Please see the [Transcriber’s Notes] at the end of this text.

THE AUTOMOBILE
OWNER’S GUIDE

THE AUTOMOBILE
OWNER’S GUIDE

BY
FRANK B. SCHOLL

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
NEW YORKLONDON
1920

COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PREFACE

The automobile has taken its place as one of the most successful and useful inventions of the day. It is equaled only by the internal combustion gas engine, which is a factor in making it practical and efficient.

Gasoline-propelled vehicles have become one of man’s greatest aids in business efficiency, but nevertheless it is very important that we consider the facts, that the adoption of the automobile by man for business, commerce and pleasure is on a very large scale, and that the production by manufacturers is so great that very little thought is given to proper care, which is an ever-present factor in economical operation and a fair return for the investment.

The purpose of this book is to serve as a practical guide for those who own, operate, or contemplate purchasing an automobile.

The contents of this book cover the entire field that would be of value to the owner or chauffeur in making his own repairs. The parts and expressions are given in their simplest form; technical terms, tables and scales have been entirely eliminated, as they mean little or nothing to the average owner, and are of value only to the mechanical engineer and draftsman.

The illustrations, drawings and diagrams are intended only for the purpose of bringing out points that are more readily understood and explained in this manner. No attempt has been made to conform to proportionate exactness or scale accurateness.

Since there are many different makes of cars, motors, and equipment, the functional action of all is practically the same, therefore we use for illustration only those which are used by the majority of manufacturers.

While, as a general rule, you will find all automobiles efficient and reliable, troubles and conditions are bound to arise that are somewhat puzzling; therefore, to assist the owner, we have written a [chapter] on trouble hints conveniently arranged in three columns, headed troubles, cause, and remedy.

The entire book is worked out along such lines, and so arranged, that a man or a boy with a common school education can easily master it and become an efficient mechanic.

INTRODUCTION

After twelve years’ experience with the automobile, I find that only one-third of the present-day owners understand the mechanical operation, care and proper upkeep of their cars; the other two-thirds know little or nothing of their cars, and are unable to locate or detect trouble, or make the slightest adjustment necessary to remedy it. This fact remains as the chief cause of the present high depreciation in cars, and the loss of millions of dollars annually to automobile owners.

After two years of observation and close investigation, I find the vast majority of the present owners are eager to acquire mechanical knowledge, but they have not accomplished their aim, chiefly because the available books to attain that end are too technical, dry, and overdescriptive for the average owner and beginner in mechanics.

The automobile is not an individually constructed piece of machinery, but a combination of individual inventions, each adapted to a functional purpose, which is necessary to the harmony of successful operation. A great many of these mechanical achievements are of delicate construction, and very apt to get out of adjustment. This, however, is not always the case, as grease, dirt and foreign matter with which the various parts come in contact often prevent them from operating properly.

Therefore a little common knowledge of operation and a little care will enable an owner to operate his car successfully, thereby avoiding unnecessary trouble, damage and expense.

One of the chief aims of the writer is to make this book interesting and thorough, in order to hold the reader until he understands the entire contents, after which he should be able to make any necessary repairs and adjustments, or to hold a position as automobile mechanic.

In order to accomplish the foregoing and prevent a student from becoming discouraged we use functional principle as the base for explanation whenever possible.

The instructions set forth in this book are not taken merely from theory, but have been put into successful operation by the writer, who for several years sold cars in outlying districts where garage facilities were limited, and where it was necessary to make a mechanic of every purchaser in order to sustain the high reputation of the car sold. Later on his plan of instructions was used in an automobile school where he was chief instructor, and still later they were developed into a note system which he used in establishing an automobile school in the city of Toledo, Ohio.

The students turned out by this school were very efficient and successful, and finished the course in less than one-half the time usually required for the average automobile course.

This book was written during the twenty months that the writer spent in the U. S. Army, from the note system used in his automobile school.

