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THE MODERN
PACKING HOUSE

A COMPLETE TREATISE ON THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,
EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION OF MEAT PACKING
HOUSES, ACCORDING TO PRESENT AMERICAN
PRACTICE, INCLUDING METHODS OF
CONVERTING BY-PRODUCTS INTO
COMMERCIAL ARTICLES.

New Edition
Revised, Amplified and Enlarged by
DAVID I. DAVIS

First Edition by the Late
F. W. WILDER
For Many Years General Superintendent Swift & Co.

PUBLISHERS
NICKERSON & COLLINS CO.
CHICAGO

Press of
Ice and Refrigeration
Chicago.

PREFACE.

In the preparation of the revised edition of this work, the first complete treatise upon the subject of the meat packing house business published, the original scheme has been followed. First, presenting in a convenient and simple form, practical suggestions, tables and formula that are needed in the operation of the packing house business according to modern practice. Second, describing operations in the various ramifications of the business, from the unloading of the animals at the pens to the production of the finished product and the disposition of it, in the order in which the different operations are conducted.

The various operations described and subjects treated upon have been indexed so that any matter upon which it is desired to obtain instant information may be readily found. The author arranged the chapters in the order of the various operations in the packing house, together with descriptions of the machinery and appliances required. The established packer, as well as the beginner, if he carefully digest the contents of this work, will find he has valuable information, the knowledge of which will aid him in conducting his business.

The chapters on proper construction and arrangement contain information in which the author has given the reader the benefit of his experience in the construction and operation of packing plants.

A portion of the contents of this work is devoted to tests showing the value and yields of the various products of a modern packing house, based on prices and conditions existing at the time they were made, in which the percentages and comparisons are reliable and are available to the reader by using the weights and percentage shown, computed on present commercial prices.

The numerous formulas given for the manufacture and preservation of the various products of the packing house are those which have been proven to be the best after years of experience. In every instance they have been put in the simplest form possible, so that no mistake can be made in applying them.

In revising this work, it is recognized that the use of some of the ingredients are now prohibited by regulation in the United States, but in some instances, it has been seen fit to not change the original formulas. In some instances, however, the omission of the objectionable ingredient has been made, though otherwise the formula remains the same as in the first edition. Many formulas rendered obsolete are omitted on account of conflicting with pure food laws.

The information furnished in these pages is based upon the author’s experience, there being very little theorizing upon the possibilities of what may be accomplished by adopting certain prescribed methods. For this reason, the book will be found of practical value to those interested in the meat packing business.

The present necessity of a work on packing house operation is more evident than when the first edition was published. The original work has been entirely revised where considered necessary, amplified in places and much new information added.

The chapters relative to construction, refrigeration and mechanical operation have been revised to conform to advanced practice.

Acknowledgment is made of the use of engravings, photographs and original data, and ideas developed and used by the reviser in his engineering practice. That the volume will be well received and fill the needs as a hand book and reference work is the hope of the authors and publishers.

The assimilation of the contents as a foundation, together with power of observation and application will greatly assist beginners in packing house work, the methods of which are progressing—although the fundamentals remain the same.

The reviser hopes assistance will be given in this way, which he in turn received by oral advice from the two outstanding superintendents in their day (the days of the business growth), Messrs. F. W. Wilder and C. O. Young.

