk sour, and there will be danger of rapid deterioration. From which it follows that, except for making sweet wines, the grapes should be gathered before they develop much more than 24 per cent. of sugar. Supposing, however, that picking commences as soon as the must shows 22 per cent., sufficient force should be employed to finish before it goes beyond the limit indicated. For the writer has seen grapes gathered at the beginning of the season and made into wine which showed 11 per cent. of alcohol, when the wine made from grapes of the same vineyard, gathered too late, either on account of lack of pickers or of fermenting tanks, contained 14.5 per cent., and was still sweet.

CHAPTER III.
SUGARING AND WATERING MUST.

Sugaring.—As early as 1776, Macquer, in France, found that by adding sugar to the must of green grapes, he could make wine; and since his time many authors, notably Chaptal, Gall, and Petiot, have recommended the addition of sugar to the must of bad years when the grapes did not ripen; and had the practice been limited to the addition of sufficient sugar of good quality to a must which was deficient in that respect, but little harm would have been done. The next step, however, was to take the must of partly ripe grapes which contained an undue quantity of acid, and reduce it by the addition of water till the acid corresponded in quantity to that contained in a must of ripe grapes, and then to add sufficient sugar to bring it up again to the necessary degree of sweetness. This may be permissible in those countries where in some years the grapes do not ripen, and in order to make a drinkable wine, water to reduce the acid, and sugar to give sweetness, must be added. But this did not satisfy the greed of the artificial wine makers; they found, so they say, that they could press the juice from the grapes, ferment it by itself, then add to the marc water and sugar enough to bring it back to its original quantity and sugar strength, draw off the artificial juice slightly colored by the skins, and repeat the operation, and so make three and four times the quantity of wine that could otherwise be made, and all good wine.

It was thought that wine making in Europe would be revolutionized, and untold wealth would pour into the coffers of the wine makers. It was found, however, that cane sugar was too expensive, but artificial glucose could be made from grain and potatoes at a very small cost, and by reason of its cheapness its use was forthwith recommended; and to such an extent was the matter carried, that one would suppose that in order to make good wine, it was only necessary to soak a few grape skins in a quantity of sweetened water and let it ferment!

The practice, however, to the extent mentioned, did not commend itself to sensible men, and wine making did not become revolutionized. Yet it was to some extent adopted, and the effect upon the wines of Burgundy is shown by Dubrunfaut in his work on Sucrage de Moûts. He says that starch-sugar (glucose) factories were established in Burgundy, and from 1825 to 1845, this material was used to strengthen the musts. But complaints arose in France and elsewhere against Burgundy wines; they had a new flavor, and unexpected changes in many respects had come over them. A congress of wine makers was held at Dijon in 1845, at which the abandonment of the use of glucose was decreed upon the report of a committee of merchants and proprietors of Beaune, which was in effect as follows: that the long extolled and generally practiced system of sugaring, and against which a reaction set in some years ago, ought to be completely abandoned, as being fatal (funeste) to Burgundy. He considers, however, as do some others who condemn the use of glucose, that the use of refined cane sugar is unobjectionable if used in small quantities and merely to fortify the must when it needs it. There are many authors, however, who speak highly of the wines produced by the addition of sugar and water to the skins after the juice has been drawn off, but it does not seem reasonable that a good wine can be made in that manner. If a good must contained only water, sugar, and acids, then there would be reason for believing that the wine so made would be good. But it is well known that many other ingredients enter into the composition of the juice of the grape which, in some unknown manner, have a very important influence upon the wine made from it. Attempts have been made to produce an artificial must, which is carrying the process but little farther than it is carried by some of the writers on the subject; but Mr. Boireau says that what is produced resembles cider rather than wine. He gives the following composition as approaching very nearly a must for common white wine:

The author last quoted is a practical man, and his opinion is valuable. He says, when the fermentation of this artificial must is most active, it has analogies with ordinary white wine, but it costs much more than the natural wine; and when its fermentation is complete, it has not a bad taste, and there is nothing hurtful in its composition, but that it has not the taste of white wine; and the only time when it has any analogy to white wine is during the tumultuous fermentation as already mentioned. Many attempts have been made to vary the formula, but without important results. Tolerably agreeable drinks are obtained, but they are not wine. M. Boussingault gives his experience in sugaring and watering must; and the wine produced lacked acid, color, astringency, and was very inferior to the wine first made from the pure juice; it lacked the fixed substances and aromatic principles. He says that some would prefer it to cider, but that it only differed from piquette in having a greater degree of alcohol.

To give even a summary of what has been written upon this subject would occupy a volume, but the results arrived at by the more intelligent modern writers and experimenters may be summed up as follows:

1. That good wine can be made only from the pure juice of the grape.

2. That in case the grapes do not ripen sufficiently to make a drinkable wine, water may be added to reduce the acid, and then sugar enough to bring it up to the average sugar strength; but in no case should any but the refined cane sugar be used; artificial glucose, never.

Nothing gained by adding Sugar.—Aside from the question of quality, it may not be amiss to add a few remarks for the benefit of intended wine makers who may have been led to believe, by mistaken authors, that the profits of wine making may be increased by adding sugar and water, and thereby augmenting the quantity. Assuming that it is permissible to use only refined sugar, it can easily be shown that it is as cheap, if not cheaper, to make wine from grapes than from sugar, as long as grapes can be bought for $30 per ton.

