THE
PRACTICAL BOOK
OF ORIENTAL RUGS

FOURTH EDITION

THE

PRACTICAL BOOKS

OF HOME LIFE ENRICHMENT

EACH PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED,
HANDSOMELY BOUND.

Octavo. Cloth. In a slip case.

THE PRACTICAL BOOK
OF EARLY AMERICAN
ARTS AND CRAFTS

BY HAROLD DONALDSON EBERLEIN

AND ABBOT MCCLURE

THE PRACTICAL BOOK
OF ARCHITECTURE

BY C. MATLACK PRICE

THE PRACTICAL BOOK
OF ORIENTAL RUGS

BY DR. G. GRIFFIN LEWIS

New Edition, Revised and Enlarged

THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF
GARDEN ARCHITECTURE

BY PHEBE WESTCOTT HUMPHREYS

THE PRACTICAL BOOK
OF PERIOD FURNITURE

BY HAROLD DONALDSON EBERLEIN

AND ABBOT MCCLURE

THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF
OUTDOOR ROSE GROWING

BY GEORGE C. THOMAS, JR.

New Revised Edition

THE PRACTICAL BOOK OF
INTERIOR DECORATION

TEKKE BOKHARA RUG
Size 5'6" × 6'4"
PROPERTY OF MR. F. A. TURNER, BOSTON, MASS.
This piece is unusual in many ways. The background of old ivory both in the borders and in the field; the old rose color of the octagons; the difference in the number of border stripes and in the designs of same on the sides and ends are all non-Turkoman features. It is the only so called "white Bokhara" of which we have any knowledge.

THE
PRACTICAL BOOK
OF ORIENTAL RUGS

BY

DR. G. GRIFFIN LEWIS

With 20 Illustrations In Color, 93 In Doubletone
70 Designs In Line, Chart And Map

NEW EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON

J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS
PHILADELPHIA, U.S.A.

PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION

It is most gratifying to both author and publishers that the first edition of "The Practical Book of Oriental Rugs" has been so quickly exhausted. Its rather remarkable sale, in spite of the fact that within the past decade, no less than seven books on the subject have been printed in English, proves that it is the practical part of the book that appeals to the majority.

The second edition has been prepared with the same practical idea paramount and quite a few new features have been introduced.

The color plates have been increased from ten to twenty; a chapter on Chinese rugs has been inserted; descriptions of three more rugs have been added and numerous changes and additions have been made to the text in general.

[PREFACE]

Oriental rugs have become as much a necessity in our beautiful, artistic homes as are the paintings on the walls and the various other works of art. Their admirers are rapidly increasing, and with this increased interest there is naturally an increased demand for more reliable information regarding them.

The aim of the present writer has been practical—no such systematized and tabulated information regarding each variety of rug in the market has previously been attempted. The particulars on identification by prominent characteristics and detail of weaving, the detailed chapter on design, illustrated throughout with text cuts, thus enabling the reader to identify the different varieties by their patterns; and the price per square foot at which each variety is held by retail dealers, are features new in rug literature. Instructions are also given for the selection, purchase, care and cleaning of rugs, as well as for the detection of fake antiques, aniline dyes, etc.

In furtherance of this practical idea the illustrations are not of museum pieces and priceless specimens in the possession of wealthy collectors, but of fine and attractive examples which with knowledge and care can be bought in the open market to-day. These illustrations will therefore be found of the greatest practical value to modern purchasers. In the chapter on famous rugs some few specimens illustrative of notable pieces have been added.

In brief, the author has hoped to provide within reasonable limits and at a reasonable price a volume from which purchasers of Oriental rugs can learn in a short time all that is necessary for their guidance, and from which dealers and connoisseurs can with the greatest ease of reference refresh their knowledge and determine points which may be in question.

For many valuable hints the author wishes to acknowledge indebtedness to the publications referred to in the bibliography; to Miss Lillian Cole, of Sivas, Turkey; to Major P. M. Sykes, the English Consulate General at Meshed, Persia; to B. A. Gupte, F. Z. S., Assistant Director of Ethnography at the Indian Museum, Calcutta, India; to Prof. du Bois-Reymond, of Shanghai, China; to Dr. John G. Wishard, of the American Hospital at Teheran, Persia; to Miss Alice C. Bewer, of the American Hospital at Aintab, Turkey; to Miss Annie T. Allen, of Brousa, Turkey; to Mr. Charles C. Tracy, president of Anatolia College, Morsovan, Turkey; to Mr. John Tyler, of Teheran, Persia; to Mr. E. L. Harris, United States Consulate General of Smyrna, Turkey; to Dr. J. Arthur Frank, Hamadan, Persia; and to Miss Kate G. Ainslie, of Morash, Turkey.