D. I. Davis.

Chicago, July 1, 1921.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
Modern Packing Houses	[1]
Introduction and Growth—Concentration — Early Methods — Yankee Ingenuity — Chicago Yards — Movement Westward — Economic Factors —Saving By-Products — Pioneer’s Troubles — Using Box Cars — Using Refrigerator Cars — Chilling Rooms — Mechanical Refrigeration — Freezing Meats — Overseas Shipments.
CHAPTER II.
Location and Construction	[9]
Location — Water Supply — Sewage — Odors and Prevailing Winds — Cleanliness — Designs and Errors — Character of Business — Requirements —Principles of Design.
CHAPTER III.
Plant Design	[14]
Description of Plants — Plant No. 1 — Plant No. 2 — Plant No. 3 — Plant No. 4 — Type of Plant — Loading Facilities — Producing Department —Abbatoir Building — Rendering Building — Live Stock — Icing Department — Cooler Building — Pork House — Manufacturing Building — Salt Spaces — Power Department — GravitySystem — How to Build — Fireproof Design — Advantages — Slow Burning Construction — Approval of Plans.
CHAPTER IV.
Refrigeration Equipment	[29]
Ammonia Machines — Ammonia — Compressor — Condenser — Receiver — Cooler — Condensing Water — Unit Basis — Computing from Unit Basis — HowRated — Freezer Requirements — Freezers in Small Plants — Cylinder Arrangement — Why Brine Circulation — Air Circulating — Force Draft — Coil Room Systems — Brine Chilling —Brine Methods — Types of Brine Coolers — Balanced Brine System — Direct Expansion — Two Stage Compressors.
CHAPTER V.
Refrigeration Requirements	[45]
Refrigeration — Necessities — Ice Plants — Natural Ice — Chilling — Quantity Refrigeration to Provide — Space Per Ton Machine — MachineryPer Head — For Cooled Meats — Ice Computation — Compressor Capacity — Chilling Lard — Summary Computations — Low Temperature Brine System.
CHAPTER VI.
Power Plant Requirement	[52]
Steam Making Equipment — Uses of Pumps — Types of Pumps — Pumps for Brine — Water Supply — Pumps for Wells — Water Distribution Systems —Pumps for Boiler Feeding — Heating Boiler Feed Water — Wells — Cooling Towers — Economizers — Superheaters — Steam Engines — Exhaust Steam — Advice as to Exhaust Steam —Boilers — Conclusion.
CHAPTER VII.
Coolers	[60]
Meat Chilling — Dividing Beef Coolers — Regular Temperatures — Main Cooler — Handling Beef — Fore-Cooler — Heavy Cattle — Domestic Beef —Trimming of Beef — Skirt Trimming — Ribbing Beef — Freezing Beef — Loading Beef — Weighing and Tagging — Care of Coolers — Mutton and Veal — Chilling Hogs — Cellars — FreezingMeat.
CHAPTER VIII.
Warehouses	[70]
Warehouse Design — Floor Area — Fire Proof Buildings — Floor Construction — Coolers — Fan and Ventilation — Spray System — Galvanized SheetIron Pipes — Coil Rooms — Quantity of Pipe — Method of Erecting — Life of Pipe — Cellar Ceiling Suspension — Ratio of Piping — Defrosting — Gardner Curtain System — DirectExpansion Piping — Chill-Room Bunkers — Low Temperature Brine System — Freezer and Storage Buildings.
CHAPTER IX.
Slaughtering Cattle	[92]
Receiving Live Stock — Watering — Driving Cattle — Knocking Cattle — Sticking — Heading — Pritch Sticks — Foot Skinning — Ripping and LegBreaking — Flooring Cattle — Breast Sawing — Fell Cutting — Rumping — Beef Spreaders — Fell Beating — Gutting — Backing — Tail Sawing — Splitting — Splitting Cleavers —Clearing Out and Hide Dropping — Neck Splitting — Bruise Trimming — Skirt Trimming — Washing Cattle — Fountain Brushes — Dressing Cattle — Conveyors.
CHAPTER X.
Dressing Yields and Cattle Cutting	[106]
Yields of Cattle — Yield from Twenty-two Native Cattle — Yield from Fifty-nine Texas Cattle — Yield from Twenty Heavy Cattle — Yield fromThirty-four Cattle — Percentage of Various Cuts — Beef Cuts — Diagram of Cutting — Grading — Loins — Ribs — Rounds — Chucks — Plates, Shanks and Flanks — Barreled Beef.
CHAPTER XI.
Hides and Pelts	[126]
Green Hides — Condition — Scores — Prod Pole Damage — Clean Floors — Leather Yields — Pattern — Proper Storage for Hides — Grading — Grubsin Hides — Salt to Be Used — Building of Packs of Hides — Trimming of Green Hides — Switches — Shrinkage of Hides — Sheep Pelts.
CHAPTER XII.
Oleo Oil and Stearine	[136]
Fats — Origin of Butterine — Oleo Oil — Oleo Fats — Selection and Care — Cleanliness and Collection — Chilling Fat — Cooling Water — Melting —Settling the Oil — Clarifiers — Scrap Vat — Seeding or Graining Oil — Press Room — Collecting Oil — Oil Receivers — Temperature of Oil Drawn to Tierce — Stearine — Oil HouseYields — Grading Fats — Tests on Oil Fats — Butcher Fats — Mutton Fat — Oil Selection — Oil House Operation.
CHAPTER XIII.
Bone Department	[159]
Bone Department — Hard Bone — Glue Bone — Bone Products — Horns — Manufactured Articles — Skulls — Test Yield from Skulls and Feet — Buttocksand Thighs — Blades and Ribs — Drying — Crushed Bone — Grinding Bone — Neats Foot Oil Storage — Neats Foot Oil Purifier — Yield Tests.
CHAPTER XIV.
Tank House Department	[170]
Tank House Design — Isolation and Ventilation — Separation of Press Room — Digesters — Rendering Tank — Surface Box — Press and Pump — CookingKilling Stock — Operating Tank Blow Off — Pressing Tankage — Treatment of Lard and Tallow — Titer in Tallow and Lard — Steam for Cooking — Cooking Tests — Operating Odorless —Tests — Catch Basin.