A gallon of dry wine of average specific gravity, containing 10 per cent. by weight, or 12.4 by volume, of alcohol, weighs about 8¼ pounds, and contains about .825 of a pound of pure alcohol. To produce a pound of alcohol requires about 2¼ lbs. of pure grape sugar, or 2.138 lbs. of pure cane sugar, in practice, according to the chapter on fermentation; so that to produce the .825 lbs. of alcohol in one gallon of wine, requires about 1.80 lbs. of pure cane sugar. But refined crystalized sugar is not pure sugar (anhydrous), as it contains about 10 per cent. of water; so, to make our 1.8 of pure sugar, requires 2 lbs. of ordinary refined sugar. At 10 cents per pound, which would be cheap for this market, it would cost 20 cents to make the must for a gallon of wine.

Supposing that a ton of grapes costs $30, and produces 150 gallons of wine, each gallon would cost 20 cents. So that there is nothing to be gained by adding sugar at 10 cents a pound, even if a ton of grapes costs $30 a ton, for the same facts would apply to every pound of sugar added to a must, as well as in the case supposed, where all the sugar was supplied.

Cost of Glucose Wine.—Supposing that artificial glucose contains 80 per cent. of pure (anhydrous) sugar, it would require 2⅓ lbs. to make our gallon of wine; and if it could be laid down here at 5 cents a pound, the gallon of wine would cost nearly 12 cents, and this would be equivalent to paying $18 a ton for grapes.

When we take into consideration that every pound of glucose and water added to a must will diminish the price of every gallon of wine produced, it is probable that but little, if anything, could be gained even by the use of this article; for the product will not bring the price of an honest wine, and in the long run will destroy the reputation of our wines, and reflect injury upon every wine maker in the State.

Experiment with Glucose.—Mr. Crabb, of Oakville, gave his experience with glucose in a paper read before the St. Helena Vinicultural Club, in July, 1882, as follows: I took three packages of equal size, one containing pure grape juice, the two others containing each equal parts of the same juice and glucose water, all showing 23 per cent. sugar by Balling’s saccharometer. The pure juice was dry in 15 days (the room being cold). One package of the mixture was dry in 30 days; the other continued in fermentation 60 days, both emitting a rank offensive odor during the process, arising from the amount of chalk and sulphuric acid required in its (glucose) manufacture. Racking at this time appeared to remove the greater part of the offensive odor, and in 30 days the wine was clear and bright enough to pass for a two-years’-old wine. I now thought it contained a very superior fining principle, and if a small enough quantity would answer the purpose, it might be a valuable acquisition. But this was its most favorable period; it had reached its zenith, and while the pure juice was now beginning to develop its vinous properties, the mixture commenced to deteriorate, becoming flat and insipid, as any grape juice would by being one-half water, and the sulphuric acid and chalk (sulphate of lime) developing a disagreeable after-taste. Notwithstanding that I have racked it again and fined it to a perfect condition, there is not the least improvement, and I believe as it becomes more dry with age, that the bitter, nauseous after-taste will become more and more pronounced, so that one glass of it will leave such a lasting impression on the palate as to never want any more; whereas, the package of pure juice is now vinous, sprightly, refreshing and inviting.

The use of Glucose condemned.—On the 16th day of July, 1881, the St. Helena Vinicultural Association adopted resolutions condemning in the strongest terms the use of glucose in the making of wine and brandy, and promising to expose all parties importing or receiving the substance by publishing their names, and pledging the Society to use all honorable means to prevent the adulteration of the product of our vineyards. The resolutions passed unanimously, and were published in the different newspapers. One man in the district, notwithstanding the warning, did cause to be shipped to him a quantity of glucose, and the President and Secretary of the Society published in several different newspapers, in December, 1881, over their own signatures, and in the name of the Association, a notice reciting the resolutions, and stating that a person (giving his name) “imported eighty barrels of grape sugar, made from corn, commonly called glucose, and used the same, or the greater part of it, in the manufacture of wine during the last vintage.”

We believe that this was an exceptional case, and that its use in this State has been exceedingly rare.

Watering.—Another question which has been a good deal discussed is, whether it is better to pick the grapes as soon as they develop sufficient sugar, or leave them on the vine till they develop an excess, and then reduce the must with water. Dr. Guyot having laid it down as a fundamental principle in wine making in France, that the grapes should be left on the vine as late as possible, and until they have reached the highest point of maturity, except, perhaps, in some of the most extreme southern portions, he is consistent in counseling the addition of water to the must. But the only reason given by him for it is that it is consonant with his principle previously stated. Du Breuil is also of the same opinion. Both are men of high authority, but it does not appear that either of them ever made wine in a warm climate, where the grapes would develop so much sugar as to require the addition of water, if left upon the vine as late as possible. We have, on the other hand, the testimony of Boireau, who, speaking on the subject, says that it is probable that the theoreticians who are in favor of the practice have never made wine of must too rich in sugar and of water. He says, it is true that the quantity is increased, and fermentation is complete, but that the wine so made is only fit for the still, will not keep and readily turns sour. The Greeks have followed this practice from time immemorial in the Archipelago, where he tasted their wine so made in 1865, and which they can keep with difficulty for one year, in spite of the addition of a large quantity of rosin, which they introduce during fermentation. And yet, these wines are not weak, having an average of 10½ to 11 per cent. of alcohol. He says that but few grapes give musts too rich in sugar, if they are gathered as soon as ripe; for even in viticultural countries situated farthest south, as the south of France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Africa, the grape just ripe gives a must which does not exceed 14° Baumé, unless left on the vine until part of the water of vegetation has evaporated.