For the use of some of the plates and photographs acknowledgment is made to Mr. A. U. Dilley, of Boston, Mass.; to H. B. Claflin & Co., of New York City; to Mr. Charles Quill Jones, of New York City; to Miss Lillian Cole, of Sivas, Turkey; to Maj. P. M. Sykes, of Meshed, Persia; to Maj. L. B. Lawton, of Seneca Falls, N. Y.; to the late William E. Curtis, of Washington, D. C.; to The Scientific American and to Good Housekeeping magazines; while thanks are due Mr. A. U. Dilley, of Boston, Mass.; to Liberty & Co., of London; to the Simplicity Co., of Grand Rapids, Mich.; to the Tiffany Studios and to Nahigian Bros., of Chicago, Ill., for some of the colored plates, and to Clifford & Lawton, of New York City, for the map of the Orient.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I
	Introduction		[17]
		Age of the weaving art; Biblical reference to the weaving art; a fascinating study; the artistic worth and other advantages of the Oriental products over the domestic; annual importation.
I.	Cost And Tariff		[25]
		Upon what depends the value; the various profits made; transportation charges; export duties; import duties; cost compared with that of domestic products; some fabulous prices.
II.	Dealers And Auctions		[31]
		Oriental shrewdness; when rugs are bought by the bale; the auction a means of disposing of poor fabrics; fake bidders.
III.	Antiques		[35]
		The antique craze; why age enhances value; what constitutes an antique; how to determine age; antiques in the Orient; antiques in America; celebrated antiques; American collectors; artificial aging.
IV.	Advice To Buyers		[43]
		Reliable dealers; difference between Oriental and domestic products; how to examine rugs; making selections; selection of rugs for certain rooms.
V.	The Hygiene Of The Rug		[55]
		The hygienic condition of Oriental factories and homes; condition of rugs when leaving the Orient; condition of rugs when arriving in America; United States laws regarding the disinfection of hides; the duties of retailers.
VI.	The Care of Rugs		[63]
		Erroneous ideas regarding the wearing qualities of Oriental rugs; treatment of rugs in the Orient compared with that in America; how and when cleaned; how and when washed; moths; how straightened; removal of stains, etc.
VII.	The Material of Rugs		[69]
		Wool, goats' hair, camels' hair, cotton, silk, hemp; preparation of the wool; spinning of the wool.
VIII.	Dyes and Dyers		[75]
		Secrets of the Eastern dye pots; vegetable dyes; aniline dyes; Persian law against the use of aniline; the process of dyeing; favorite colors of different rug-weaving nations; how to distinguish between vegetable and aniline dyes; symbolism of colors; the individual dyes and how made.
IX.	Weaving and Weavers		[87]
		The present method compared with that of centuries ago; Oriental method compared with the domestic; pay of the weavers; the Eastern loom; the different methods of weaving.
X.	Designs and Their Symbolism		[97]
		Oriental vs. European designs; tribal patterns; the migration of designs; characteristics of Persian designs; characteristics of Turkish designs; characteristics of Caucasian designs; characteristics of Turkoman designs; dates and inscriptions; quotations from the Koran; description and symbolism of designs alphabetically arranged, with an illustration of each.