CHAPTER XV.
Tank Water	[189]
Soil Fertility — Animal Feeding — Tank Water — Separation of Solids — Collecting Grease — Testing Tank Water — Evaporating Tank Water —Description of Apparatus — Cleaning Evaporators — Table of Boiling Points — Testing Stick — Copperas in Water to Evaporate — Solids in Water — Drying Stick — Value ofTankage — Quantity of Tank Water — Cost of Evaporating.
CHAPTER XVI.
Fertilizer	[201]
Fertilizer — Blood — Receiving Tank — Cooking — Pressing — Purity — Storing — Quick Handling — Tankage — Quotations and Value — Grease —Influence of Stick — Digester Tankage — Slime — Dryers — Drying — Expense for Drying — Commercial Fertilizer — State Regulations — Mixing Materials — Conversion Factors.
CHAPTER XVII.
Casings	[208]
Description of Beef Casings — Round Casings, How Made — Selection of Round Casings — Export Casings — Domestic Rounds — Beef Middles — Turningand Sliming — Inspection and Measuring — Beef Bungs — Bung Gut Skins — Beef Bladders — Beef Weasands — Packages — Salt — Cleanliness — Water Temperature — Machines forCasings — Hog Casings — Small Casings.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Beef Miscellany	[217]
Beef Miscellaneous — Livers — Sweetbreads — Beef Hearts — Tails — Weasand Meat — Beef Tongues — Washing — Hanging — Trimming — Curing —Freezing — Surplus Rounds — Stripping Beef Hams — Formulas for Curing — Smoking — Tests — Glass Jar Beef — Beef Trimmings — Barrel Beef — Tripe — Cleaning Tripe — Pickling —Cost of Production.
CHAPTER XIX.
Sheep and Calves	[229]
Increased Production of Sheep — Penning — Dressing by Piece Method — String Gang — Sheep Ring — Sheep Dressing — Legging — Pelting — Methodsof Finishing — Washing and Its Effect — Chilling — Lamb Tongues — Pickled Lamb Tongues — Lamb Tongue Tests — Slaughtering Calves — Heads and Feet.
CHAPTER XX.
Hog Slaughtering	[251]
Historical — Investment — Hog Yarding — Hog Dressing — Hoisting — Sticking — Neck Washing — Scalding — Scraping Machines — Hand Scraping —Cleaning Bodies — Ham Facing and Cutting — Leaf Lard — Splitting — Washing — Drying — Care in Chill Rooms — Open Air Hanging — Chilling Necessities — Shrinkage in Chill Room —Hog By-Products — Heads — Plucks — Paunches — Entrail Fat.
CHAPTER XXI.
Pork Cuttings	[266]
Hog Cutting — Variety and Classes of Hogs — Cutting Floor — Pork Cuts — Hams — Side Meats — Bellies — Backs — Loins — Shoulders — Butts andPlates — Percentage of Yield — Change Cuts One Side — Test on Five Sides — Complete Cutting Test.
CHAPTER XXII.
Curing Meats	[311]
Curing Cellars — Hams and Their Treatment — Wilder Hams — Shoulder Meats — Bellies — Overhauling Meats — Fancy Bacon — Shipping Ages — SecondPickle — Dry Salt Meats — Curing Dry Salt Meats — Smoking Dry Salt Meats — Barreled Pork — Curing Barreled Pork — English Meats — Pigs Feet — Pigs Tongues — Pigs Snouts.
CHAPTER XXIII.
Lard, Compound and Greases	[340]
Historical — Quantity and Quality — Neutral Lard — Kettle Rendered Lard — Prime Steam Lard — Refined Lard — Bleaching Lard — Filter Press —Lard Roll — Lard Packing — Compound Lard — Cottonseed Oil — Refining Crude Oil — Deodorizing Cottonseed Oil — Pressing Temperatures — Lard Oil — Treatment for Lard Grease.
CHAPTER XXIV.
Smoke House	[364]
Smoking Meats — Nomenclature — Soaking — Smoking — Gas Smoking — Temperatures — Treatment After Smoking — Trolley System — Canvassed Meats —Shrinkage — Wrapping — White Wash — Dried Beef — Packages — Skipper Fly.
CHAPTER XXV.
Domestic Sausage	[372]
Meats and Handling — Arrangement of Department — Curing Meats — Cooler for Ground Meats — Grinding and Stuffing Room — Smoke House — CookRoom — Dry Hanging Room — Cooler — Smoking Temperature — Cooking Time — Shrinkages — Pickle-Cured Products — Dry-Cured Meats — Packing — Casings and Spices — Sausage Cereals —Sausage Formulas — Bologna Varnish — Boiled Ham.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Dried Sausage	[399]
Summer Sausage — Preservatives — Cooling Room — Stuffing — Hanging Room — Smoke House — Dry Room Treatment — Dry Room Caution — ShippingAges — Storage — Preparation of Casings — Trimming Meats — Formulas for Sausage.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Butterine	[420]
Ingredients — Colors — Equipment — Rooms — Arrangement — Testing Milk — Acidity — Milk in Butterine — Reasons for Culture — Cream Ripeness —Water vs. Brine — Milk Not Pasteurized — Preparatory Culture — Starters — Cultivating the Milk — Low Grade Butterine — Graining — Working the Butterine — Butterine Packing —High-Grade Butterine — Cleanliness — Use of Color — Formulas — Costs of Butterine.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Boxes and Cooperage	[440]
Specifications for Boxes — Cooperage Specifications — Government Specifications for Packages — Refrigerator Boxes.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Departmental Accounting	[453]
Departmental Accounting — Expense Accounts — Departments — Purchases — Inventories — Store Accounts — Labor Charged to Departments andSub-Divisions — General Principles.