Having alluded to both sides of the question, it would seem to be a fair inference from the foregoing that the safest course would be, in a hot climate, to gather the grapes as soon as fairly ripe. This may easily be done, where each grape grower makes his own wine, and has immediate supervision of the picking, and has sufficient men to finish it with promptness. But in the case of large manufacturers who buy their grapes and cannot supervise or order the gathering in the numerous vineyards whose crops they purchase, it may sometimes be necessary, when the grapes come in overripe, and it is not desirable to make sweet wine, to add a small quantity of water to insure prompt and complete fermentation. When the necessity arises, great caution should be used, and the necessity should be avoided when possible.

CHAPTER IV.
STEMMING AND CRUSHING.

Diversity of Opinion on Stemming.—There is no subject connected with wine making upon which there is a greater difference of opinion than that of stemming. And it would seem that the diversity of practice is not always caused by the different conditions and exigencies of location, variety of grapes, etc.; but among the different wine makers in the same locality, some remove the stems, and others do not; from which Dr. Guyot infers that the practice cannot be classed among the essential principles governing vinification, but is a mere matter of detail, and that stemming may be practiced or omitted without materially affecting the wine. But Machard, a writer of the Jura, lays it down imperiously as one of the very essentials of good wine making that the grapes should be fermented with the stems, and calls stemming a pernicious practice.

Effect of Stemming.—All agree, however, that the stems, during fermentation, if not removed, yield tannin to the wine, and thereby give it astringency. It is also said to increase fermentation, by furnishing to the must additional germs of fermentation adhering to the stems, and perhaps acting also in a mechanical way, by presenting many salient points, and exposing a greater surface to the action of the ferment.[1] They also add a certain amount of acid to the wine, if green. It is evident that they increase the labor of pressing, by adding to the mass of marc.

Proper Practice.—If, therefore, by reason of the variety of grapes cultivated, or the soil, or situation, your wine is too soft, lacks life and astringency, ferment with all or a portion of the stems; but if your wine is rough, too astringent, it will be found beneficial to stem the grapes. If your grapes lack the fermentive principle, and fermentation is slow and incomplete, leave the grapes on the stem; and in the same way the fermentation will be assisted, if the grapes are overripe.

When the grapes are fermented with the stems, care must be taken that they do not remain too long in the vat, or the wine may acquire a bitter, disagreeable flavor, called by the French goût de râpe, or stem flavor, which is caused by the bitter principle contained therein, and which is dissolved out by maceration.

To Estimate Tannin.—A certain amount of tannin is necessary to the proper clearing of the wine, which is brought about by the tannin combining with albuminous matters, and they are then precipitated, and the wine may be drawn off, leaving them at the bottom of the cask. It is on the application of this well known principle that Maumené gives a very simple method of ascertaining whether the grapes should be stemmed or not. He says: First make a small quantity of wine without the stems, and add tannin, or, what is better, a decoction made by boiling a quantity of stems, and if sensible precipitation is produced, it is better to ferment with the stems, for tannin is wanting; but if the precipitation is not formed, the grapes should be stemmed.

Fig. 3.

Wooden Stemmer.

Stemmers.—This is usually effected in California by the use of the common hand stemmer, though some large establishments are using a stemmer run by steam or horse-power. The common stemmer consists of an oblong shallow box or frame, six or eight feet long by two wide, or any convenient size, and about six inches deep, with a coarse wire netting or grating stretched across the bottom. This grating is usually made of heavy galvanized iron wire, with ¾ inch or inch meshes. Instead of having the grating extend the whole length, a portion at one end may be floored with wood, upon which a box of grapes can be placed without injuring the grating. The only objection to this stemmer is that the grape juice comes in contact with the metal of the grating, and it is a well known fact that nearly, if not all, of the baser metals are corroded by the acids; it would be better to replace the wire with a wooden grating, as in France ([Fig. 3].).

How to Remove the Stems.—The grapes are dumped from the boxes directly into the stemmer, and the workman seizes as many as he can easily manage with both hands, and rubs and rolls them to and fro upon the wire grating, and the berries, as they are rubbed off, fall through the meshes, and the stems remain in the hand. The few grapes that may remain are removed by raising the mass of stems and forcibly throwing them two or three times upon the grating. Sometimes the stems, with the few grapes clinging to them, are turned over to another workman, who, with a hay fork, tosses them about upon another grating till all the berries are removed. The stemmer ought to be situated over the hopper of the crusher, so that the grapes will fall directly into it, as they are separated from the stems.

Crushing.—It is generally considered essential to crush the grapes whether stemmed or not, although in some special cases, to be hereafter noted, crushing is omitted.

Methods of Crushing.—It is well known that in Europe the grapes are usually crushed by being trodden with the feet of men, usually barefooted, but sometimes in wooden shoes, and many of the best writers of to-day are of the opinion that the wine is better when the grapes have been well trodden with the bare feet, for by thoroughly rubbing the skins and pounding them into a pulp without breaking the seeds, they think that more color and aroma are developed than can be obtained by simply crushing them, as in a machine, and afterwards fermenting. Although the practice of treading is the more common one in Europe, yet there are exceptions, and in some places the crushing is done by rollers and with satisfactory results. In California we are accustomed to regard the treading of grapes as an antiquated practice, and a relic of a past age, and it is almost universally discarded, being practiced only occasionally and by Europeans, who have not yet wholly fallen into our methods of practice. Those who are fastidious in this matter may rest assured, that if they will drink California wine, they run but very small risk of imbibing a liquid which a man has had his feet in.