XI.	The Identification of Rugs		[147]
		A few characteristic features of certain rugs; table showing the distinguishing features of all rugs; an example.
PART II
XII.	General Classification		[161]
		How they receive their names; trade names; geographical classification of all rugs.
XIII.	Persian Classification		[169]
		Persian characteristics; the knot; the weavers; factories in Persia; Persian rug provinces; description of each Persian rug, as follows: Herez, Bakhshis, Gorevan, Serapi, Kara Dagh, Kashan, Souj Bulak, Tabriz, Bijar (Sarakhs, Lule), Kermanshah, Senna, Feraghan (Iran), Hamadan, Ispahan (Iran), Joshaghan, Saraband (Sarawan, Selvile), Saruk, Sultanabad (Muskabad, Mahal, Savalan), Niris (Laristan), Shiraz (Mecca), Herat, Khorasan, Meshed, Kirman, Kurdistan.
XIV.	Turkish Classification		[217]
		The rug-making districts of Turkey in Asia; annual importation of Turkish rugs; Turkish weavers; the knot; Turkish characteristics; the Kurds; description of each Turkish rug, as follows: Kir Shehr, Oushak, Karaman, Mujur, Konieh, Ladik, Yuruk, Ak Hissar (Aksar), Anatolian, Bergama, Ghiordes, Kulah, Makri, Meles (Carian), Smyrna (Aidin, Brousa), Mosul.
XV.	Caucasian Classification		[253]
		The country; the people; Caucasian characteristics; description of each Caucasian rug, as follows: Daghestan, Derbend, Kabistan (Kuban), Tchetchen (Tzitzi, Chichi), Baku, Shemakha (Soumak, Kashmir), Shirvan, Genghis (Turkman), Karabagh, Kazak.
XVI.	Turkoman Classification		[277]
		Turkoman territory; Turkoman characteristics; description of each Turkoman rug, as follows: Khiva Bokhara (Afghan), Beshir Bokhara, Tekke Bokhara, Yomud (Yamut), Kasghar, Yarkand, Samarkand (Malgaran).
XVII.	Beluchistan Rugs		[295]
		The country; the people; Beluchistan characteristics; description and cost of Beluchistan rugs.
XVIII.	Chinese Rugs		[301]
		Slow to grow in public favor; exorbitant prices; geographical classification; classification according to designs; Chinese designs and their symbolism; the materials; the colors.
XIX.	Ghileems, Silks, and Felts		[311]
		How made; classification, characteristics, uses, description of each kind.
	Silks		[316]
		Classification, colors, cost, wearing qualities.
	Felts		[318]
		How made; their use; cost.
XX.	Classification According to Their Intended Use		[321]
		Prayer Rugs. How used; the niche; designs; how classified; prayer niche designs with key. Hearth Rugs, Grave Rugs, Dowry or Wedding Rugs, Mosque Rugs, Bath Rugs, Pillow Cases, Sample Corners, Saddle Bags, Floor Coverings, Runners, Hangings.
XXI.	Famous Rugs		[331]
		Museum collections; private collections; the recent Metropolitan Museum exhibit; age and how determined; description and pictures of certain famous rugs.
Glossary			[341]
		Giving all rug names and terms alphabetically arranged, with the proper pronunciation and explanation.
Bibliography			[359]
		Giving an alphabetically arranged list of all rug literature in the English language.
Index			[363]