F. B. S.

CONTENTS

PAGE
Preface[v]
Introduction[vii]
INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.
History of the Gasoline Engine and Early Automobileconstruction[1]
Purchasing a new car[3]
Purchasing a used car[4]
Selecting and testing a used car[5]
Driving instructions[6]
Road rules for city and country[9]
What to do in case of accident[10]
CHAPTER I.
Gasoline Engine Construction, and Parts[12]
The engine block castings, cylinders, pistons, connecting rods, bearings, crank shaft,cam shaft and fly-wheel.
CHAPTER II.
Valve Construction and Operation[21]
Valve construction. Types and operation of the valves in an 8-cylinder V-type engine. Valvelocations and valve grinding. Valve care.
CHAPTER III.
The Operation of a 4-Cycle 4-Cylindered Gasoline Engine[29]
Explaining the cycle. The 4-, 6-, 8-, 12-cylindered engine—The Knight sleeve valve engine—S. A. E.Horse Power scale—Displacement-Engine charts—Lubrication oils and greases—Lubrication systems—Care—Cleaning—and adjustingof lubrication systems.
CHAPTER IV.
Brief Treatise on Carburetion[45]
The Stromberg plain tube Model M carburetor. Principle of action—Installation—Adjustment andmaintenance—Stromberg Model L adjustment.
CHAPTER V.
Nitro Sunderman Carburetor[60]
Principle of action, action of venturi, adjustment and general care.
The Schebler Model R carburetor, action and adjustment points.
CHAPTER VI.
Stewart Carburetor[65]
Principle of operation—Adjustment and maintenance.
CHAPTER VII.
Carter Carburetor[70]
Operating principle—Adjustment and care.
CHAPTER VIII.
Schebler Plain Tube Carburetor[72]
Operation—Instructions for installing, adjustment and maintenance.
CHAPTER IX.
Kerosene Carburetors[76]
Operating principle—Installation and adjustment.
CHAPTER X.
Heated Manifolds and Hot Spots[79]
Action—Advantage and design.
CHAPTER XI.
Cooling Systems[82]
Purpose of cooling system—Circulating systems—The force pump circulating system—Overheating—Radiatorcleaning—Freezing—Freezing solutions—Radiator repairing—The air cooling system.
CHAPTER XII.
Muffler Construction[86]
Purpose—Advantage—Type—Assembly and Maintenance.
CHAPTER XIII.
Vacuum Systems[89]
Operating principle—Purpose of the air vent—Failure to feed gasoline to carburetor—Removingtop—Cleaning gasoline strainer screen—Operating principle and general maintenance.
CHAPTER XIV.
Electrical Dictionary of Parts, Units and Terms[95]
Voltage—Amperage—Ohms—Current—Circuit—Low tension Current—High Tension Current—Inductioncoil—Commutator—Insulation—Shunt or choking coil—Fuse—Condenser—Dynamo—Voltaic cell—Accumulator—Storagebattery—Electrolyte—Hydrometer—Ammeter—Circuit breaker—Switch—Generator—Regulator—Contact-breaker—Non-vibratingcoil—Distributors.
CHAPTER XV.
The Magneto[101]
Parts—Assemblage—Operating principle.
CHAPTER XVI.
Bosch High Tension Magneto, Type ZR[105]
Operating principle—Primary or low tension circuit—Secondary or high tension circuit—Timingmagneto gears—Timing magneto with engine—The condenser—Safety spark gap—Interrupter timing range—Cutting outignition—Caution—Care—Maintenance.
CHAPTER XVII.
Magneto Washing, Repairing and Timing[111]
Magneto cleaning—Magneto repairing—Magneto assembling—Magneto timing to engine.
CHAPTER XVIII.
North East Ignition System[114]
Wiring ignition distributor—Ignition coil—Breaker box and distributor head assembly—Condenser—Breakercontacts—Breaker cam—Distributor head—Automatic spark advance mechanism—Manual spark control—Timing the distributor—Generalcare.
CHAPTER XIX.
Atwater Kent Ignition Systems[126]
Type CC system—Operating principle—Setting or timing—Adjustment—Oiling—General care.
CHAPTER XX.
Atwater Kent Battery Ignition System[132]
Type K-2-Operating principle—Operation of contact maker—Contactless distributor—Wiring diagram ofcurrent flowage—Setting and timing the unisparker—Timing with engine—Automatic spark advance—Contact point adjustment—Oilingdiagram—Condenser—Testing for ignition trouble.
CHAPTER XXI.
Philbrin Single Spark, and High Frequency Duplex Ignitioystems[141]
Operation of contact maker—Current induction—Duplex system—Duplex switch—Duplex switchaction—Wiring diagram—Adjustment of contact points—General care.
CHAPTER XXII.
Electrical Starting and Lighting Systems[147]
The generator—The regulator—The automatic cut-out—One unit system—Two unit system—Three unitsystem—The starting motor—Lubrication—Maintenance.
CHAPTER XXIII.
Electric Lighting and Starting Systems[154]
Wiring diagram Bijur system—Operation of Bijur system—Starting motor—Operation of startingmotor—Wiring circuits—Fuse—Ground fuse—Lamp controller—Oiling—Battery testing—General care.
CHAPTER XXIV.
North East Starter Used on Dodge Brothers’ Cars[161]
Model G starter-generator operation—Wiring diagram—Starter-generator action—Mounting—Drive—Chargingrate adjustment—Fuse—Locating trouble—Starting switch and reverse current cut-out—Running with battery disconnected.
CHAPTER XXV.
The Delco Electrical System[167]
Motoring the generator—Cranking the engine—Generating electrical energy—Diagram of motor generatoroperation—Lubrication—Ignition switch—Circuit breaker—Ignition coil—Distributor—Contact breaker and timer—Care.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Storage Battery[180]
Construction—Chemical action—Cells—Electrolyte solution—Battery charging—Care andmaintenance—Hydrometer testing—Battery idle—Battery freezing—General care.
CHAPTER XXVII.
Spark Plugs and Care[186]
Type—Construction—Connections—Assembling—Repairing—Cleaning—General care.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Clutch Construction, Type and Care[189]
Clutch operation—Gear shifting—Change speeds—Cone clutch—Cone clutch care—Cone clutchadjustment—Multiple disc clutch—Borg and Beck clutch—Borg and Beck clutch adjustment—Disc clutch cleaning, wet plate,dry plate—Cone clutch leather—Cone clutch leather patterns—Cutting—General care.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Transmissions, Types, Operation and Care[198]
Operation of—Planetary type—Progressive type—Selective type—Gear shifts—Unit-power-plant—Transmissioncleaning—Lubrication—Care.
CHAPTER XXX.
Universal Joints[204]
Universal joints—Slip joints—Operation—Construction diagram—Tightening—Lubrication—Care.
CHAPTER XXXI.
Differential Gears[207]
Bevel gear action—Construction—Adjusting—Gearless differential—Action—Adjustment—Advantage—Wormgear drive differential—Operation—Adjustment—Lubrication—General care.
CHAPTER XXXII.
Axle Types, Operation and Care[212]
Dead axles—The semi-floating axle—Adjustment—Lubrication—The full-floatingaxle—Construction—Adjustment—Lubrication—The I-beam front axle—The spindle—Steering knuckle—Care of all types.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
Brake Types, Operation and Care[218]
Brake adjustment—Brake re-lining—Brake care—Brake cleaning.
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Springs and Spring Care Tests[223]
Spring types—Spring lubrication—Weekly spring care—Bi-monthly spring care—Spring wrapping.
CHAPTER XXXV.
Alignment[229]
Wheel alignment—Lengthwise—Crosswise—Axle alignment—Lengthwise—Alignment tests—Mechanicalalignment—Lengthening wheelbase.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Steering Gears, Type and Construction[232]
Operation of worm and sector type—Adjustment of worm and sector type—Worm and nut type—Adjustmentof worm and nut type—Rack and pinion type—Connections—Drag link—General care.
CHAPTER XXXVII.
Bearing Types, Use and Care[236]
Plain bearings—Bushings—Roller bearings—Flexible roller bearings—Radial ball bearings—Thrust ballbearings—End thrust—Double thrust—Cleaning—Care—Maintenance.
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Car Arrangement[243]
Showing location and names of parts—Adjustment—General care.
CHAPTER XXXIX.
Overhauling the Car[247]
Instructions showing how to go about it—And how to give the car a thorough overhauling.
CHAPTER XL.
Repair Equipment[251]
Road repair necessities—Shop repair necessities.
CHAPTER XLI.
Car Cleaning, Washing and Care[253]
Body construction—Body washing—Running gear washing—Engine cleaning—Cleaning upholstering—Rugcleaning—Windshield cleaning—Sedan or closed body cleaning—Tire cleaning—Rim cleaning—Light lens cleaning—Caution.
CHAPTER XLII.
Tires, Build, Quality and Care[256]
Tire care—Tire chains—Cross chains—Tube care—Tube repairing—Tire and tube storage.
CHAPTER XLIII.
Electrical System[259]
General overhauling and tuning hints.
CHAPTER XLIV.
Automobile Painting[262]
CHAPTER XLV.
Carbon Removing[263]
Trouble Hints[264]
FORD SUPPLEMENT.
IThe car—its operation and care[269]
IIThe Ford Engine[277]
IIIThe Ford Cooling System[287]
IVThe Gasoline System[290]
VThe Ford Ignition System[295]
VIThe Ford Transmission[301]
VIIThe Rear Axle Assembly[307]
VIIIThe Ford Muffler[310]
IXThe Ford Running Gear[311]
XThe Ford Lubrication System[316]
XICare of Tires[320]
XIIPoints of Maintenance[323]
XIIIThe Ford One Ton Truck[325]
XIVThe F. A. Starting and Lighting System Installed on Sedans and Coupés[328]
Index[335]