VIEW OF UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, SHOWING HORSE MARKET AT LEFT AND EXCHANGE BUILDING AT RIGHT.

GENERAL VIEW OF UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, SHOWING PACKING HOUSES IN THE DISTANCE.

ENTRANCE TO THE UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO, U. S. A.

CHAPTER I.
MODERN PACKING HOUSES.

Introduction and Growth — Concentration — Early Methods — Yankee Ingenuity — Chicago Yards — Movement Westward — Economic Factors — Saving By-Products — Pioneer’s Troubles — Using Box Cars — Using Refrigerator Cars — Chilling Rooms — Mechanical Refrigeration — Freezing Meats — Overseas Shipments.

Introduction and Growth.

—Few industries in the United States have shown such rapid growth as has the packing house business. The modern packing house, as it exists today, may be said to be less than forty years old since its inception. One naturally inquires the causes which led to the growth of this industry to its present proportions in so short a time, ranking practically fifth in importance among the industries of the United States. The main factor which has been instrumental in the consummation of this immense growth is concentration—coupled with—conservation.

Concentration.

—Concentration permits the manipulation of by-products, creating useful and valuable materials saleable in themselves and tending to reduce the commercial cost of the edible portion of the animal. Conservation in the saving of all parts of the animal to their best uses.

Early Methods.

—Before the modern packing house was established the method in vogue was to either ship by car or drive live stock to the point of consumption, where it was slaughtered and put on the market in a crude and expensive way compared with the methods of to-day. In the evolution of the business the first step toward making the modern packing house was the concentration of live stock at a few markets where it was offered for sale. Prior to that time it would have been impossible for any one point to obtain sufficient stock to much more than supply its local demands, and surely not enough to supply a modern establishment.

Yankee Ingenuity.

—In the United States during the early days of the live stock market, buyers purchased their supplies where they best could, and shipped them alive to the places where the animals were to be consumed. At this point “Yankee” ingenuity interceded and devised the opposite plan, viz: that of shipping the live stock to a few central points and there changing it to dressed meats, which were shipped to the consuming markets. The development of this plan inaugurated a new line of business now recognized as one of the most important of modern industries—central stock yards and packing house centers.

FIG. 1.—LIVE STOCK GOING TO SCALE, UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO.

Chicago Yards.

—One of the first and largest of these central live stock depots to be established was the Union Stock Yards, Chicago, Ill., U. S. A., where are located the largest slaughter houses. [Views] of these great yards are shown. [Fig. 1] shows one of the places where live stock is passed to the scales and weighed prior to delivery to the purchaser; [Fig. 2], a view of the live stock pens and an alleyway on a busy day; [Fig. 3], a view of a pen containing choice yearling cattle, and [Fig. 4], one containing a bunch of choice Polled-Angus cattle. These views are typical of many markets now established throughout the United States and where the business is conducted upon a parallel basis.

FIG. 2.—A BUSY ALLEY, UNION STOCK YARDS, CHICAGO.

Movement Westward.

—Many factors and conditions contributed to the possibility of the modern packing plant. The feature of slaughtering the cattle near to the point of growth lessened the shrinkage and abuse of the animal and its resulting food product. There are many of the conditions that might be gone into in detail but which are now of no consequence. However, among the conditions that made the business possible was the fact that on the vast plains of the west, innumerable cattle were being raised at a minimum cost, with but little local sale, whereas in the thickly settled east, in the manufacturing districts, a ready market was found for the beef.

FIG. 3.—PEN CONTAINING CHOICE YEARLING CATTLE.

Economic Factors.

—Economic conditions make the raising of live stock, in juxtaposition to the production of grain, a fixed fact. And apparently the nearer to the source of supply the animal is slaughtered the less deterioration in the product, animal and meat considered together. The packing business of this country would practically be impossible in older countries that are thickly settled, as the cost of raising live stock would be actually about the same in all parts, and the cost of shipping from one point to another would only add to the original cost. With the lower cost of raising the animal on low value land, the eastern farmer with his high priced land was unable to compete, hence the practice of raising live stock in the west and consuming it in the east; and the concentration of live stock at the large markets, with the improved devices, has made the business a possibility, and the money and energy expended in adopting the best methods has caused its growth to its present magnitude.