Aerating the Must.—There seems to be some confusion on this subject, for some claim that the must is better exposed to the air, and prepared for fermentation, by treading. This may be true of treading in the vat during fermentation, but simply treading the grapes to crush them does not aerate the must as much as crushing with rollers, for in the latter case the juice falls through a considerable distance in a finely divided form, which thoroughly exposes it to the air.

Fig. 4.

Crusher.

Crushers.—The machine generally employed consists of two rollers made of wood, iron, or other suitable material, 6 or 8, or even more, inches in diameter, geared together so that they revolve in opposite directions and towards each other, and so that the grapes will be drawn between them from above. The rollers run near each other, but do not touch, so that the grapes will be crushed, and the seeds remain unbroken. It is operated by one man turning a crank, either attached to one of the rollers or to a pinion. [Figure 4] represents such a crusher, except that in the figure the rollers are open-work, instead of solid, as they should be. It is surmounted by a hopper which allows the grapes to fall between the rollers as they revolve, and the whole apparatus should be so placed that the pomace may fall into the fermenting vats, or be easily conveyed to them or to the press, accordingly as it is to be made into red or white wine.

Some stemmers have corrugated instead of plain rollers, but there is no advantage in this, and unless they are very nicely adjusted to the motion of the cog wheels, they may break the seeds, which is always considered injurious to the wine.

Rapidity of Operation.—Five men—one to handle the boxes of grapes, two to stem, standing on opposite sides of the stemmer, one to operate the crusher, and one to take the stems and remove the remaining grapes and to make himself generally useful—can stem and crush with these hand machines twenty tons of grapes per day, enough to make three thousand gallons of wine. And the work can be done much more rapidly by the use of the stemmer and crusher combined, which is to some extent used in the largest establishments.

Special Practice.—Boireau says that it has been observed that of the Médoc wines, those made without crushing the grapes have less color than those made from grapes of the same crop which have been crushed, but that they have a more refined and delicate taste (plus fins de goût), and that consequently many of the proprietors of the grands crûs of the Médoc in those years which are favorable to the maturity of the grape do not crush; they only do it in inferior years, when the grapes have not become sufficiently ripe, and when they fear that the wine may not have a suitable color. And in another place he tells us that in those grand wines which are intended to be bottled, a superabundance of tannin and its consequent roughness may be avoided by complete stemming, fermenting the whole berries, and by drawing from the fermenting vat at just the right time.

CHAPTER V.
FERMENTATION—ITS CAUSES.

It is with some hesitancy that I attempt to give a brief summary of the results of scientific investigation into this subject, for fear of going beyond the legitimate limits of a practical work, as this book is intended preëminently for practical men. But as the work would be incomplete without it, and as a knowledge of the general phenomena of fermentation, and of the different influences to which it is subject, are of vast importance to those who will intelligently apply their principles, I give the following as but a brief resumé, and will put it as plainly as the subject will permit. Most of the ideas given below are extracted from Schutzenberger’s work on fermentation.

There are several different kinds of Fermentation, as (1) vinous, alcoholic or spirituous fermentation; (2) mucous or viscous fermentation; (3) lactic fermentation; (4) ammoniacal fermentation; (5) butyric fermentation; (6) putrifaction; and (7) acetic fermentation, or fermentation by oxidation, and others.

Alcoholic Fermentation is that which sugar undergoes under the influence of the ferment or yeast; and it is now agreed that this ferment consists principally of an aggregation of living organisms, or an assemblage of microscopic cells.

The Yeast Plant.—Our author gives them the name of saccharomyces cerevisiæ, following those who consider it to be a species of fungus, and states that it is now very generally admitted that ferments are fungi, although by some they have been considered animal in their nature. These cells are round or oval, and are from .00031 to .00035 of an inch in their greatest diameter. “They are formed of a thin and elastic membrane of colorless cellulose, and of a protoplasm, also colorless, sometimes homogeneous, sometimes composed of small granulations.” The cells are separate or united two by two. When they are deposited in a fermentable liquid, as a sugar solution or a must, small prominences are seen to arise at one or rarely two points, the interior of which is filled with protoplasm from the mother cell; these prominences grow until they have attained the size of the original cell, when the base contracts, forming a kind of neck, and immediately they separate from the mother cell, and under favorable conditions one cell produces several generations, but by degrees it loses all its protoplasm, which at last unites in granules swimming in super-abundant cellular juice. The cell ceases to produce, and dies; the membrane is ruptured, and the granular contents are diffused in the liquid. In the manufacture of beer the fermentation is of two kinds: surface fermentation and sedimentary fermentation, depending upon a high or a low degree of heat. The surface saccharomyces develop more rapidly than the others, are larger, and they bud so rapidly that the cells which issue from each other do not separate, but remain attached, forming ramified chains of from six to twelve or more buds. The bubbles of rising gas have a greater hold on these chaplets than on single cells, which causes the newly formed yeast to rise to the surface during active fermentation. These organisms or fungi produce spores which are sown on the surface of fruits, and get into the juice by crushing, when they commence their reproduction by budding. So that the basis or cause of the phenomena which we call fermentation is the growth and reproduction of yeast or ferment, which is made up principally of the minute organisms just described.

Functions of Yeast.—Yeast is a living organism, belonging to the family of fungi, genus Saccharomyces, destitute of mycelium, capable of reproduction, like all the elementary fungi, by buds and spores. Its composition singularly resembles that of other vegetable tissues, and especially the plants of the same family. It does not differ essentially from other elementary cells, unprovided with chlorophyll.