PART I
	Introduction		[17]
		Age of the weaving art; Biblical reference to the weaving art; a fascinating study; the artistic worth and other advantages of the Oriental products over the domestic; annual importation.
I.	Cost And Tariff		[25]
		Upon what depends the value; the various profits made; transportation charges; export duties; import duties; cost compared with that of domestic products; some fabulous prices.
II.	Dealers And Auctions		[31]
		Oriental shrewdness; when rugs are bought by the bale; the auction a means of disposing of poor fabrics; fake bidders.
III.	Antiques		[35]
		The antique craze; why age enhances value; what constitutes an antique; how to determine age; antiques in the Orient; antiques in America; celebrated antiques; American collectors; artificial aging.
IV.	Advice To Buyers		[43]
		Reliable dealers; difference between Oriental and domestic products; how to examine rugs; making selections; selection of rugs for certain rooms.
V.	The Hygiene Of The Rug		[55]
		The hygienic condition of Oriental factories and homes; condition of rugs when leaving the Orient; condition of rugs when arriving in America; United States laws regarding the disinfection of hides; the duties of retailers.
VI.	The Care of Rugs		[63]
		Erroneous ideas regarding the wearing qualities of Oriental rugs; treatment of rugs in the Orient compared with that in America; how and when cleaned; how and when washed; moths; how straightened; removal of stains, etc.
VII.	The Material of Rugs		[69]
		Wool, goats' hair, camels' hair, cotton, silk, hemp; preparation of the wool; spinning of the wool.
VIII.	Dyes and Dyers		[75]
		Secrets of the Eastern dye pots; vegetable dyes; aniline dyes; Persian law against the use of aniline; the process of dyeing; favorite colors of different rug-weaving nations; how to distinguish between vegetable and aniline dyes; symbolism of colors; the individual dyes and how made.
IX.	Weaving and Weavers		[87]
		The present method compared with that of centuries ago; Oriental method compared with the domestic; pay of the weavers; the Eastern loom; the different methods of weaving.
X.	Designs and Their Symbolism		[97]
		Oriental vs. European designs; tribal patterns; the migration of designs; characteristics of Persian designs; characteristics of Turkish designs; characteristics of Caucasian designs; characteristics of Turkoman designs; dates and inscriptions; quotations from the Koran; description and symbolism of designs alphabetically arranged, with an illustration of each.
XI.	The Identification of Rugs		[147]
		A few characteristic features of certain rugs; table showing the distinguishing features of all rugs; an example.
PART II
XII.	General Classification		[161]
		How they receive their names; trade names; geographical classification of all rugs.
XIII.	Persian Classification		[169]
		Persian characteristics; the knot; the weavers; factories in Persia; Persian rug provinces; description of each Persian rug, as follows: Herez, Bakhshis, Gorevan, Serapi, Kara Dagh, Kashan, Souj Bulak, Tabriz, Bijar (Sarakhs, Lule), Kermanshah, Senna, Feraghan (Iran), Hamadan, Ispahan (Iran), Joshaghan, Saraband (Sarawan, Selvile), Saruk, Sultanabad (Muskabad, Mahal, Savalan), Niris (Laristan), Shiraz (Mecca), Herat, Khorasan, Meshed, Kirman, Kurdistan.
XIV.	Turkish Classification		[217]
		The rug-making districts of Turkey in Asia; annual importation of Turkish rugs; Turkish weavers; the knot; Turkish characteristics; the Kurds; description of each Turkish rug, as follows: Kir Shehr, Oushak, Karaman, Mujur, Konieh, Ladik, Yuruk, Ak Hissar (Aksar), Anatolian, Bergama, Ghiordes, Kulah, Makri, Meles (Carian), Smyrna (Aidin, Brousa), Mosul.
XV.	Caucasian Classification		[253]
		The country; the people; Caucasian characteristics; description of each Caucasian rug, as follows: Daghestan, Derbend, Kabistan (Kuban), Tchetchen (Tzitzi, Chichi), Baku, Shemakha (Soumak, Kashmir), Shirvan, Genghis (Turkman), Karabagh, Kazak.
XVI.	Turkoman Classification		[277]
		Turkoman territory; Turkoman characteristics; description of each Turkoman rug, as follows: Khiva Bokhara (Afghan), Beshir Bokhara, Tekke Bokhara, Yomud (Yamut), Kasghar, Yarkand, Samarkand (Malgaran).
XVII.	Beluchistan Rugs		[295]
		The country; the people; Beluchistan characteristics; description and cost of Beluchistan rugs.
XVIII.	Chinese Rugs		[301]
		Slow to grow in public favor; exorbitant prices; geographical classification; classification according to designs; Chinese designs and their symbolism; the materials; the colors.
XIX.	Ghileems, Silks, and Felts		[311]
		How made; classification, characteristics, uses, description of each kind.
	Silks		[316]
		Classification, colors, cost, wearing qualities.
	Felts		[318]
		How made; their use; cost.
XX.	Classification According to Their Intended Use		[321]
		Prayer Rugs. How used; the niche; designs; how classified; prayer niche designs with key. Hearth Rugs, Grave Rugs, Dowry or Wedding Rugs, Mosque Rugs, Bath Rugs, Pillow Cases, Sample Corners, Saddle Bags, Floor Coverings, Runners, Hangings.
XXI.	Famous Rugs		[331]
		Museum collections; private collections; the recent Metropolitan Museum exhibit; age and how determined; description and pictures of certain famous rugs.
Glossary			[341]
		Giving all rug names and terms alphabetically arranged, with the proper pronunciation and explanation.
Bibliography			[359]
		Giving an alphabetically arranged list of all rug literature in the English language.
Index			[363]