FIG. 4.—PEN CONTAINING CHOICE POLLED-ANGUS CATTLE.

Saving By-Products.

—Another important feature adding to the growth of this industry, is the saving effected by utilizing the by-products. When animals were killed promiscuously throughout the country this was impossible, for a man killing a few at some local point could not save the by-products, consequently they were lost. Neither could the small killer afford the necessary appliances with which to turn the material out economically and compete with business on a large scale, any more than the ancient cobbler sitting at his bench, could afford the labor-saving machines and devices which are seen in modern shoe factories. The general health of the public has been served by having their meats properly inspected and delivered in a much better condition than they could be at the time when the animal was killed and the meat consumed without it being properly chilled. That the meat is delivered to the consumer in a more palatable condition than it was formerly is generally conceded by all. Foreigners who visit this country are invariably impressed with the superior meats with which they are served, due to the process in chilling, and the age at the time of consumption.

The by-products which are saved in modern plants, which, under the older methods were almost entirely lost, have a good value. Heads and feet, for example, which were ordinarily thrown away, are to-day made up into various products, all of which have a value. The blood, fats and refuse, are turned into commercial commodities, and the saving of these different parts creates a profit in the business, a profit heretofore lost. Further details on this subject will be given in the chapters treating on by-products.

Pioneer’s Troubles.

—When the pioneers of the business first broached the idea of killing cattle in Chicago and selling the dressed beef in the east it was considered wholly impracticable, and the people who started the business were looked upon as a “little queer.” There were many bitter experiences, in the way of financial losses before it was accomplished. Shipping perishable products long distances caused the loss of many thousands of dollars before the proper methods were discovered, but the beginners felt they were working along the right lines. Obstacles were overcome and to-day meats are delivered in eastern markets in a far better and a more healthful condition than they were ever offered to the public under the old methods from local abattoirs.

Using Box Cars.

—In the early days of the concentrated cattle markets, fresh meat products were only shipped during the winter months and in a common or what is now known as a “box” car, as differentiated from a “refrigerator” car.

Using Refrigerator Cars.

—The next step was the use of ice in the car and from this to the “refrigerator” car. This type of car with the improved dispatch service offered by the railways, made the business of shipping freshly dressed beef to any part of the country feasible.

The Chilling Room.

—Notably and most essential was the development of a chilling department in which the slaughtered animal could be properly chilled. This is now a matter of such common occurrence that but little consideration is given the subject. However, in the days when ice was used, and before the introduction of mechanical refrigeration it was a matter of large consequence.

Mechanical Refrigeration.

—Mechanical refrigeration, and this alone, has made it possible to properly cool meats for shipment to remote points as fresh meats, or to properly prepare them for curing, and to preserve them after curing beyond a comparatively limited time. Mechanical refrigeration made possible the equipping of ships for the transportation of meats under refrigeration from any point to any market on the globe.

Freezing Meats.

—The freezing of meats such as beef and poultry, and holding them to a desirable season has rapidly become an important factor in packing house work. Not only beef, poultry, butter and other food products are accumulated, but pork cuts, such as hams, shoulders, bellies, etc., are frozen and carried indefinitely or until it appears desirable to thaw and cure them.

Overseas Shipments.

—A contributing feature to the development of the packing house business, was the overseas shipment of meats. In the early part of the decade 1900-1910 a very large business in fresh beef was conducted between the United States and England. At the outset it was considered an impossibility, but by the most careful and detailed attention and the utilization of modern methods, it was found possible to kill cattle or sheep in the hottest months of the year at interior points in the United States, ship the meats in refrigerator cars to the seaboard, transfer into refrigerated rooms on the steamers and thence to England, the meat being sometimes four or five weeks en route from the abattoir where the animal was killed, to the place where the meat finally reached the consumer. Even though the English authorities gave it the most critical examination, it was found in proper state for consumption. In the same manner vast quantities of meat is finding its way from South America to the European markets, most of it shipped “chilled,” not frozen. For a time the United States furnished the largest part of the fresh meat consumed in England. It is true that for many years we have supplied foreign markets with cured and canned meats, but the fresh meat trade in England is a business developed within a comparatively few years and it grew to magnitude. However, owing to our growth, increasing home demands, and the changed economic conditions, this business dwindled in the last decade so that on beef it was practically gone, except that during the European war owing to prevailing conditions, it was revived for a time at least. The pre-eminence of the United States pork products, however, is everywhere recognized and until new corn producing lands are developed and utilized, the corn and the pig supply for the world will be that part of the United States west of the Alleghany mountains and east of the Rocky mountains.

CHAPTER II.
LOCATION AND CONSTRUCTION.

Location — Water Supply — Sewage — Odors and Prevailing Winds — Cleanliness — Designs and Errors — Character of Business — Requirements — Principles of Design.

Location.

—Location is a moderate sized word with a vast meaning. It has two definitions as applied to meat packing houses.