Normal Conditions of the Life of Yeast.—The conditions which our author calls normal in the life-history of yeast, are those in which it develops itself and increases with the greatest activity and energy. They are of two orders, physical and chemical.

With respect to physical conditions, it is only necessary to notice the temperature. That most favorable to the nutrition of yeast, and that which is found advantageous to other cellular vegetable organisms, is between 25° C. and 35° C. (77° and 95° F.) Above and below these limits, the vital manifestations do not cease until we descend below 9° C. (48.2° F.), or rise above 60° C. (140° F.), the temperature at which albuminoid principles begin to coagulate.

With regard to the chemical conditions, our author says that the most favorable medium is that which contains the most appropriate nutritive elements. And as yeast contains water, mineral salts, especially potassium, magnesium, and calcium phosphates, therefore water and the alkaline and alkaline-earthy phosphates will be necessary. We find, besides, a great proportion of nitrogenous substances, either albuminous or otherwise; and therefore the food of yeast must contain nitrogen. It is supposed, however, that the cells are not directly nourished by albuminoids in the juices of fruits, the wort of beer, or yeast water, but by analogous compounds contained in them, which have the property of passing by osmose through the membranes; for the albuminoids themselves, it is said, cannot pass through. Pasteur has shown by his experiments, that mineral salts are absolutely necessary to the development and nutrition of the yeast cell; and Mayer follows him with details as follows: Preparations of iron, in small quantities, seem to have no influence; in larger proportions, they are injurious. Potassium phosphate is indispensable, and the absence of lime has little effect. Magnesium, on the contrary, appeared to be very useful, if not indispensable. The combinations of sodium present no material effects.

Sugar is one of the most important elements in the nourishment of the yeast cells, and Pasteur has shown that, in alcoholic fermentation, a part of the sugar is fixed in the yeast, in the state of cellulose or some analogous body, for, when the fermentation is completed, it is found that more yeast is present than at the commencement. Water is necessary, and the yeast cell manifests its activity, develops and is nourished within the limits of 40 and 80 per cent. of water, though yeast, dried with precaution, may regain its power when moistened. And the fact that a solution containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not ferment, is explained on the theory that such a solution takes from the cells by osmose a sufficient quantity of water to lower their hydration below 40 per cent. The cells of the Saccharomyces cerevisiæ, introduced into a liquid medium, absorb oxygen with great rapidity, and develop a corresponding quantity of carbon dioxide. This constitutes respiration, comparable to that of animals. By careful experiments it has been shown that yeast breathes when placed in contact with dissolved oxygen, and the respiration is more active than that of fishes, and it plays as important a part in the life of those minute vegetable cells as in the higher forms of vegetable and animal life. Oxygen is furnished by atmospheric air, and fermentation is more rapid when a large surface of the liquid is exposed, and then the budding is more active.

Action of various Chemical and Physical Agents.—“It has long been known that certain chemical compounds, especially those which coagulate albuminous substances, and disorganize the tissues, or which, by their presence in sufficient quantities, are incompatible with life, are opposed to fermentation; such are the acids and alkalies in suitable proportions, silver nitrate, chlorine, iodine, the soluble iron, copper, and lead salts, tannin, phenol, creosote, chloroform, essence of mustard, alcohol when its strength is above 20 per cent., hydrocyanic and oxalic acids, even in very small quantities.

“An excess of neutral alkaline salts or sugar acts in the same manner, by diminishing in the interior of the cell the minimum quantity of water, which is necessary to the manifestation of its vital activity.

“The red mercury oxide, calomel, manganese peroxide, the alkaline sulphites and sulphates, the essences of turpentine and of lemon, etc., also interfere with, and destroy alcoholic fermentation.

“Phosphoric and arsenious acids are, on the contrary, inactive.”

Experiments have shown that sparks of electricity passing through yeast do not modify its power of changing cane sugar into glucose, nor its activity as an alcoholic ferment. Fermentation is slower in the dark, and also in a vacuum. Flour of sulphur did not sensibly affect fermentation, but the carbonic acid evolved contained sulphuretted hydrogen. Sulphurous acid, however, arrests fermentation. Yeast is always acid, but an addition of an excess of different acids arrests the decomposition of sugar. If one hundred times the amount of acid contained in the yeast is added, fermentation does not take place.

M. Dumas has shown the action of various salts on yeast, but the subject has little if any interest for the wine maker.

Viscous or Mannitic Fermentation is also excited, according to Pasteur, by special ferment acting on glucose, transforming it into a kind of gum or dextrin, mannite, and carbon dioxide. This ferment is also formed of small globules united as in a necklace, whose diameter varies from .000047 to .000055 of an inch. These globules, sown in a saccharine liquid containing nutritive nitrogenous matter and mineral substances, always give rise to viscous fermentation. One hundred parts of cane sugar give: mannite, 51.09; gum, 45.48; and carbon dioxide, 6.18. The liquids which are most apt to produce viscous fermentation can also undergo lactic and butyric fermentation, but in this case the organized forms of life which are developed in the liquid are of a different nature. The conditions of action necessary to these gummy and mannitic ferments are the same as those which suit alcoholic ferment. The most favorable temperature is 30° C. (86° F.) This fermentation is what gives rise to the disease of wines, called by the French la graisse, or ropiness. White wine is more subject to it than red, and it is generally due to the want of tannin. (See [Ropiness].)