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

RUGS
COLORED PLATES
PAGE
Tekke Bokhara rug		Frontispiece
Meshed prayer rug	[22]
Khorasan carpet	[32]
Saruk rug	[40]
Shiraz rug	[52]
Anatolian mat	[60]
Ghiordes prayer rug	[66]
Ladik prayer rug	[74]
Daghestan rug	[84]
Kazak rug	[94]
Kazak rug	[144]
Shirvan rug	[158]
Saruk rug	[166]
Kulah hearth rug	[216]
Shirvan rug	[250]
Beshir Bokhara prayer rug	[274]
Daghestan prayer rug	[292]
Chinese rug	[300]
Chinese rug	[306]
Chinese cushion rug	[318]
DOUBLETONES
The Metropolitan animal rug	[26]
Bergama prayer rug	[46]
Symbolic Persian silk (Tabriz) rug	[48]
Symbolic Persian silk rug	[98]
Semi-Persian rug (European designs)	[100]
Shiraz prayer rug	[104]
Hamadan rug	[110]
Feraghan rug	[114]
Kermanshah rug (modern)	[118]
Khiva prayer rug	[120]
Kir Shehr prayer rug	[130]
Konieh prayer rug	[138]
Tekke Bokhara strip	[150]
Tekke Bokhara saddle half	[162]
Herez carpet	[172]
Gorevan carpet	[176]
Serapi carpet	[178]
Kashan silk rug	[180]
Tabriz rug	[182]
Bijar rug	[186]
Senna rug	[188]
Feraghan rug	[190]
Hamadan rug	[192]
Ispahan rug	[194]
Saraband rug	[198]
Mahal carpet	[202]
Niris rug	[204]
Shiraz rug	[206]
Shiraz rug	[208]
Kirman prayer rug	[210]
Kirman rug	[212]
Kurdistan rug (Mina Khani design)	[214]
Kir Shehr prayer rug	[220]
Kir Shehr hearth rug	[222]
Konieh prayer rug	[224]
Maden (Mujur) prayer rug	[226]
Ladik prayer rug	[228]
Yuruk rug	[230]
Ak Hissar prayer rug	[232]
Bergama rug	[236]
Ghiordes prayer rug	[238]
Kulah prayer rug	[240]
Meles rug	[242]
Meles rug	[244]
Makri rug	[246]
Mosul rug	[248]
Daghestan rug	[254]
Daghestan prayer rug	[256]
Kabistan rug	[258]
Tchetchen or Chichi rug	[260]
Baku rug	[262]
Shemakha, Sumak or Cashmere rug	[264]
Shirvan rug	[266]
Genghis rug	[268]
Karabagh rug	[270]
Kazak rug (Palace design)	[272]
Khiva Bokhara rug	[278]
Beshir Bokhara rug	[280]
Tekke Bokhara rug	[282]
Tekke Bokhara (Princess Bokhara, Khatchlie) prayer rug	[284]
Yomud rug	[286]
Samarkand rug	[290]
Beluchistan rug	[296]
Senna Ghileem rug	[312]
Kurdish Ghileem rug	[314]
Merve Ghileem rug	[316]
Kurdish Ghileem rug	[316]
Saddle cloth, saddle bags and powder bag	[324]
Kirman saddle bags	[326]
Bijar sample corner	[328]
Ardebil Mosque carpet	[330]
Berlin Dragon and Phœnix rug	[332]
East Indian hunting rug	[334]
The Altman prayer rug	[336]
The Baker hunting rug	[338]
RUG MAKING, ETC.
A Persian rug merchant	[38]
Expert weaver and inspector	[38]
Spinning the wool	[72]
Persian dye pots	[80]
A Persian village	[80]
A Turkish loom	[88]
The Senna and Ghiordes knots	[90]
Youthful weavers	[90]
A Persian loom	[92]
A wooden comb	[92]
A Kurdish guard	[124]
The Emir of Bokhara and his ministers	[134]
Turkomans at home	[134]
Characteristic backs of rugs	[152]
Inspecting rugs at Ispahan	[170]
Persian villages near Hamadan	[170]
Turkomans	[276]
Having a pot of tea at Bokhara	[288]
A street in Samarkand	[288]
The rug caravan	[376]
DESIGNS
Angular hook	[101]
Barber-pole stripe	[102]
Bat	[103]
Beetle	[103]
Butterfly border design	[104]
Caucasian border design	[105]
Chichi border design	[105]
Chinese fret	[106]
Chinese cloud band	[106]
Comb	[108]
Crab border design	[108]
Greek cross	[109]
Fish bone border design	[112]
Galley border design	[112]
Georgian border design	[112]
Ghiordes border design	[113]
Herati border design	[114]
Herati field design	[114]
Knot of destiny	[116]
Kulah border design	[116]
Lamp	[117]
Lattice field	[117]
Link	[118]
Lotus	[118]
Lotus border design	[119]
Greek meander	[119]
Pole medallion	[120]
Mir or Saraband border design	[120]
Octagon	[122]
Palace or sunburst	[122]
Pear	[123]
Pear border design	[124]
Reciprocal saw-teeth	[126]
Reciprocal trefoil	[126]
Lily or Rhodian field design	[126]
Lily or Rhodian border design	[126]
Ribbon border design	[127]
Rooster	[127]
Rosette	[128]
S forms	[129]
Scorpion border design	[129]
Shirvan border design	[130]
Shou	[131]
Solomon's seal	[131]
Star	[133]
Swastika	[134]
T forms	[134]
Tae-kieh	[135]
Tarantula	[135]
Tekke border designs	[135]
Tekke field designs	[135]
Tomoye	[136]
Tortoise border designs	[136]
Tree designs	[137]
Wine-glass border designs	[138]
Winged disc	[139]
Y forms	[139]
Various forms of prayer-niche in rugs	[322]
NAMELESS DESIGNS
Persian border designs	[140]
Turkish border designs	[141]
Caucasian border designs	[142]
Turkoman border designs	[143]
Chinese border designs	[143]
Chinese field design	[143]
Kurdish field designs	[143]
Caucasian field design	[143]
Turkish field designs	[143]
Persian field designs	[143]
CHART
Showing the distinguishing features of the different rugs	[156]
MAP
The Orient		At end of volume