First.

—Location as to a live stock supply. Pioneers in foreign lands looking for a cheap supply must take into consideration the quantity immediately available, the probabilities based upon feeding, climate, natural enemies—beast and bug—and the ambition of the people to produce as well as their ability to produce.

Sometimes an apparent supply is at hand but a searching investigation will show that it is an accumulated surplus, soon exhausted, with a resultant dearth. In the case of cattle, a supply cannot be created in a day but by persistent effort and in several generations of human life.

Transportation by trooping and by train, or the ability of the cattle to withstand the first or the ability of the railways to handle for want of facilities, are at times matters of much consequence.

Second.

—Location as applied to a position for operating, applicable to domestic or foreign works. There are several items of prime importance to be considered in selecting a location from this standpoint. In many instances a plant is established near a locality producing a sufficient quality of live stock suitable for a certain purpose, for example pigs suitable for export trade. In some instances the selection of a location is made for trade reasons, or to be adjacent to a stock yards; and in instances because property is owned in a certain locality. Where situation can be of choice, the matters for most serious consideration are sewage disposal, water supply, prevailing winds and transportation facilities.

Water Supply.

—This is of great consequence. The quantity to be used for condensing purposes, refrigerating machinery operation, for cleansing, and in the regular course of business, is a very large amount, and if purchased from water supply corporations or municipalities, at prevailing rates, become a burdensome item of expense. The principal use for water can be classified under three headings:

Boiler Purposes

—This naturally will be selected from available sources based upon fitness, irrespective of cost.

Condensing

—First, for refrigerating machinery ammonia condensing and for steam engine condensing, in conjunction with the production of power and operating steam engines on refrigerating equipment. For this purpose cold water is desirable. If it can be obtained from wells it is the best practice, owing to such water usually being of low temperature. However, the cost of production must be considered, and that calls for engineering knowledge as to relative conditions. Usually, unless the surface water be in large quantity and available from a stream, the wells prove economical unless the water must be raised from great depths involving air lift pumping. There are instances, however, where turbidity makes water from streams undesirable and where well water is unobtainable, and in instances of this kind use of settling basins, reservoirs and cooling towers is resorted to.

For Cleaning and Other Purposes

—The water for cleansing purposes, for food products, fats and premises, should be clean and free from contamination that render it unfit for potable uses.

Sewage.

—The question of sewage disposal from a packing house is of more consequence than the water supply, which is usually determined by the relative cost. The former is a matter of disposition. No matter how carefully the refuse from the slaughtered animal is collected for passing through the rendering department, or how carefully the waters from cooking are collected for evaporation, quite large quantities of nitrogenous particles and many substances which are more cheaply disposed of by the way of the sewers, ultimately reach them. If the refuse finds its way to a rapidly flowing stream, it is taken care of by bacterial action, but if discharged into a dry stream or pool, or to a sewage disposal plant, it becomes a serious burden that sooner or later reverts to the packer.

Odors and Prevailing Winds.

—Naturally to minimize the distance of transport to stations for shipping or delivery to the consumer, or to be near to a supply of labor, every manufacturer is desirous of locating his works near to a city or on its outskirts, if not at a commercial stock yards. Where the latter are of comparatively large consequence to a community, the odors arising are usually considered a “necessary evil” and the packing plant as a part of that.

No matter how carefully the plant may be operated, if the full commercial value is taken out of all products there are some departments in which it is difficult to abate the smells, and if the prevailing winds are towards a residence district, it is likely to cause disturbance. This statement can be qualified, however, because it is a fact that plants can be designed and can be operated so as to be kept within proper bounds and be of no more nuisance than the handling of the live animals, but it will always be well for the prospective packer to recognize that he would not care to live on the premises, nor will his neighbor appreciate his works any more than he. A packing house properly belongs to a district at a reasonable distance from residence property, and where the prevailing winds are not toward the residence district.

Cleanliness.

—The features contributing most to the operation of a plant so as to avoid it becoming noisome is that of cleanliness, first, last and always; ample equipment to promptly dispose of all by-products, and to do it promptly.

Design and Errors.

—The location disposed of, the design and construction is a problem that cannot have too careful consideration. There are two grievous errors that may creep in; overbuilding and under building. Overbuilding recognizes the construction of a plant too large for present needs, thereby making the capital investment too large for the business to be done, and sometimes resulting in the handicap of insufficient monies for plant operation with all the difficulties entailed. Under building, failing to recognize the growth that might occur and failing to so arrange that the growth can be made in a way that keeps the plant in balance and makes for economical operation. Either condition may lead to regrets.

Character of Business.

—At this point comes the consideration of the character of the business to be conducted and the proportioning of departments one to another suitably. For instance, in a beef shipping plant for fresh beef the coolers may have a hanging capacity equal to at least three times the daily slaughtering capacity, while at some market points the ratio may be ten times. Whereas, at a freezing plant it becomes a question of room to accumulate a cargo dependent upon transport facilities.