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIGUREPAGE
[1].Typical Four-Cylinder Block13
[2].Cylinder Block with Head Removed13
[3].Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)14
[4].Typical Cylinder Piston15
[5].Typical Piston Ring15
[6].Typical Connecting Rod16
[7].Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft17
[8].5-M-B Crank Shaft17
[9].Cam Shaft18
[10].Flywheel19
[11].8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement22
[12].Poppet Valve23
[13].Valve Types, Location and Operation24
[14].Valve Timing Marks25
[15].Knight Valve-Timing Marks—4-Cylinder27
[16].Knight Valve-Timing Marks—8-Cylinder28
[17].4-Stroke Cycle29
[18].Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine31
[19].Power Stroke Diagram32
[20].Buick Engine—Parts Assembly36
[21].Buick Engine—Location Inside Parts Assembly37
[22].Buick Motor—End View38
[23].Liberty U. S. A. Engine39
[24].Splash Oiling41
[25].Plunger Pump Oiling System42
[26].Stromberg Model M Carburetor—Sectional View46
[27].Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Air Bleeder Action47
[28].Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Accelerating Well49
[29].Stromberg Carburetor Model M—Idling Operation51
[30].Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle 1⁄5 Open52
[31].Stromberg Carburetor—Throttle Wide Open53
[32].Stromberg Model M—Adjustment Points55
[33].Stromberg Model “L”—Adjustment Points58
[34].Sunderman Carburetor60
[35].Sunderman Carburetor61
[36].Sunderman Carburetor62
[37].Sunderman Carburetor63
[38].Schebler Model R Carburetor Assembled64
[39].Stewart Carburetor66
[40].Carter Carburetor70
[41].Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Sectional View72
[42].Schebler Carburetor Model Ford A—Adjustment Points73
[43].Holley Kerosene Carburetor76
[44].Holley Kerosene Carburetor Installment77
[45].Hot Spot Manifold79
[46].Holley Vapor Manifold—Ford Cars80
[47].Thermo-Syphon Cooling System82
[48].Muffler—Three Compartment86
[49].Muffler87
[50].Vacuum System—Top Arrangement89
[51].Vacuum System Installation90
[52].Vacuum System Diagram—Stewart Warner91
[53].Vacuum System—Inside View of Parts94
[54].Coil Diagram96
[55].Dynamo—Diagram of Action98
[56].Magnets—Pole Blocks101
[57].Armature Core—Wound Armature102
[58].Primary and Secondary Winding and Current Direction102
[59].Breaker—Slip Ring—Distributor103
[60].Bosch M Distributor and Interruptor—Housing Removed106
[61].Wiring Diagram Bosch Magneto, Type ZR-4107
[62].Wiring Diagram, North-East System—on Dodge Car115
[63].North-East Distributor—Model O—Ignition116
[64].North East Breaker-Box118
[65].Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—North East121
[66].Atwater Kent Circuit Diagram—Type C. C.127
[67].Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Type C. C.128
[68].Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block128
[69].Distributor Wire Connections to Distributor129
[70].Atwater Kent Type C. C. Wiring Diagram130
[71].Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System133
[72].Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System133
[73].Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System134
[74].Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Diagram of Action—Type K-2 System134
[75].Atwater Kent Distributor and Contactless Block135
[76].Atwater Kent Wiring Diagram Type K-2136
[77].Atwater Kent K-2 Wiring137
[78].Atwater Kent Automatic Spark Advance Mechanism—A-K Type K-2138
[79].Atwater Kent Contact Breaker—Oiling Diagram—A-K Type K-2139
[80].Philbrin Contact Maker—Point Adjustment141
[81].Philbrin Contact Maker and Distributor Blade142
[82].Switch Case143
[83].Duplex High Frequency Switch144
[84].Philbrin Wiring Diagram145
[85].Bijur 2-V System Mounted on Hupmobile Engine149
[86].Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action151
[87].Bijur Starter Mechanism Showing Action152
[88].Wiring Diagram Model N—Hupmobile153
[89].Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey-Chesterfield Six155
[90].Wiring Diagram—Jeffrey Four158
[91].Hydrometer Syringe159
[911⁄2].Dodge Wiring Diagram162
[92].North East Model G Starter Generator164
[93].Delco Motor Generator—Showing Parts168
[94].Delco Motor Generator—Diagram of Operation170
[95].Delco Ignition Switch Plate173
[96].Delco Ignition Switch Circuit Breaker—Mounted173
[97].Delco Ignition Coil175
[98].Delco Wiring Diagram—Buick Cars176
[99].Delco Ignition Distributor177
[100].Delco Ignition Contact Breaker and Timer178
[101].Storage Battery, Sectional View180
[102].Storage Battery, Sectional View182
[103].Hydrometer Syringe183
[104].Spark Plug187
[105].Cone Clutch and Brake190
[106].Multi-Disc Unit Power Plant, Clutch and Transmission192
[107].Borg and Beck Clutch193
[108].Cone Clutch Leathers—Pattern—Cutting196
[109].Friction Transmission199
[110].Selective Type of Gear Shifts200
[111].Sliding Gear Transmission—Sectional View201
[112].Clutch and Transmission Assembly—Unit Power Plant203
[113].Slip Joint and Universal204
[114].Universal Joint Construction Diagram205
[115].Differential Action Diagram207
[116].Differential Assembly208
[117].Differential Adjusting Points209
[118].Allen Gearless Differential210
[119].Semi-Floating Rear Axle213
[120].Full-Floating Axle—Wheel-End Arrangement214
[121].Full-Floating Axle214
[122].Steering Knuckle and Front Axle Parts215
[123].I-Beam Front Axle216
[124].Brake—Types and Adjustment219
[125].Brake—Showing Toggle Arrangement220
[126].Transmission Brake—Equalizer220
[127].Brake—Arrangement and Adjustment—“Buick”221
[128].1⁄2-Elliptical Front Spring226
[129].Full-Elliptic Spring226
[130].3⁄4-Elliptical Rear Spring227
[131].Platform Spring227
[132].Cantilever Spring, Front228
[133].Cantilever Spring, Rear228
[134].Wheel Alignment Diagram230
[135].Worm and Sector Steering Gear233
[136].Worm and Nut Steering Gear234
[137].Rack and Pinion Type Steering Gear234
[138].Steering Wheel235
[139].Plain Bearings or Bushings236
[140].Shims237
[141].Bock Roller Bearing237
[142].Hyatt Roller Bearing238
[143].Double Row Radial Ball Bearing239
[144].Double Row Thrust Bearing241
[145].End Thrust Bearing241
[146].Car Arrangement245
[147].Ford Motor—Sectional View278
[148].Ford Motor—Valve and Cylinder Assembly279
[149].Ford Fuel System290
[150].Ford Transmission Assembly303
[151].Ford Rear Axle System308
[152].Ford Brake309
[153].Ford Spindle311
[154].Ford Chassis Oiling Chart317

THE AUTOMOBILE OWNER’S GUIDE

INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
HISTORY OF THE GAS ENGINE AND EARLY AUTOMOBILE CONSTRUCTION

A great many experiments were conducted with the explosive type of motor between 1840 and 1860. These motors were very heavy and crude affairs and furnished little or no power. They were either abandoned or given up by those conducting the experiments, and had all but disappeared in the later 50’s. The chief difficulties that they could not overcome were, the finding of a suitable and combustible fuel, a way to distribute it to the explosion chambers in proper proportion, and a device to ignite it at the proper time. Many of these early inventions used coal tar gases and gunpowder as fuel.

The first designs for an internal combustion engine of the four stroke cycle type were devised in 1862 by M. Beau de Rochas. These designs were taken in hand by a German by the name of Otto, and many experiments were conducted by him and two other Germans, Daimler and Benz, which resulted in a fairly successful engine. The Otto Gas Engine Co., of Deutz, Germany, was then formed with Daimler as general manager. Experiments were carried on which resulted in many improvements, such as valve adjusting and electrical spark ignition. Many other smaller improvements were worked out which overcame many of the difficulties of the former and cruder devices.

The first gas engines were all of the single cylinder type, very heavily constructed and produced from three to five horse power. In 1886, Daimler conceived the idea of constructing the multiple type of engine with water-jacketed cylinders. Benz also completed a very successful motor in the late fall of 1886, which embodied the water cooling idea. The practical beginning of the gas engine as a factor in vehicle propulsion began in the fall of 1886, when Daimler applied his motor to a two-wheeled contrivance, which greatly resembled our present-day motorcycle. While this machine ran, it was not considered a very great success. Benz in the early part of 1887, connected his motor to a three-wheeled vehicle with which he was able to travel at the rate of three miles per hour.

The real beginning of the present-day automobile took place in Paris, France, in 1890, when M. Panhard secured the patent rights from Daimler to use his engine. He then built a four-wheeled vehicle, which carried some of the ideas of present-day construction, such as a steering device and brakes. To this he applied his engine and was able to travel at the rate of six miles per hour. In 1891 Peugeot Frères completed their vehicle and installed a Benz engine. This vehicle or car, as it was then called by the French government on account of its being mechanically driven, was able to make from seven to eight miles per hour.

The perfecting of the automobile was hampered very much between the years 1891 and 1898 by stringent laws that had been enacted by the French government, which all but prohibited the driving of a car on the public thoroughfare.

The first American-made automobile of the gas propelled type was completed in the year 1892 by Charles Duryea. This car embodied many of our present-day ideas but was very lightly constructed and under-powered.

In 1893 another car made its appearance in America. This car was built by Edward T. Haynes and was the beginning of the present-day Haynes’ line of famous cars.

The first automobile club was organized in Paris, France, in the year 1894 with the Marquis de Dion as president. The purpose of this club was to secure a reformation of the laws that had been enacted when the automobile made its first appearance on the public thorough-fare, and to make laws and rules to govern automobile racing.

At that time it was necessary when driving on a public highway to have some one run seventy-five feet in advance of a car waving a red flag, and to shout a warning at street intersections. These stringent laws, however, were repealed by the government through influential aid brought to bear on it by the automobile club assisted by the rapid progress of the automobile industry.

PURCHASING A NEW CAR
Things to be Considered to Make the Investment Safe

When you are going to buy a new car go about it in this manner and protect your investment.

First.—Choose the car that suits you best in regard to cost, operation, and appearance.

Second.—Inquire as to the financial status of the manufacturer. If there is anything wrong with the car, or the management of the company, it will show up here.

Third.—Orphaned cars may run as well and give as good service as anybody could ask for, but when a company fails or discontinues to manufacture a model, the car immediately loses from one-third to one-half of its actual value. That is, providing you wish to trade it in or sell it as a used car.

Fourth.—What kind of service does the agency in your vicinity give? Do they take any interest in the cars they sell after they are in the hands of the purchaser?

Fifth.—The amount of interest taken in your purchase by the agent or service station usually determines the amount of depreciation at the end of the season.

Sixth.—If you are purchasing your first car some little adjustments will be required, and conditions will arise that require understanding and attention. You, therefore, must acquire either a functional and mechanical knowledge of the operation, or depend on the agent or service station for help.

Seventh.—You will probably say that you can get along without such help. You probably can, but what will be the results? Will you be required to stand a loss in the long run resulting from excessive repair bills and depreciation which could have been prevented to a great extent?