RUGS
COLORED PLATES
PAGE
Tekke Bokhara rug		Frontispiece
Meshed prayer rug	[22]
Khorasan carpet	[32]
Saruk rug	[40]
Shiraz rug	[52]
Anatolian mat	[60]
Ghiordes prayer rug	[66]
Ladik prayer rug	[74]
Daghestan rug	[84]
Kazak rug	[94]
Kazak rug	[144]
Shirvan rug	[158]
Saruk rug	[166]
Kulah hearth rug	[216]
Shirvan rug	[250]
Beshir Bokhara prayer rug	[274]
Daghestan prayer rug	[292]
Chinese rug	[300]
Chinese rug	[306]
Chinese cushion rug	[318]
DOUBLETONES
The Metropolitan animal rug	[26]
Bergama prayer rug	[46]
Symbolic Persian silk (Tabriz) rug	[48]
Symbolic Persian silk rug	[98]
Semi-Persian rug (European designs)	[100]
Shiraz prayer rug	[104]
Hamadan rug	[110]
Feraghan rug	[114]
Kermanshah rug (modern)	[118]
Khiva prayer rug	[120]
Kir Shehr prayer rug	[130]
Konieh prayer rug	[138]
Tekke Bokhara strip	[150]
Tekke Bokhara saddle half	[162]
Herez carpet	[172]
Gorevan carpet	[176]
Serapi carpet	[178]
Kashan silk rug	[180]
Tabriz rug	[182]
Bijar rug	[186]
Senna rug	[188]
Feraghan rug	[190]
Hamadan rug	[192]
Ispahan rug	[194]
Saraband rug	[198]
Mahal carpet	[202]
Niris rug	[204]
Shiraz rug	[206]
Shiraz rug	[208]
Kirman prayer rug	[210]
Kirman rug	[212]
Kurdistan rug (Mina Khani design)	[214]
Kir Shehr prayer rug	[220]
Kir Shehr hearth rug	[222]
Konieh prayer rug	[224]
Maden (Mujur) prayer rug	[226]
Ladik prayer rug	[228]
Yuruk rug	[230]
Ak Hissar prayer rug	[232]
Bergama rug	[236]
Ghiordes prayer rug	[238]
Kulah prayer rug	[240]
Meles rug	[242]
Meles rug	[244]
Makri rug	[246]
Mosul rug	[248]
Daghestan rug	[254]
Daghestan prayer rug	[256]
Kabistan rug	[258]
Tchetchen or Chichi rug	[260]
Baku rug	[262]
Shemakha, Sumak or Cashmere rug	[264]
Shirvan rug	[266]
Genghis rug	[268]
Karabagh rug	[270]
Kazak rug (Palace design)	[272]
Khiva Bokhara rug	[278]
Beshir Bokhara rug	[280]
Tekke Bokhara rug	[282]
Tekke Bokhara (Princess Bokhara, Khatchlie) prayer rug	[284]
Yomud rug	[286]
Samarkand rug	[290]
Beluchistan rug	[296]
Senna Ghileem rug	[312]
Kurdish Ghileem rug	[314]
Merve Ghileem rug	[316]
Kurdish Ghileem rug	[316]
Saddle cloth, saddle bags and powder bag	[324]
Kirman saddle bags	[326]
Bijar sample corner	[328]
Ardebil Mosque carpet	[330]
Berlin Dragon and Phœnix rug	[332]
East Indian hunting rug	[334]
The Altman prayer rug	[336]
The Baker hunting rug	[338]
RUG MAKING, ETC.
A Persian rug merchant	[38]
Expert weaver and inspector	[38]
Spinning the wool	[72]
Persian dye pots	[80]
A Persian village	[80]
A Turkish loom	[88]
The Senna and Ghiordes knots	[90]
Youthful weavers	[90]
A Persian loom	[92]
A wooden comb	[92]
A Kurdish guard	[124]
The Emir of Bokhara and his ministers	[134]
Turkomans at home	[134]
Characteristic backs of rugs	[152]
Inspecting rugs at Ispahan	[170]
Persian villages near Hamadan	[170]
Turkomans	[276]
Having a pot of tea at Bokhara	[288]
A street in Samarkand	[288]
The rug caravan	[376]
DESIGNS
Angular hook	[101]
Barber-pole stripe	[102]
Bat	[103]
Beetle	[103]
Butterfly border design	[104]
Caucasian border design	[105]
Chichi border design	[105]
Chinese fret	[106]
Chinese cloud band	[106]
Comb	[108]
Crab border design	[108]
Greek cross	[109]
Fish bone border design	[112]
Galley border design	[112]
Georgian border design	[112]
Ghiordes border design	[113]
Herati border design	[114]
Herati field design	[114]
Knot of destiny	[116]
Kulah border design	[116]
Lamp	[117]
Lattice field	[117]
Link	[118]
Lotus	[118]
Lotus border design	[119]
Greek meander	[119]
Pole medallion	[120]
Mir or Saraband border design	[120]
Octagon	[122]
Palace or sunburst	[122]
Pear	[123]
Pear border design	[124]
Reciprocal saw-teeth	[126]
Reciprocal trefoil	[126]
Lily or Rhodian field design	[126]
Lily or Rhodian border design	[126]
Ribbon border design	[127]
Rooster	[127]
Rosette	[128]
S forms	[129]
Scorpion border design	[129]
Shirvan border design	[130]
Shou	[131]
Solomon's seal	[131]
Star	[133]
Swastika	[134]
T forms	[134]
Tae-kieh	[135]
Tarantula	[135]
Tekke border designs	[135]
Tekke field designs	[135]
Tomoye	[136]
Tortoise border designs	[136]
Tree designs	[137]
Wine-glass border designs	[138]
Winged disc	[139]
Y forms	[139]
Various forms of prayer-niche in rugs	[322]
NAMELESS DESIGNS
Persian border designs	[140]
Turkish border designs	[141]
Caucasian border designs	[142]
Turkoman border designs	[143]
Chinese border designs	[143]
Chinese field design	[143]
Kurdish field designs	[143]
Caucasian field design	[143]
Turkish field designs	[143]
Persian field designs	[143]
CHART
Showing the distinguishing features of the different rugs	[156]
MAP
The Orient		At end of volume