Lactic Fermentation is the transformation which certain sugars, as sugar of milk and grape sugar, undergo, and by which they are changed into lactic acid. This takes place in the souring of milk. The most favorable temperature for it seems to be about 95° F. This also depends on a special ferment. Sugar solutions are also capable of butyric fermentation and putrefaction, and we generally see viscous, lactic, and butyric fermentation appear in succession.

Acetic Fermentation is to the wine maker and wine dealer, after alcoholic fermentation, the most important.

Fermentable matter and ferment are also concerned in it, but oxygen also is necessary.

It has long been known that the alcohol contained in fermented liquids, such as wine, beer, etc., will disappear under certain circumstances, and give place to vinegar or acetic acid, and that the air, or rather its oxygen, plays a part in this reaction.

To the chemist the reaction is simple, and is formulated thus:

or the oxidation may take place by two reactions, with the production of an intermediate product, aldehyde:

According to Pasteur, the oxidation of alcohol is the consequence of the action of a ferment or cryptogam, Mycoderma aceti, and it makes its appearance on the surface of liquids, while in acetic fermentation, in the form of a continuous membrane, mother of vinegar, either wrinkled or smooth, which is generally formed of very minute elongated cells, whose greater diameter varies from .000059 to .000118 of an inch; these cells are united in chains, or in the form of curved rods. Multiplication seems to be effected by the transverse division of the fully developed cells. The conditions of nutrition are similar to those suitable to the alcoholic ferment, the hydro-carbon matter being supplied by dilute alcohol. It may, however, be supplemented by the acetic acid itself; for if the process is left too long to itself, the vinegar loses its strength by being consumed. The most favorable temperature is between 76° and 82° F.

Antiseptic agents, which arrest the development of beer yeast, act in the same manner on the Mycoderma aceti. Sulphurous acid is especially active in this manner; hence the use of the sulphur match in sulphuring wine casks.

There is another ferment, Mycoderma vini, or flowers of wine, which is found in wine and other alcoholic liquids exposed to the air when fermentation is over or has become languid, which resembles in many respects the acetic ferment. It has the power of producing alcoholic fermentation, and is supposed by some to be derived from the Saccharomyces. Like the Mycoderma aceti, it is developed on the surface of fermented alcoholic liquors, in the form of smooth or wrinkled films or membranes, but thicker and more compact. It grows with great rapidity, and it has been calculated that one cell would, in forty-eight hours, produce about 35,378 cells. These cells are of various forms, ovoid, ellipsoidal, and cylindrical, with rounded extremities. The ovoid cells have their greater diameter about .000236, and their smaller one, .000157 of an inch. The cylinders have their diameters .00047 × .000118 in. The nutritive principles are the same as those of the mother of vinegar: alcohol, salts and nitrogenous compounds. It also appears capable of utilizing for nutrition the secondary products of alcoholic fermentation, such as succinic acid and glycerine. Its development is most active between 61° and 86° F. (See [Sherry].)

Origin of Ferments.—In order to produce the different kinds of fermentation, the necessary ferment must be added, unless it is already contained in the fermentable matter or in the air. In the manufacture of beer and bread, yeast must be used; the other kinds of fermentation, except alcoholic, can generally be produced by the ferments or their spores furnished by the atmosphere; but Pasteur, in the course of his investigations, never produced alcoholic fermentation from spores found in the air. But the germs of the Saccharomyces cerevisiæ and of Mycoderma vini seem to be found only on the surface of fruits, and their stems.[2]

These different germs, however, are all found in the must of grapes, and in wine, and are ready to develop whenever favorable conditions offer themselves, and produce diseases in the wine. It is found that these germs are killed by raising the temperature of the liquid to 140° F., and hence the process of heating wines to preserve them (which see).

Leaving the germ theory of fermentation, we will pass to what is of more practical importance.

ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION
IN WINE MAKING.

Vinous or Alcoholic Fermentation transforms the juice of the grape into wine, and, as already shown, is caused by the yeast or ferment, which finds its way into the must; and by this fermentation the sugar of the grape is changed principally into alcohol, and carbon dioxide, or carbonic acid gas. And in order to show the relations between the sugar and the alcohol produced, it is necessary to say something about the chemical constituents of each.

Sugar.—In general terms, cane sugar may be expressed by the chemical formula, C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁, or, in other words, one molecule contains 12 atoms of carbon, 22 of hydrogen, and 11 of oxygen.

And the general term glucose, or grape sugar, may be expressed by the formula C₆H₁₂O₁₆, or one molecule contains 6 atoms of carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 6 of oxygen.

If, instead of using the word atoms, we use the word pounds, the chemical formula may be made clear to the unscientific. Taking the formula for cane sugar, already given, it simply means that 342 pounds contain the following ingredients, in the following proportions:

And the formula for glucose means that 180 pounds contain:

And the formula for water means that 18 pounds contain:

In fermentation, it is glucose which is immediately transformed, although cane sugar ferments also; but, before doing so, it becomes changed or inverted into glucose, and one molecule takes up a molecule of water, and produces two of glucose, thus:

Or, in the production of alcohol, 100 lbs. of pure cane sugar are equal to 105.26 lbs. of pure grape sugar.

The general formula for alcohol is C₂H₆O, and for carbonic acid CO₂.