Requirements.

—The requirements in the various localities, as to arrangement of departments; to comply with sanitary necessities as to light and ventilation, and the classes of materials required in construction, are changing from time to time and no set rule can be made, but these are axiomatic:

(1) Products prepared for food purposes must be quickly and thoroughly isolated from non-edible products.

(2) All departments should, so far as possible, be maintained in separate buildings.

(3) Building materials should, so far as possible, be non-absorbent.

(4) Light and air should be arranged for in plenty.

(5) The question of movement of product to minimize labor should be given proper attention. In the building of a packing house it is only within the last few years that this matter has been studied from the standpoint of obtaining the best results at the least expenditure for operating.

(6) Formerly it was considered proper to build the killing house and coolers on the ground level, excavating a cellar for the storage of some of the products; the power house, tank rooms and other buildings for the disposition of by-products were placed without reference to economy in operation. Experience has proven that it is economical to slaughter animals on the upper floor of a building, and instead of spreading out on the ground and covering a large area as formerly, to build higher over a smaller area. With a proper incline the animals will walk to an elevation of 50 or 60 feet without detriment to their condition, and it is much cheaper to do this than to kill them on the ground level and elevate the products, or to convey or transport them to distant buildings on the same level.

(7) The use of gravity is recognized as a proper procedure in all departments from a low labor cost standpoint. The locating of the buildings, one to another; to minimize the transferring of products; and the grouping of products as to convenience in shipping by wagon, by car or by boat, as the case may require, are also important.

(8) Very important is the question of grouping cold storage departments so as to minimize the wall space and exposure from radiation; likewise the concentration of buildings requiring heat to avoid the loss of fuel by reason of long steam lines, and radiation which can not be prevented.

Principles of Design.

—The crux of the plant appears to be the slaughtering department for it is here the work begins and from this source radiates the various parts for disposal. One well-known and successful designer works with the idea of beginning at the rendering department, and establishing the tops of the rendering tanks, or digestors, on a level with the viscera separating floor, from which the refuse is readily transported without the use of elevator or lift service.

The slaughtering floor is naturally above this level, and all other departments disposed to meet the various needs. Obviously there being so many controlling factors, no examples can be set out to meet all conditions. There follows however, a ground plan and sectional view of several plants of varying sizes with descriptive data.

CHAPTER III.
PLANT DESIGN.

Description of Plants — Plant No. 1 — Plant No. 2 — Plant No. 3 — Plant No. 4 — Type of Plant — Loading Facilities — Producing Department — Abbatoir Building — Rendering Building — Live Stock — Icing Department — Cooler Building — Pork House — Manufacturing Building — Salt Spaces — Power Department — Gravity System — How to Build — Fireproof Design — Advantages — Slow Burning Construction — Approval of Plans.

Description of Plants.

—This chapter is devoted to a description of several types of plants.

Plant No. 1.

—A moderate sized beef, mutton, and pork producing plant capable of slaughtering six hundred cattle, fifteen hundred sheep and fifteen hundred hogs daily, and taking care of the products of manufacture resulting therefrom. This design was developed upon the principle of gravity for movement of products with as little use of elevators as possible; the avoidance of excessive use of mechanical conveyors and contrivances; the grouping of buildings intended for hot or cold temperatures; economy of operation, and for minimum car movement.

Loading Facilities.

—The general arrangement provides for wagon and dray loading facilities fronting the main thoroughfare. The garage and office are at the left and right sides of the court. Three tracks are situated between the two groups of buildings to take care of the car loading. Usually the refrigerated products are loaded upon the east track, and non-refrigerated products, such as hides and bones, and the oleo department products, upon the west track. The intermediate track is used for the storing of cars. By use of the connecting platform at the south end either kind of cars can be loaded on either track. A separate non-interfering railroad spur is provided for unloading coal, and cotton seed oil, and for loading tallow, while a distinct track is provided for loading cars of dry salt meats from the pork warehouse.

FIG. 5.—PLANT NO. 1, MODERATE SIZE PACKING HOUSE.

Producing Department

—The abattoir is made the center of distribution, with the refrigerated buildings and departments directly communicative, situated nearby. The rendering and manufacturing departments—users of steam and power—are grouped near to the abattoir and to the power plant, while the buildings requiring refrigeration are grouped together and isolated from the manufacturing buildings. The stock pens connected with the plant are to the left of the manufacturing groups, but are not shown on the plan.

Abattoir Building

—This building, six stories high, is given over to the following uses: Fourth floor, slaughtering; third floor, treatment, separation and cooking of by-products and manufacture of casings; second floor, oleo oil manufacturing; first floor, oleo oil storage, and shipping purposes; basement and sub-basement, storage of tallow and curing of hides.

FIG. 6.—EXTERIOR VIEW BEEF, SHEEP AND PORK PLANT.