INTRODUCTION

Just when the art of weaving originated is an uncertainty, but there seems to be a consensus of opinion among archæologists in general that it was in existence earlier than the 24th century before Christ. The first people which we have been able with certainty to associate with this art were the ancient Egyptians. Monuments of ancient Egypt and of Mesopotamia bear witness that the products of the hand loom date a considerable time prior to 2400 B.C., and on the tombs of Beni-Hassan are depicted women weaving rugs on looms very much like those of the Orient at the present time. From ancient literature we learn that the palaces of the Pharaohs were ornamented with rugs; that the tomb of Cyrus, founder of the ancient Persian monarchy, was covered with a Babylonian carpet and that Cleopatra was carried into the presence of Cæsar wrapped in a rug of the finest texture. Ovid vividly described the weaver's loom. In Homer's Iliad we find these words: "Thus as he spoke he led them in and placed on couches spread with purple carpets o'er." The woman in the Proverbs of Solomon said, "I have woven my bed with cords, I have covered it with painted tapestry from Egypt." Job said: "My days are swifter than the weaver's shuttle and are spent without hope." Other places in the Bible where reference is made to the art of weaving are, Ex. 33, 35, Sam. 17, 7, and Isa. 38, 12. Besides Biblical writers, Plautus, Scipio, Horace, Pliny and Josephus all speak of rugs.

The Egyptian carpets were not made of the same material and weave as are the so-called Oriental rugs of to-day. The pile surface was not made by tying small tufts of wool upon the warp thread. The Chinese seem to have been the first to have made rugs in this way. Persia acquired the art from Babylon many centuries before Christ, since which time she has held the foremost place as a rug weaving nation.

There is no more fascinating study than that of Oriental rugs and there are few hobbies that claim so absorbing a devotion. To the connoisseur it proves a veritable enchantment: to the busy man a mental salvation. He reads from his rugs the life history of both a bygone and a living people. A fine rug ranks second to no other creation as a work of art and although many of them are made by semi-barbaric people, they possess rare artistic beauty of design and execution to which the master hand of Time puts the finishing touches. Each masterpiece has its individuality, no two being alike, although each may be true in general to the family patterns, and therein consists their enchantment. The longer you study them the more they fascinate. Is it strange then that this wonderful reproduction of colors appeals to connoisseurs and art lovers of every country?

Were some of the antique or even the modern pieces endowed with the gift of speech what wonderfully interesting stories they could tell and yet to the connoisseur the history, so to speak, of many of these gems of the Eastern loom is plainly legible in their weave, designs and colors. The family or tribal legends worked out in the patterns, the religious or ethical meaning of the blended colors, the death of a weaver before the completion of his work, which is afterwards taken up by another, the toil and privation of which every rug is witness, are all matters of interest only to the student.

Americans have been far behind Europeans in recognizing the artistic worth and the many other advantages of the Oriental rug over any other kind. Twenty-five years ago few American homes possessed even one. Since then a marked change in public taste has taken place. All classes have become interested and, according to their resources, have purchased them in a manner characteristic of the American people, so that now some of the choicest gems in existence have found a home in the United States. To what extent this is true may be shown by the custom house statistics, which prove that, even under a tariff of nearly 50 per cent., the annual importation exceeds over five million dollars and New York City with the possible exception of London has become the largest rug market of the world. This importation will continue on even a larger scale until the Orient is robbed of all its fabrics and the Persian rug will have become a thing of the past.

Already the western demand has been so great that the dyes, materials and quality of workmanship have greatly deteriorated and the Orientals are even importing machine made rugs from Europe for their own use. It therefore behooves us to cherish the Oriental rugs now in our possession.

Both Europe and the United States are manufacturing artistic carpets of a high degree of excellence, but they never have and never will be able to produce any that will compare with those made in the East. They may copy the designs and match the shades, to a certain extent, but they lack the inspiration and the knack of blending, both of which are combined in the Oriental product.