Alcohol by Weight and by Volume.—The quantity of alcohol contained in a given mixture of alcohol and water may be expressed as per cent. by weight, or per cent. by volume. The first method is usually used by chemists, and the second in commerce. If we have 100 lbs. of a mixture of alcohol and water of which 10 lbs. are alcohol and 90 lbs. water, it contains 10 per cent. of alcohol by weight. If, however, we have 100 gallons of a mixture in which there are 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water, we say that it contains 10 per cent. by volume of alcohol. This will serve to illustrate the meaning of the terms per cent. by volume and by weight, although it is well known that, owing to shrinkage, 10 gallons of alcohol and 90 gallons of water do not produce quite 100 gallons of mixture.

Whenever merchants and wine makers use the term per cent. of alcohol, they mean per cent. by volume or measure; and whenever the expression is used in this work, it is used in that sense, unless otherwise expressed.

Fermentation—Its Products.—Per cent. Sugar to per cent. Alcohol.—In theory, glucose, during the process of fermentation, is entirely changed into alcohol and carbonic acid; the two substances produced containing the same elements as glucose, and no others. If there was no loss of sugar, or degeneration, as it is called, the reaction would be exactly expressed as follows:

And the old authorities said, if 180 parts of glucose produce 92 of alcohol, 100 will produce 51.1111, thus:

180 : 92 :: 100 : x = 51.1111,

And again, if it takes 100 parts of glucose to produce 51.1111 alcohol, how much does it take to produce 1 per cent. by weight?

51.1111 : 1 :: 100 : x = 1.9565.

These figures are now true only of that part of the sugar which is transformed into alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Different Authors.—Pasteur has shown that a portion of the glucose was changed into succinic acid and glycerine, and as the result of one of the experiments which he gives, out of a large number, it appears that 100 parts of glucose produce about 48.46 of alcohol, and it would require 2.063 to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol by weight, and 1.65 to produce 1 per cent. by volume.

But this eminent chemist’s experiments were conducted in the laboratory, and under the most favorable circumstances, so that no loss by evaporation could occur—conditions under which fermentation on a large scale is never carried on.

Dr. Guyot states that it takes about 1.5 per cent. of grape sugar to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, which is even less than is required according to Pasteur, and is manifestly too little. And the statement has been made, that a must containing 20 per cent. of sugar will produce 13 per cent. of alcohol, which is impossible.

J. J. Griffin quotes Pasteur, and estimating the average loss to be 4½ per cent. of the sugar, deduces the figures .4881 as the per cent. by weight of alcohol produced by 1 per cent. of grape sugar. Dubief says that it takes 1.7 per cent. of cane sugar to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol by volume. Mr. Joseph Boussingault gives his experiments on musts fermented in small vessels under conditions similar to those under which fermentation is carried on in wine making on a large scale; and the result of his researches is that the product in alcohol is about 90 per cent. of what the chemical theory calls for: say, .46 by weight for 1 of sugar, or 1.7 + glucose for 1 per cent. of alcohol by volume. Mr. M. Boussingault gives it as the result of his experiment, that it takes 1.8 per cent. of sugar to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol.

So that it is pretty safe to say that it takes on an average about 1.8 of sugar to make 1 of alcohol, making some allowance for loss by evaporation, etc.

As has already been stated in the chapter on Musts, 1 per cent. for every 12 should be deducted from the percentage of sugar shown by the hydrometer for other matters than sugar.

If, therefore, we have a must which shows 24° by the saccharometer, we will deduct two, and call the remainder 22, sugar. Although it is not strictly correct to say that 22 divided by 1.8 will give the per cent. of alcohol which may be expected after fermentation, owing to the well known variation between per cent. by weight and by volume, as the figures increase, yet it is sufficient for all practical purposes.

Let us then divide 22, the supposed sugar in the must, by 1.8, the amount required to produce 1 per cent. of alcohol, and we obtain 12 and a fraction. Now the total indication by the saccharometer was 24 per cent.; if we divide this by two we get the same result in round numbers.

Hence the rule: one-half of the figure indicating the total per cent. by the saccharometer (hydrometer) is approximately the per cent. of alcohol to be expected in the wine.

Owing to the fact that the loss by evaporation and degeneration may vary greatly in different cases, this will be only a rough estimate, but it will prove as satisfactory as any method that can be adopted, and it corresponds very closely with the statement made by N. Basset, that in actual practice, a must of 20 per cent. gives only 7.88 per cent. of alcohol by weight, which corresponds with 10 per cent. by volume, nearly; and it is the rule given by Petiot and Dr. Gall for a natural must.

It seems, however, from what follows below, that this is only true of a normal must, but that a different rule applies to one of a very high degree of sugar.

Limits of Sugar and Spirit.—It is said that when a solution or a must contains over 35 per cent. of sugar, it will not ferment; nor will a wine or other alcoholic mixture which contains 20 per cent. of spirit ferment. Boireau says that the maximum of alcohol which a wine can attain by the fermentation of the richest must is between 15 and 16 per cent., and those wines which show a higher degree have been fortified. He says that the highest degree of spirit ever observed by him in a natural red wine was 15.4 per cent., when it was a year old; from that time the strength diminished, but the wine always remained sweet.