Rendering Building

—Divided into two sections and separated by partitions, one side is used for the refining of cotton seed oil and the manufacture of edible tallows; the other side for cooking blood and rendering inedible tallows. The floors are used as follows: Second floor, level with viscera separating floor in abattoir, from whence raw stock is trucked to the filling floor without requiring use of elevators for filling of tanks; first floor, tank bodies and receptacles for collection of tallow. The skimming vats to which the tank residue, after drawing off the tallows, is passed, are level with this floor, enabling the separation and floating of the tallow and its collection; basement for press room, and sub-basement for drying tankage. The tank water to be evaporated is collected and passed to a separate building for treatment and evaporation.

Live Stock

—The live stock pens are situated to the left of the rendering department extending north of the oil storage tanks from which position leads an incline, delivering the live stock into an elevated storage pen covering the area between the rendering house and the abattoir, and over the dressing room.

Icing Department

—Facilities for manufacturing ice for cooling cars are provided in the space directly north of the abattoir building. The three railroad tracks between the two groups of buildings are covered with a protecting shed, and from the bottom member of the trusses are suspended trolley rails for handling buckets of ice to be dumped into the tanks of the refrigerator cars.

Cooler Building

—The dressed beef, mutton and pork is transferred via bridge with chain conveyors, carrying the carcasses from the slaughtering house floor to the cooling rooms situated upon the third floor of the cooler building. From this floor the carcasses are conveyed for storage purposes to the second and first floor, and from there they are passed to the cutting room, city sales department, or cars. The basement and sub-basement are used for curing beef and pork joints. The fourth floor of this building is set aside for freezing products which, after being frozen, are shipped for storage to other premises owned by the same company.

FIG. 7.—SECTIONAL VIEW INDICATING LEVELS AND COMPARATIVE LEVELS OF DEPARTMENT FLOORS.

Pork House

—The fourth floor of the pork house is utilized for chilling hogs; the third for cutting them, and all floors below for curing purposes. Note, the arrangement whereby the pork house and the cooler building are each connected with the team-loading platform and also closely arranged for car loading.

Manufacturing Building

—A manufacturing building given over to the production of sausage, smoked meats, lard and the packing and shipping of same is immediately north of the cooler and pork buildings, and connected thereto at all floors where necessary. The city shipping department has its allotted space on the ground floor of the cooler building and the products finished in the manufacturing building move south toward the team loading platforms.

Salt Spaces, etc.

—In this instance, but which rarely occurs, the city’s main sewer system is located at a deep level, which affords proper drainage and permitted the construction of two cellars. There are, therefore, two stories practically under ground. This is a decided advantage from the standpoint of radiation exposure, and it also affords an opportunity to provide salt storage and cooperage stowing spaces on two levels adjacent to the railroad tracks. It further provides a means for securing a connecting tunnel below the track level, thus providing facilities for a perfect interchange from all cellar departments. Of equal consequence is the opportunity to pass all pipes for water, steam and refrigeration, power and lighting wires, as well as products, from one department to another. This makes for a low upkeep cost, little exposure, less radiation and greatly reduces the annual upkeep.

Power Department

—The boilers were placed on a floor level with the basement. The coal pocket into which coal is dropped extends to the sub-basement level, providing a comparatively large coal storage. At the sub-basement level are the ash collecting bins. From this level are provided elevators of the continuous bucket type for raising the coal and ashes to tanks provided for storage, from which the coal and ashes gravitate to the furnaces and disposal cars respectively.

The engine foundations extend to the sub-basement level, with the main engine situated upon the basement level. The pumps are located in part on the lower level. All pipes and wires leading to the operating department are carried through the sub-basement, permitting the arrangement of all exhaust and steam piping beneath the engine room floor.

Gravity System

—Attention is called to the fact that in the rendering department, for example, the products in their steps of manufacture are handled by gravity entirely until the finished dried fertilizer is produced, which has to be elevated to the ground level for car shipment, or for wagon delivery. The same features are true of the abattoir, hides and tallow in casks only, requiring the use of elevators for shipment.

FIG. 8.—PLANT NO. 2, GROUND PLAN FOR COUNTRY PACKING HOUSE.

Plant No. 2.

—This plant was designed for a country point where the shipping by local freight cars or the city delivery was quite limited; where the major part of the product would be shipped by car, and where provision was made for quite an extensive growth. The capacity as designed being four hundred hogs and fifty cattle daily, with a complementary quantity of calves and sheep.

Loading Facilities

—Again the three railways are provided for convenience in loading and for facilitating switching and icing.

FIG. 9.—PLANT NO. 2, SECTION THROUGH SLAUGHTERING AND RENDERING BUILDING.

FIG. 10.—PLANT NO. 2, SECTION THROUGH MANUFACTURING BUILDING.

FIG. 11.—PLANT NO. 2, SECTION THROUGH COOLER BUILDING.