Eighth.—Remember that an agent can fool you when you are buying, but that you cannot fool him if you wish to sell or trade in.

Ninth.—Remember that this book, The Automobile Owners’ Guide, was written to assist you in just such cases as we have presented, and that by spending a little time in study you can acquire a working knowledge of your car, and become independent of the service station and the agent, which will result in a big saving in both repair bills and depreciation.

PURCHASING A USED CAR
How to Estimate Its Value

The question is often asked, Does it pay to invest money in a second-hand car? The answer may be either yes or no, and depends entirely upon the condition of the car.

For example, A and B purchase a new car at the same time. A is rather conservative. He is also a careful driver and gives his car the best of attention. B is a careless driver and pays little or no attention to adjustments and lubrication.

A has seen to proper lubrication and has kept the parts properly adjusted and tightened up, and his careful driving has kept the alignment in perfect condition. His car at the end of the first season requires a little overhauling which will put it in as good condition as it was when it was new as far as service is concerned, and it is worth 85 to 90 per cent of its original value.

B has not seen to proper lubrication and has allowed his motor to overheat. The cylinders and pistons are scored and worn, and the valves are warped and do not seat properly. He drove into deep ruts and chuck-holes, and bumped into curbs and posts while turning around. His axles and wheels are out of line; the frame and all the running parts which it supports are out of alignment. Overhauling will not put this car in A-1 condition, and it is not worth more than 30 per cent. of the original cost price. It would be a poor investment at any price to an owner who is buying it for his own use.

Selecting and Testing a Used Car.—First.—If you are buying from a dealer who trades in cars, judge his statement of the condition of a car according to his ability as a mechanic and according to his reputation for accuracy. If you are buying from a reputable used car dealer his word can usually be taken as a correct statement of conditions as his business depends upon the accuracy of his statements and he knows the condition of a car before he buys it.

Second.—See the former owner. Get his statement of the condition of the car and the care it has had, and judge it by his appearance, and the general appearance of his home and property.

Third.—If the car is listed as Rebuilt or Overhauled, see if the oil-pan, differential, and transmission covers have been removed. If this has been done the old grease will either have been cleaned off or show marks of the removal. If these marks are found the proper adjustments and replacements have probably been made.

Fourth.—Don’t judge the mechanical condition of a car by its outward appearance.

Fifth.—Examine the tires and figure the cost of replacement if any are found in poor condition.

Sixth.—Jack up the front axle and test the wheels for loose or worn bearings.

Seventh.—Grasp the wheel at the top and bottom and wiggle it to determine whether the spindle bolts or steering device connections are worn.

Eighth.—Jack up the rear axle, set the gear shift-lever into high-speed, move the wheel in and out from the bottom to discover worn bearings, and move the wheel, forward and backward, to determine the amount of back-lash in the differential and universal joints.

Ninth.—Test the compression of the cylinders while the engine is cold using the hand crank. If one cylinder is found weak, a leak exists and the escaping compression can be heard.

Tenth.—Run the motor until it is warm. If any weakness in compression is noticeable the cylinders are probably scored, or the rings may be worn. The valves may also be warped, thereby preventing them from seating properly.

Eleventh.—Examine the shoulders of the cross-members supporting the engine, radiator, or transmission to see if they are cracked or broken.

Twelfth.—The battery may have deteriorated through improper attention. Test the solution with a hydrometer. If it is found well up, it can be passed as O. K.

Thirteenth.—Don’t judge the condition of the car by the model, as a two or three-year-old model may be in better mechanical condition than a six-month or year-old model.

DRIVING INSTRUCTIONS

A new driver should remain cool and take things in a natural way as a matter of course. There is nothing to get nervous or excited about when learning to drive a car. Any one can master the art of driving quickly by remaining cool and optimistic.

First.—Acquire some definite knowledge of the operation of the engine and its accompanying devices.

Second.—Have some one explain the operation of the accelerator, spark, and throttle levers.

Third.—Study the relative action of the clutch and gear-shifting pedal.

Fourth.—The new driver takes the wheel and assumes a natural and calm position with the muscles relaxed.

Fifth.—He adjusts the motor control levers. The throttle lever is advanced one-fourth its sliding distance on the quadrant. The spark lever is set to one-half the sliding distance on the quadrant.

Sixth.—Push the ignition-switch button, IN, or ON, and press the starter button, letting it up as soon as the engine begins to fire.

Seventh.—Not all gear-shifts are marked, consequently it is a good idea to let the new driver feel out the different speed changes. This is accomplished by pushing out the clutch and placing the shift-lever into one of the four slots. Now let up the clutch pedal until it starts to move the car, continue the feeling-out process until the reverse speed gear is located, and at this point impress on him that first and reverse speeds, are always opposite each other, lengthwise either on the right or left side of neutral, while second speed is always crosswise opposite reverse, and high-speed is opposite first on the other side of neutral.

Eighth.—Starting the car with engine running, advance the spark-lever three-fourths the distance on the quadrant, advance the throttle until the engine is turning over nicely (not racing). Place one hand on the steering-wheel and with the other grasp the gear-shift-lever, push in the clutch pedal, hold it for five seconds, in order that the clutch brake may stop rotation. Place the shift-lever into the first-speed slot and let up on the clutch pedal. The car should be driven four or five hundred feet on this speed until the driver acquires the “nack” of steering.

Ninth.—To shift to second speed advance the gas throttle until the car gathers a smooth rolling motion, press in the clutch pedal and allow three to five seconds for the brake to retard the speed of the clutch, then shift the lever to second speed and release the clutch pedal easily.

Tenth.—To shift into high-speed retard the throttle lever a trifle (to prevent the engine from racing), throw out the clutch and shift the lever into the high-speed slot. Perform these operations slowly but without hesitation.

Eleventh.—To shift to reverse speed go through the same operation that you followed when first was used, except that the shift-lever is placed in the reverse slot.

Twelfth.—The reverse speed-gear is never engaged unless the car is at a “stand-still,” as this gear turns in an opposite direction.

Thirteenth.—Always test the emergency brake lever and the speed shift-lever, to be sure that they are in a neutral position before starting the engine.

Fourteenth.—Remember that in case of emergency the car can be stopped quickly by pushing in both foot-pedals. Pressure on the clutch pedal disconnects the engine from the car, while pressure on the “foot” or service brake pedal, slows up the motion of the car and will bring it quickly to a stand-still.

Fifteenth.—Always push the clutch out when using the service brake to check the rolling motion of the car.

Sixteenth.—When you wish to stop the car and motor kick out the clutch and hold it in this position while you stop the rolling motion of the car with the service brake and shift the gears to neutral. Then set the emergency brake and turn off the switch to stop the motor.

If the engine cannot take the car up a steep grade in low speed (due to defective motor or gravity fuel feed) stop, engage reverse speed, turn off the ignition switch, and let the car back down to level or a place where you can turn around, and back up the hill. The reverse speed is geared from one and a half to two times lower than first speed.

Nineteen.—To stop the back wheels from skidding turn the front wheels in the direction which the back wheels are sliding and release the brakes. Turning away or applying the brakes adds momentum to the sliding motion.

Twenty.—If for any reason you must or cannot avoid driving into the ditch unless the ditch is very shallow, turn the car directly toward the opposite bank. The front or rear springs will lodge in the bank and prevent the car from rolling over and crushing the occupants, and the car can be drawn out more easily from this position.

ROAD RULES FOR CITY AND COUNTRY

1.—Be courteous to all whom you meet and give your assistance if necessary.

2.—When encountering a bad stretch of road, with the track on your side, don’t drive in and force another machine coming towards you to get out of the track. WAIT.

3.—Never block a track. In case you wish to stop and talk to some one, drive to one side.

4.—Keep on the right hand side of the road at all times, whether moving or standing, except as prescribed in Paragraph 5.

5.—In passing vehicles traveling in the same direction, always pass on the left and blow the horn.

6.—In passing a vehicle that has just stopped, slow down and sound the horn.

7.—In changing your direction, or stopping, always give the appropriate hand signal.

8.—Hand signals, straight up or up on 45° angle, STOP. Straight out or horizontal, TURNING TO THE LEFT. Down at an angle of 45°, TURNING TO THE RIGHT.