There is, however, a remarkable case given, and which seems to be well authenticated, of an Australian wine which contained naturally, by fermentation, 32.4° of British proof spirit, which is equal to about 18.21 per cent. And Vizitelli states that Mr. Ellis, of the firm of Graham & Co., asserts that perfectly fermented Alto Douro wine will develop 32° proof spirit, or 18 per cent. of alcohol, and when made exclusively from the Bastardo grape, as much as 34°, or about 19 per cent. of spirit. And Mr. Vizitelli adds that he is satisfied from what he saw at Jerez, that sherry wines which have had merely 1 or 2 per cent. of spirit added to them will in the course of time indicate 34°. To produce these results would seem to require more than 35 per cent. of sugar, according to our rule; but while it is approximately correct to say that 2 per cent. of sugar produces 1 per cent. of alcohol as long as we are dealing with a must of 24 or 25 per cent. and under, it may not be true of a must of 30 to 35 per cent., for the other solid matters probably do not increase in proportion to the sugar. Therefore, to reconcile this high degree of alcohol with the statement that a must containing over 35 per cent. of sugar will not ferment, we must use Pasteur’s figures, and then we will find that by them 35 per cent. of sugar is capable of producing over 20 per cent. of alcohol.

Temperature.—The temperature most favorable to fermentation—that is, at which it commences most promptly, and goes on the most rapidly—is between 77° and 95° F., and it does not cease until the temperature descends below 49°, or rises above 140°. If the temperature is favorable, fermentation ought to commence in ten or twelve hours from the time the pomace is put into the vat, or the juice into the barrel. In countries where the weather is cold at the wine making season, it is necessary that the grapes should be gathered in the heat of the day, or fermentation will be long in commencing; and if the weather continues unfavorable, so that the grapes do not become warmed by the sun, it is even necessary to heat a portion of the must artificially, and pour it into the vats or casks, or to raise the temperature of the fermenting house.

Mr. Maumené also recommends that the vats be surrounded with mats of loose straw, four or five inches thick, to be kept in place by a covering of linen cloth; and in this way the temperature produced by the fermentation may be maintained in cool weather, without resorting to fires in the fermenting house.

It is not necessary, however, that the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere should be as high as that indicated as most favorable to fermentation; for it commences readily in a temperature of about 70°, and the liquid will soon rise to 85° or 95°, by the heat developed during the process; and unless the surrounding temperature descends below 65°, this heat will be maintained, and the fermentation will not be checked. Dr. Guyot says, however, that, to make fine wines, it should be maintained at 68°, at least; and that, in other cases, it should not be allowed to fall below 60°.

Fermenting Houses.—It is important not only that fermentation should commence promptly, but that it should be maintained regularly; and although a great amount of heat is developed by fermentation, yet the must is liable to cool during the night and cold days, unless the vats and casks are protected from the change of temperature, whereby the fermentation may be checked, to the injury of the wine. The natural conclusion is that the must ought to be fermented in closed places. In California, however, it is not necessary to construct the fermenting house with the same care required in colder climates, where it is deemed desirable to furnish them with double windows and doors. It cannot be denied that good wine is made in this State, in places where the vats remain out of doors, shaded only by trees; but the practice is not to be encouraged, for the fermentation will be checked if the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere goes to 60° and below. In constructing a fermenting house, it ought to be so arranged, when practicable, as to be on a lower level than that of the stemmer and crusher, and higher than the cellar; for then the pomace and must can be run immediately into the vats and casks, and, after the first fermentation, the wine can be drawn off through a hose into the casks in the cellar, thereby saving time and labor.

CHAPTER VI.
RED WINE.

Red wines are made from colored grapes, and the color is extracted from the skins during fermentation. The coloring matter is blue, but is changed to red by the action of the acids in the must. (See [Coloring Matter]—[Oenocyanine].) In order to develop this color, the grapes are fermented, skins and juice together, and the press is only brought into requisition after the first fermentation is completed.

Fermenting Tanks or Vats.—The tanks or vats in which red wine is fermented, in France are generally made of oak, sometimes of masonry, but in this State redwood has been almost universally adopted, and I am not aware of any serious inconveniences from its use. It is advisable before using them the first time, to steam them for several hours, or thoroughly soak them to extract the coloring matter of the wood.

The capacity depends upon the quantity of wine to be made in a season, varying from 1000 gallons to 2500 gallons and more, and a sufficient number should be provided that when wine making has commenced, it can be carried on without interruption till the crop is worked up. The number of workmen must be considered as well as the amount of grapes, and everything ought to be so arranged that the fermentation will be finished in the first tank filled, by the time the last one is full, so that the first can be emptied and filled again, and then the second, and so on. A hole must be bored in each vat two or three inches from the bottom by which to draw the wine through a faucet. And some kind of a strainer must be put over this hole inside to keep back the marc—a piece of perforated tin, a grating of small sticks, or a bundle of straw or vine cuttings kept in place by a stone.

Filling the Tanks.—In order that the whole mass in one tank may be equally fermented, it should receive its full complement of grapes in one day. By putting in part of the grapes one day and part another, not only will some of them complete their fermentation before the others, but the addition of fresh grapes to the fermenting mass will interrupt the fermentation, and prove injurious to the wine. The vats must not be filled to their full capacity, for during violent fermentation the marc, consisting of skins and seeds, or those with the stems, rises to the top, brought up by the bubbles of carbonic acid which are constantly rising, and a portion of the boiling and foaming mass may be carried over the top, and much wine thereby be lost. They should only be filled to within a foot or a foot and a half of the top, and a little experience will show the proper practice. Guyot says that they should only be filled to five-sixths of their capacity at most. Another reason for not filling the tank is that a layer of carbonic acid gas will occupy the space left vacant by the pomace, and prevent the contact of the air and the consequent souring of the wine, by the changing of a portion of the alcohol into acetic acid—vinegar.

Red wine is fermented in open vats, vats loosely covered, or in vats hermetically sealed, and good wine is made in each way.