9.—The distance between vehicles outside of towns and cities, 20 yards; between vehicles passing through towns and cities, 5 yards; between vehicles halted at the curb, 2 yards.

10.—Bring all vehicles under easy control at street and road intersections.

11.—A maximum driving speed should not exceed 7 miles in business sections of cities, 15 miles in residential sections, 25 miles on country roads.

12.—Form the habit of slowing down and looking both ways before crossing tracks.

13.—Always pass a street car on the right side.

14.—Always stop 8 feet from a street car when passengers are getting off, unless there is a safety zone, then drive slowly.

15.—Never drive over the side-walk line while waiting for signal of traffic officer.

16.—Notify traffic officer which way you wish to turn with hand signal.

17.—Always stop and wait for an opening when driving from a side street or road into a main thoroughfare.

18.—Make square turns at all street corners unless otherwise directed by traffic officer.

19.—If you wish to turn from one street into another wait until the traffic officer gives the straight ahead signal, then give the appropriate signal to those in the rear.

20.—Always drive near the curb when you wish to turn to the right, and to the right of the center line of the street when you wish to turn to the left.

21.—Drive straight ahead at 42nd St. and 5th Ave., N. Y., and at Market and Broad St., Newark, N. J. These corners handle more traffic than any two corners in the United States. No turns are made at either corner.

22.—Exercise care not to injure road ways.

23.—Do not damage improved roads by the use of chains when unnecessary.

24.—In case the car is not provided with chains, rope wrapped around the tires will make a good substitute.

25.—In case of fire, do not try to put it out with water as the gasoline will only float and spread the fire. Use a fire extinguisher or smother with sand or with a blanket.

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENT

1.—In case of injury to person or property stop car and render such assistance as may be needed.

2.—Secure the name of person injured or of owners of said property.

3.—Secure names and addresses of witnesses to the accident.

4.—Draw diagram of streets as shown in [Fig. A]. Show relative positions of the colliding vehicles and the object of pedestrian just before the accident.

Fig. A. Street Intersection

5.—Label streets and every object depicted and add measurements and line showing course followed by vehicles, etc., and any explanatory statements which would aid an understanding of the occurrence.

6.—File this report at police headquarters.

CHAPTER I
GAS ENGINE CONSTRUCTION, AND PARTS

We will use for purposes of illustration the common four-cylinder, four cycle, cast en bloc, “L”-head type of motor, as this type is used probably by 90% of the automobile manufacturers. The block of this type of motor is cast with an overlapping shoulder at the upper left hand side which contains a compartment adjoining the combustion chamber in which the intake and exhaust valves seat, and the casting is made, in the shape of the Capital letter L turned upside down. This arrangement allows both valves to seat in one chamber and to operate from one cam shaft.

The operation of each cylinder is identically the same whether you have a one or a many cylindered motor, consequently when you have gained a working knowledge of one cylinder, others are a mere addition. This may sound confusing when the eight or twelve cylindered motor is mentioned, but is more readily understood when we consider the fact that an eight or twelve cylindered motor is nothing more than two fours or two sixes, set to a single crank-case or base in V-shape to allow the connecting rods of each motor to operate on a single crank shaft. This arrangement also allows all the valves to operate from a single cam shaft, thereby making the motor very rigid and compact, which is an absolute necessity considering the small space that is allowed for the motor in our present-day designs.

[Fig. 1]. The casting or block, which is the foundation of the whole motor or engine, usually has a removable head which allows for easy access to the pistons and valves. The block is cast with a passage or compartment through the head and around the cylinders through which water circulates for cooling the adjoining surfaces of the cylinders. This alleviates the danger from expansion and contraction caused by the tremendous heat generated in and about the combustion chambers. This block also contains the cylinders and valve seats. The pistons and valves are fitted to their respective positions as construction progresses.

Det. Head
Exhaust Pt.
Intake Pt.
Re. Plate 		Cyl. Block
Upper Crankcase
Lower Crankcase

Fig. 1. Typical Four-cylinder Block

[Fig. 2]. The block with head removed shows the smooth flush surface of the block face and the location of the cylinders in which the pistons operate or slide, with each power impulse or explosion. When the piston is at its upper extreme it comes within a sixteenth of an inch of being flush with the top of the block, while the valves (also shown in Fig. 2) rest on ground-in seats, in their respective chambers, and are operated by a stem which extends downward from the head through a guide bushing in the block to the cam shaft.

Pistons
Water Vents
Intake Valve
Exhaust Valve

Fig. 2. Cylinder Block With Head Removed

The location of the water vents is also shown, through which water is circulated to prevent the cylinders from overheating which would cause the pistons to “stick” from expansion.

[Fig. 3]. The top or head of the motor is removed, exposing the combustion chambers. These chambers must be absolutely air-tight as the charge of gas drawn in through the inlet valve is compressed here before the explosion takes place, and low compression means a weak explosion, which causes the motor to run with an uneven-jumpy motion, and with an apparent great loss of power. A copper fiber insert gasket is placed between the top of the block and the head before it is bolted down. This gasket prevents any of the compression from escaping through unevenness of the contact surfaces, as metal surfaces are prone to warp when exposed to intense heat. It is necessary to turn the bolts in the head down occasionally, as the heat causes expansion. The following contraction, which loosens them, results in a loss of compression and a faulty operation of the motor.

Combustion Chamber
Spark Plug Vent
Water Circulating Vent
Bolt Holes

Fig. 3. Removable Cylinder Head (Reversed)

The spark-plug vents through the head are usually located directly over the piston although in some cases they are over the valve head and in some motors which are cast without a removable head they may be at one side of the combustion chamber. The location of the spark-plug does not materially affect the force of the explosion, although when it is located directly over the piston a longer plug may be used, as the pistons do not come up flush with the top of the block, and a spark-plug extended well into the combustion chamber will not become corroded with carbon or burnt oil as is usually the case with a plug which does not extend beyond the upper wall surface of the combustion chamber.

[Fig. 4]. The plunger or piston is turned down to fit snugly within the cylinder and is cast hollow, with two shoulders extending from the inside wall.

Head
Ring
Wrist Pin
Oil Ring 		Ring Groove
Bushing
Wrist Pin
Set Screw
Ring Groove 		Set Screw
Bushing
Wrist Pin

Fig. 4. Typical Cylinder Piston

[Fig. 4A] shows a split piston. Three grooves are cut into it near the head to receive the piston rings. The width and depth of these grooves vary according to the size of the piston. A hole is bored through the piston and shoulders about half way from each end. The bushing or plain bearing shown in [Fig. 4B] is pressed into this hole and forms a bearing for the wrist pin also shown in [Fig. 4B]. Wrist pins are usually made of a much softer metal than the bearing, and are subjected to severe duty, which often causes them to wear and produce a sharp knock; this may be remedied by pressing out the pin, giving it a quarter turn, and replacing it in that position.

Fig. 5. Typical Piston Ring

[Fig. 5] shows a split joint piston ring. Piston rings are usually made from a high grade gray iron, which fits into the grooves in the piston and springs out against the cylinder walls, thereby preventing the compressed charge of gas from escaping down the cylinder, between the wall and the piston. [Fig. 5A] shows a piston equipped with leak-proof rings; this type of piston ring has overlapping joints, and gives excellent service, especially when used on a motor which has seen considerable service. [Fig. 5B] illustrates how piston rings may line up, or become worn from long use, or from faulty lubrication. This trouble may be easily detected by turning the motor over slowly. The escaping charge can usually be heard and the strength required to turn the motor will be found much less uniform on the defective cylinder.

The motor should be overhauled at least once every year, and by applying new rings to the pistons at this time new life and snappiness may be perceived at once.

The connecting rod shown in [Fig. 6] has a detachable or split bearing on the large end, and takes its bearing on the crank pin of the crank shaft. The small or upper end may have either a hinge joint or press fit to the wrist pin. This rod serves as a connection and delivers the power stroke from the piston to the crank shaft. These rods are required to stand very hard jars caused by the explosion taking place over the piston head. The bearings are provided with shims between the upper and lower half for adjusting. Piston or connecting rod bearings must be kept perfectly adjusted to prevent the bearings from cracking or splitting which will cause the rod to break and which may cause considerable damage to the crank case.

Wrist Pin BearingUpper Half
Crank Pin Bearing		Lower Half
Bearing End Overlaps
Shims
Bolts
BushingRodShims

Fig. 6. Typical Connecting Rod

[Fig. 7] shows a counter balanced crank shaft. This type of crank-shaft is provided with weights which balance the shaft and carry the momentum gathered in the revolution.

Rear Main BearingWeightCenter
Main Bearing		Front Main Bearing
Fly Wheel
Attached to
this Ring		 Timing Gear
Attached
Here
Crank Pin Crank Pins

Fig. 7. Counter-Balanced Crank Shaft

Main Bearings

Fig. 8. 5-M-B Crank Shaft

[Fig. 8] shows the plain type of crank shaft with the timing gear attached to the front end and the fly-wheel attached to the rear end. The crank shaft shown is carried or held by five main bearings, which is an exception, as the majority of motor manufacturers use only three main bearings to support the crank shaft, while in some of the smaller motors only two are used. These bearings are always of the split type, the seat for the upper half is cast into the upper part of the crank-case, and the lower half is usually attached to the upper half by four bolts which pass through the flange at each side of the bearing. Small shims of different sizes are employed between the flanges of each half of the bearing in order to secure a perfect adjustment which is very essential, as these bearings are subjected to heavy strains and severe duty. A shim may be removed occasionally as the bearing begins to show wear. A worn main bearing can be detected by placing the metal end of a screw-driver or hammer on the crank-case opposite the bearing and the other end to the ear. If the bearing is loose or worn a dull bump or thud will be heard. This looseness should be taken up by removing a shim of the proper thickness.

Cam Gear Bearings Cams
Cams

Fig. 9. Cam Shaft

Main bearings run loose for any length of time will be found very hard to adjust as the jar which they are subjected to invariably pounds them off center which makes readjustment a very difficult task to accomplish with lasting effect. New main bearings in a motor should always be scraped to secure a perfect fit. A loose piston or connecting rod bearing will produce a sharp knock which can easily be determined from the dull thud produced by a loose main bearing. ([Fig. 9].) The cam shaft revolves on bearings and is usually located at the base of the cylinders on the left hand side looking toward the radiator and carries a set of cams for each cylinder. The cam pushes the valve open, and holds it in this position, while the piston travels the required number of degrees of the cycle or stroke.

The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft usually through a set of timing gears, and operated at one-half the speed of the crank shaft in a four cycle motor, as a valve is only lifted once, while the crank shaft makes two revolutions or four strokes. The cam-shaft bearings, and the timing gears are usually self-lubricating and require very little attention. Timing of the cam shaft is a rather difficult matter and will be treated in a following [chapter] under the head of valve timing.

Start Gear Key-Seat
Shaft-Seat
Cone Clutch
Seat 		Disc Clutch
Small Disc
Bolt on Here

Fig. 10. Flywheel

The oil pan or reservoir forms the lower half or base of the crank case. The lubricating oil is carried here at a level which will allow the piston rods to dip into it at each revolution of the crank shaft. The timing gears receive their lubrication from the supply carried in the reservoir by means of a plunger or piston pump which is operated from the cam shaft. The balance of the motor is usually lubricated by a splash system taken up in a later [chapter] on lubrication. The oil is carried at a level between two points marked, high and low, on a glass or float gauge which is located on the crank case. A gasket made of paper or fiber is used between the union or connection of the oil reservoir and the upper half of the crank case to prevent the oil from working out through the connection.

[Fig. 10] represents the flywheel. The flywheel is usually keyed to the crank shaft directly behind the rear main bearing. This wheel is proportionate in weight to the revolving speed of the motor, which it keeps in balance by gathering the force of the power stroke. The momentum gathered by it in this stroke carries the pistons through the three succeeding strokes called the exhaust, intake, and compression strokes. The flywheel also serves as a connection between the power-plant and the running gear of the car, as a part of the clutch is located on it, and the connection takes place either in the rim or on the flange.

CHAPTER II
VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION

The proper and accurate functional operation of the valves is as necessary to successful motor operation as the proper adjustment of a hairspring is to a watch, for if a hairspring becomes impaired in any way, a watch will not keep correct time. This is the case in a motor when a valve becomes impaired. The valves in a motor, therefore, must be considered the most vital part conducive to successful and economical operation of the motor.

The valves are manufactured from a high grade tungsten or carbon steel, and are designed to withstand the intense heat which the heads located in the combustion chambers are subjected to, without warping. A perfect seat is required to prevent leaking, which will cause low compression and a weak power impulse, thus reducing the power and harmony of successful operation.

The poppet valve is used by about ninety-five per cent. of motor manufacturers. This type of valve is mechanically operated from the cam shaft at one-half the crank shaft speed, as a valve is lifted only once in every four strokes, or two revolutions of the crank shaft. The reduction in speed is accomplished by using a gear on the cam shaft, twice the size of that on the crank shaft.

The heads and chambers must be kept free from carbon which forms and bakes into a shale and has a tendency to crack and chip as the temperature changes in the combustion chambers. These chips are blown about in the cylinders until they lodge or are trapped by the descending valves. It then forms a pit on the seat and prevents the valves from seating properly. This leaves an open space which attracts more carbon, and the entire functional action of the valve is soon impaired, necessitating regrinding in order that it may properly seat again.

Carbon is generated from a poor gas mixture or from excessive use of lubricating oil and may be considered the chief cause of improper functional action of the valves.

VALVE CONSTRUCTION, TYPES, AND OPERATION 8-CYLINDERED V-TYPE ENGINE

Valve Head
Removable Plates		Cam ShaftValve Head
Valve Seat Valve Seat
Tappet for
Adjusting Valves		 Tappet for
Adjusting Valves

Fig. 11. 8-Cylinder Valve Arrangement

[Fig. 11] shows the location of the cam shaft, valves, and tappet adjustment, on a V-shaped engine. The cylinders of this type of engine are arranged in two blocks, consisting of four cylinders in each, set directly opposite each other on an angle of 90°. The connecting rods from opposite cylinders are yoked and take their bearing on the same crank pin. This arrangement allows the intake and exhaust valves of each opposite cylinder to operate from a single cam shaft, or in other words the entire sixteen valves are operated by a single cam shaft carrying eight cams. Consequently an eight or twelve cylindered engine is identical in regard to valve timing to either a four or six cylindered engine.

Valve Head

Valve Seat

Valve Guide

Valve Stem

Valve Spring

Sp. Seat

Cap Screw

Tappet

Lock Nut

Guide Bushing

Push Block

Roller

Cam

Fig. 12. Poppet Valve

[Fig. 12] shows a poppet valve. This type of valve has only one adjustment, called the tappet. The adjustment is made by turning the cap-screw out of the push block until the head comes into contact with the valve stem. The lock nut on the cap screw is then turned down tightly to the push block to hold the adjustment. A strong spring is placed on the valve stem which causes it to close quickly and remain closed until it comes into contact with the cam.

Valves are set and operate in three different positions as shown in [Fig. 13]. The exhaust valve in this case seats on the floor of the combustion chamber and is operated by the stem which extends through the casting to the tappet, while the intake valve seats on the upper wall of the combustion chamber and is operated from over head by a push-rod extending from the tappet to a rocker-arm. When both valves are operated from above and seat on the upper wall of the combustion chamber the motor is referred to as the overhead valve type of motor. In the majority of motors both valves seat on the floor of the valve chamber.

Rocker Arm
Valve Stem
Valve OpenValve Seat
Combustion
Chamber		Tappets
Cam
Cam Shaft
Overhead
Type Valve		Push Rod
Poppet-Type
Valve

Fig. 13. Valve Types, Location and Operation

Valve Timing.—Valve timing is usually accomplished by setting the first, or exhaust valve cam, to correspond with a mark on the flywheel and cylinder (shown in [Fig. 14]).

This is accomplished by lining up the 1⁄4, or 1⁄6 D-C mark on the flywheel rim with the center mark on the cylinder block, and means that 1⁄4, or 1⁄6, pistons are on upper dead center of the compression stroke, the flywheel is then turned a trifle until the marks E-C, or Ex-C, is at upper dead center and in line with the mark on the cylinder block. This means that the exhaust valve closes at this point. The cam shaft is then turned in the running direction and the cam shaft gear meshed at the valve closing or seating point. This is all that is necessary as the other cams take up correct operation when any one cam is set properly.

Another method of valve timing used by some motor manufacturers is shown in [Fig. 14]. It is simply necessary in this case to line up the prick punch marks on the timing gears—after getting the first position on upper D-C of the compression stroke—to acquire correct valve time. No definite or average scale can be given for valve timing, as all different types of motors are timed differently. These instructions must be secured from the manufacturer when the motor is not marked.

Cylinder Marks Camshaft
Gear
1-4 Pistons
on Upper
Dead Center
FLY-WHEEL MARKS
Running Direction of
Fly Wheel
MARKS LINED UP
Timing Gear
Punch Marks		Crankshaft
Gear

Fig. 14. Valve Timing Marks

Valve Grinding.—A valve-grinding compound can be purchased at any garage or service station or one may be compounded by mixing emery dust with a heavy lubricating oil until a thin paste is formed. The valve spring is released next by forcing up the tension with a screw driver or valve lifter. A small H-shaped washer is drawn from a groove near the end of the stem, which frees the valve; it can then be pushed up and raised through the guide. A small spring is placed over the valve stem. This spring should be strong enough to raise the valve one-half inch above the seat. A thin film of the grinding compound is evenly applied to the seating face of the valve head, a screw driver or ratchet fork is set in the groove on the head of the valve, and the handle rolled between the palms of the hands, covering about one-third of the distance around the valve seat; the valve is let up after the motion has been repeated four or five times, and repeated at another angle until the entire surface of the valve is smoothly ground and allows the valve to seat perfectly.

Valves.—The sleeve valve type of motor was invented several years ago by Charles A. Knight. He met with some difficulty in having it manufactured in this country because the lubrication system was thought to be inadequate and the poppet valve was then at the height of its popularity with the manufacturer of engines.

Knight took his engine to Europe and made some slight improvements on it. It was then taken over and manufactured by one of the large automobile manufacturing companies of that continent and is now being used by many of the celebrated automobile manufacturers of every country.

The principle of operation does not differ in any respect from the ordinary type of four cycle motor, except, that instead of having the poppet type of valves it has a set of sleeves which slide up and down on the piston. The sleeves are operated from an eccentric shaft by a short connecting rod and carry ports which are timed to line up with the ports of the intake and exhaust manifold ports at the proper time in the cycle of operation.

[Fig. 15] shows the method of timing the sleeves on the four cylinder engine. First, turn the motor over in the running direction until the marks (I-4-T-C) on the flywheel are in alignment with the marks on the cylinder casting. Turn the eccentric shaft in the running direction until the marks A, B, C, shown in [Fig. 15] are lined up, and then apply the chain.

Timer
Shaft
Sprocket

Crank Shaft Sprocket

Fig. 15. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—4-Cylinder

To check up on the timing, back the flywheel up an inch or two and insert a thin piece of tissue paper into the exhaust port and turn the engine in the running direction until the paper is pinched, which signifies that the valve is closed. The marks on the flywheel, timing gears, and the crank case should be in alignment. [Fig. 16] shows a diagram of the timing marks on the eight cylinder Knight engine. The method of timing this engine is as follows: (1) Turn the engine over until the marks I-4-R-H—D-C align with the marks on the crank case. (2) Turn the eccentric shaft and sprocket until the arrows shown in [Fig. 16] are in line with the guide marks on the front end of the chain housing. Then put on the chain and check up the timing, using the thin piece of tissue paper.

Eccentric Shaft
Sprocket Hub

Mark on
Eccentric Shaft
Sprocket

Guide Mark on
Crank Case

Crank Shaft
Sprocket

Fig. 16. Knight Valve-Timing Marks—8-Cylinder

VALVE CONSTRUCTION

If the sleeve rods are removed for some reason, the bearings should be fitted very loosely to the eccentric shaft when they are put back. A looseness of about .008 of an inch is permissible.

CHAPTER III
THE OPERATION OF A 4-CYCLE, 4-CYLINDERED ENGINE

The four-cycle or Otto stroke type of gasoline engine should rightly be called the four-stroke-cycle engine, as it requires four strokes and two revolutions of the crank shaft to complete one cycle of operation.

This type of motor is used almost universally by the manufacturers of pleasure cars due to its reliability, and to the ability it has to furnish continuous power at all speeds with the minimum amount of vibration.

Firing
Stroke 		Exhaust
Stroke 		Intake
Stroke 		Compression
Stroke
1 2 3 4

Fig. 17. 4-Stroke Cycle. 1—Cylinder in Action

[Fig. 17] shows a diagram of one cylinder in the four strokes of the cycle, and the distance traveled by the crank shaft during each stroke. No. 1 begins with a charge of compressed vapor gas in the cylinder and is called the firing or power stroke. The ignition system (explained in a later chapter) furnishes a spark at from five to fifteen degrees early or before the piston reaches top dead center. Although the stroke theoretically starts before the piston reaches its highest point of ascent, the actual pressure or force of the explosion is not exerted until the piston has crossed dead center. This is due to the fact that the piston travels very rapidly, and that it requires a small fraction of a second for spark to ignite the compressed charge of gas. It may, therefore, be easily seen that, if the spark did not occur until the piston is on or has crossed dead center, the piston would have traveled part of the distance of the stroke, and as it is moving away from the highest point of compression the pressure is reduced by allowing more volume space which causes a weak explosion and a short power stroke. The intake and exhaust valves are closed through the duration of the power stroke.

No. 2. The exhaust stroke begins from fifteen to thirty degrees early, or before the piston reaches lower dead center on the firing stroke. The exhaust valve opens at the start of this stroke allowing the pressure of the burnt or inert gas to escape before the piston begins to ascend on the upward part of the stroke, and closes seven to ten degrees late to allow the combustion chamber to clear out before the next stroke begins.

No. 3. The intake or suction stroke begins with the piston descending from its highest level to its lowest level. The intake valve opens ten or twenty degrees late, and as the piston is traveling on its descent, considerable vacuum pressure has formed which draws suddenly when the valve opens and starts the gas from the carburetor in full volume. The entire length of this stroke creates a vacuum which draws a full charge of vaporized gas into the cylinder through the open intake valve. The intake valve closes from ten to twenty degrees late in order that the full drawing force of the vacuum may be utilized while the piston is crossing lower center.

No. 4. The compression stroke begins at the end of the intake stroke with both valves closed. The piston ascends from its lowest extreme to its highest level, compressing the charge of gas which was drawn into the cylinder on the intake or suction stroke; and at the completion of this stroke the cylinder is again in position to start No. 1, the firing stroke, and begin a new cycle of operation. The cam shaft is driven from the crank shaft through a set of gears or a silent chain, and operates at one-half the speed of the crank shaft as a valve is lifted once through the cycle of operation, or two revolutions of the crankshaft.

1 2 3 4
Firing
Val. Closed 		Compressing
Val. Closed 		Exhausting
Ex. Val. Open 		Intake
In. Val. Open

Fig. 18. Diagram of Action, 4-Cylinder 4-Cycle Engine

[Fig. 18] shows the operation of a four-cylindered motor as it would appear if the cylinder block were removed. The timing or firing order of the motor shown in this diagram is 1-2-4-3. No. 1 cylinder is always nearest the radiator and on the left in this diagram. No. 1 cylinder is firing. The intake and exhaust valve remain closed while this stroke is taking place. This causes the entire force of the explosion to be exerted on the head of the receding piston. The cylinders, as may be seen in the diagram, are timed to fire in succession, one stroke behind each other. While No. 1 cylinder is on the firing stroke, No. 2 cylinder is compressing with both valves closed and will fire and deliver another power impulse as soon as No. 1 cylinder completes and reaches the lowest extreme of its firing stroke. No. 3 cylinder, being fourth in the firing order, has just completed the firing stroke and is starting the exhaust stroke which forces the burnt and inert gases out of the cylinder through the open exhaust valve. No. 4 cylinder which is third in the firing order has just completed the exhaust stroke and is about to start the intake or suction stroke with the exhaust valve open. This diagram should be studied and memorized as it is often necessary to remove the wires which may easily be replaced if the firing order is known, or found by watching the action of the exhaust valves and made to conform with the distributor of the ignition system. (Note the running direction of the distributor brush and connect the wires up in that direction.) For the firing order given above connect No. 4 wire to No. 3 distributor post, and No. 3 wire to No. 4 post, as this cylinder fires last.

1-CYL. 2-CYL.
4-CYL. 8-CYL.

Fig. 19 Power Stroke Diagram

[Fig. 19] shows a diagram of the power stroke impulse delivered to the cycle in a one, two, four, and eight cylindered motor. A complete cycle consists of 360 degrees, and as there are four strokes to the cycle an even division would give a stroke of ninety degrees, which is not the case, however, owing to the fact that the valves do not open and close at the theoretical beginning and ending point of each stroke which is upper dead center and lower dead center. The firing or power impulse stroke begins at approximately five to seven degrees before the piston reaches upper dead center on the compression stroke and ends from fifteen to thirty degrees before the piston or cycle of rotation of the crankshaft reaches lower dead center. This results in a power impulse of less than ninety degrees, which varies accordingly with valve timing in the different makes of motors. Consequently we have a power stroke of a little less than ninety degrees in a one-cylinder motor; two power strokes of a little less than 180 degrees in a two cylinder motor, while the power impulse of the four-cylinder motor very nearly completes the cycle. In the six, eight, and twelve cylinder motor the power strokes overlap, thereby delivering continuous power of very nearly equal strength.

Twin, Four, and Six Cylindered Motors.—The operation of the twin cylindered motor varies very little from the single four or six. It is simply a case where two, four, or two six cylindered motors are set to a single crank case at an angle which will allow the piston or connecting rods from the opposite cylinders to operate on a single crank shaft. When the cylinders are set directly opposite each other the connecting rods are yoked and take their bearing on a single crank pin of the crank shaft. This, however, is not always the case, for in some motors the connecting rods take their bearing side by side on the crank pin. The cylinders in this case are set to the crank case in a staggered position to allow the connecting rods from each cylinder to operate in line with the crank shaft.

The cylinder blocks are usually set to the crank case at an angle of ninety degrees and are timed to furnish the power impulse or stroke opposite each other in the cycle of operation. The advantage of this formation is that two power strokes are delivered in one cycle of operation, which increases the power momentum and reduces the jar or shock of the explosion causing a sweet running vibrationless motor.

The valves are usually operated by a single cam shaft located on the upper inside wall of the crank case. Valve timing is accomplished by following the marks on the flywheel or lining up the prick punch marks on the gears, as shown in [Chapter II] on valves.

When a magneto is used to furnish the current for ignition on an eight cylinder motor it has to be operated at the same speed as the crank shaft, as a cylinder is fired at each revolution of the crank shaft and an interruption of the current is required at the breaker points to produce the secondary or high tension current at the spark plug gaps.

Twelve cylindered motors are usually equipped with two distributors or a dual system, or two magnetos driven separately through a set of timing gears.

Knight or Sleeve Valve Motor.—The Knight or sleeve valve motor operates on the same plan as the ordinary type of motor except that the valves form a sleeve and slide over the piston. The sleeves are operated by an eccentric shaft and are provided with ports which are timed to conform with the ports of the intake and exhaust manifolds at the proper time.

MOTOR HORSEPOWER
S. A. E. Scale
FOUR-CYCLE HORSEPOWER RATING

Bore1 cyl.2 cyl.4 cyl.6 cyl.
23⁄4 3.00 6.0012.0018.00
27⁄8 3.00 6.5013.0020.00
3.00 3.50 7.0014.5021.50
31⁄4 4.00 8.5017.0025.50
31⁄2 5.0010.0020.0029.50
33⁄4 5.5011.0022.5034.00
4.00 6.5013.0025.5038.50
41⁄4 7.0014.5029.0043.50
41⁄2 8.0016.0032.5048.50
43⁄4 9.0018.0036.0054.00
5.0010.0020.0040.0060.00
51⁄411.0022.0044.0066.00
51⁄212.0024.0048.0073.00
53⁄413.0026.5053.0079.50
6.0014.5029.0057.5086.50

This scale gives the nearest equivalent to the whole or half horsepower, as is required by State where licenses are paid at so much per horsepower.

Formula—S. A. E. D2 times N 2.5 equals horsepower.

For sleeve valve timing see [Chapter II] on Valves.

DISPLACEMENT

There are probably few men operating cars to-day who fully understand what is meant by the term displacement, often used in referring to automobile races. It is one of the main factors or points in determining the class in which a car is qualified to enter under the laws that govern races. In looking over a race program, you will note that there are usually two or more classes, one of which is open, and another with a limited piston displacement, which gives the smaller cars a competing chance in their class.

Consequently piston displacement is merely the volume displaced by all the piston in moving the full length of the stroke. The volume of a single cylinder is equal to the area of the bore multiplied by the length of the stroke, and the total displacement of a four cylinder motor will be four times this and that of a six cylinder motor, six times this.

Piston displacement:

D2 times S times N times 3.14 4

WhereD equals bore in inches
S equals stroke in inches
Where N equals number of cylinders
Example: Required to find the piston displacement of a 31⁄2 × 5 inch four-cylindered motor. D equals 3.5 S equals 5. and N equals 4.

Piston Displacement

3.52 times 5 times 4 times 3.14 4

3.5 times 3.5 times 5 times 4 times 3.14 4

equals 173.58 cubic inches.

IGNITION COIL DELCO GENERATOR
DISTRIBUTOR
CONTROL
LEVER
PEDALS FAN
BRAKE LEVER FAN BELT
STARTER SLIDING
GEAR CASE
UNIVERSAL
HOUSING		 STARTING
CRANK SHAFT
TRANSMISSION
END PLATE		 TIMING GEAR
CASE
TRANSMISSION TIMING GEAR
HOUSING
CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING
RETAINER GREASE CUP		 WATER PUMP
MOTOR ARMFLY WHEEL
HOUSING		LOWER
CRANK CASE		DRAIN COCK

Fig. 20. Buick Engine—Parts Assembly

VALVE KEYVALVE ROCKER ARM PINOIL FILLER
WING PLUG		VALVE ROCKER ARM
VALVE SPRING CAPVALVE ROCKER ARM WICK WATER OUTLET
VALVE SPRING SPARK PLUG
VALVE FAN
VALVE GAGE VALVE PUSH ROD
WATER JACKET
COMBUSTION SPACE WATER INLET
VALVE LIFTER VALVE LIFTER GUIDE
PISTON PIN
PISTON VALVE LIFTER CLAMP
OIL PUMP
DRIVING GEAR		 FAN BRACKET STUD
FAN BELT
CONNECTING ROD
CRANK SHAFT TIMING GEARS
CONNECTING
ROD BEARING		 FAN PULLEY
CAM SHAFT
CRANK SHAFT
BEARING		 CAM SHAFT BEARING
STARTING NUT
OIL PUMP GEAR COVER
UPPER CRANK CASE
FLY WHEEL TIMING GEAR HOUSING
FLY WHEEL HOUSING CHECK VALVEWATER PUMP
DRAIN PLUGOIL DIPPERSPLASH OIL TROUGH VALVE ROLLER
LOWER CRANK CASECRANK CASE OIL PIPE

Fig. 21. Buick Engine—Location Inside Parts Assembly

ROCKER ARMOIL WICK
WING PLUGVALVE STEM
ROCKER ARM COVERVALVE SPRING
ADJUSTING BALLVALVE CAGE
NUT
LOCK NUT
VALVE CAGE
WATER JACKET VALVE
SPARK PLUG COVER EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
COMBUSTION
SPACE		 INTAKE
MANIFOLD
PUSH ROD HOT AIR
CHAMBER
VALVE PUSH
ROD COVER		WRIST PIN
CYLINDER
VALVE LIFTER CAPPISTON
VALVE LIFTER
GUIDE CLAMP
VALVE LIFTER SPRING
VALVE LIFTER GUIDE
VALVE LIFTER
CAM ROLLER PIN
CAM ROLLER CONNECTING ROD
CAM SHAFT
CRANK CASE
CRANK SHAFT

Fig. 22. Buick Motor—End View

Fan Belt
Adjustment

Split Collar
with Locking Cup

Valve Tappet
Adjustment

Cam Shaft End
Thrust Adjustment

Shims for
Adjustment of
Connecting Rods

Oil Passage to
Connecting Rod

Oil Pipe to
Piston Ring

Oil Pump
Filter Screen

Oil Sump
Filter Screen

Oil Pump

Felt Gasket

Oil Drain Plugs

Fig. 23. Liberty U. S. A. Engine

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS, OILS, AND GREASES