Only in a land where time is of little value and is not considered as an equivalent to money, can such artistic perfection be brought about.

PART I

MESHED PRAYER RUG
Size 4' × 3'
FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE AUTHOR

Prayer rugs of this class are exceedingly rare. This is the only one the author has ever seen. It is extremely fine in texture, having twenty-eight Senna knots to the inch vertically and sixteen horizontally, making four hundred and forty-eight knots to the square inch, tied so closely that it is quite difficult to separate the pile sufficiently to see the wool or warp threads. The central field consists of the tree of life in dark blue with red, blue and pink flowers upon a background of rich red.

The main border stripe carries the Herati design in dark blue and dark red upon a pale blue ground on each side of which are narrow strips of pink carrying alternate dots of red and blue.

(See page [209])

The Practical Book of
Oriental Rugs

COST AND TARIFF

The value of an Oriental rug cannot be gauged by measurement any more than can that of a fine painting; it depends upon the number of knots to the square inch, the fineness of the material, the richness and stability of its colors, the amount of detail in design, its durability and, last but not least, its age. None of these qualifications being at sight apparent to the novice, he is unable to make a fair comparison of prices, as frequently rugs which appear to him to be quite alike and equally valuable may be far apart in actual worth.

When we consider that from the time a rug leaves the weavers' hands until it reaches the final buyer there are at least from five to seven profits to pay besides the government tariffs thereon, it is no wonder that the prices at times seem exorbitant. The transportation charges amount to about ten cents per square foot. The Turkish government levies one per cent. export duty and the heavily protected United States levies forty per cent. ad valorem and ten cents per square foot besides, all of which alone adds over fifty per cent. to the original cost in America, and yet should we estimate the work upon Oriental rugs by the American standard of wages they would cost from ten to fifty times their present prices.

To furnish a home with Oriental rugs is not as expensive as it would at first seem. They can be bought piece by piece at intervals, as circumstances warrant, and when a room is once provided for it is for all time, whereas the carpet account is one that is never closed.

In the United States good, durable Eastern rugs may be bought for from sixty cents to ten dollars per square foot, and in England for much less. Extremely choice pieces may run up to the thousands. At the Marquand sale in New York City in 1902, a fifteenth century Persian rug (10-10 x 6-1) was sold for $36,000, nearly $550 a square foot. The holy carpet of the Mosque at Ardebil, woven at Kashan in 1536 and now owned by the South Kensington Museum, of London, is valued at $30,000. The famous hunting rug, which was presented some years ago by the late Ex-Governor Ames of Massachusetts to the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, is said to have cost $35,000. The late Mr. Yerkes of New York City paid $60,000 for his "Holy Carpet," the highest price ever paid for a rug. Mr. J. P. Morgan recently paid $17,000 for one 20 x 15. Two years ago H. C. Frick paid $160,000 for eight small Persians, $20,000 apiece. Senator Clark's collection cost $3,000,000, H. O. Havemeyer's $250,000, and O. H. Payne's $200,000.

THE METROPOLITAN ANIMAL RUG
BY COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF FINE ARTS
NEW YORK CITY
(See page [337])

Everything considered, the difference in cost per square foot between the average Oriental and the home product amounts to little in comparison to the difference in endurance. If one uses the proper judgment in selecting, his money is much better spent when invested in the former than when invested in the latter. While the nap of the domestic is worn down to the warp the Oriental has been improving in color and sheen as well as in value. This is due to the fact that the Eastern product is made of the softest of wool and treated with dyes which have stood the test of centuries and which preserve the wool instead of destroying it as do the aniline dyes.

In comparing the cost of furnishing a home with Oriental rugs or with carpets one should further take into consideration the fact that with carpets much unnecessary floor space must be covered which represents so much waste money. Also the question of health involved in the use of carpets is a very serious one. They retain dust and germs of all kinds and are taken up and cleaned, as a rule, but once a year. With rugs the room is much more easily kept clean and the furniture does not have to be moved whenever sweeping time comes around.

DEALERS AND AUCTIONS

Few Europeans or Americans penetrate to the interior markets of the East where home-made rugs find their first sale. Agents of some of the large importers have been sent over to collect rugs from families or small factories and the tales of Oriental shrewdness and trickery which they bring back are many and varied. We have in this country many honest, reliable foreign dealers, but occasionally one meets with one of the class above referred to. In dealing with such people it is safe never to bid more than half and never to give over two-thirds of the price they ask you. Also never show special preference for any particular piece, otherwise you will be charged more for it. No dealer or authority may lay claim to infallibility, but few of these people have any adequate knowledge of their stock and are, as a rule, uncertain authorities, excepting in those fabrics which come from the vicinity of the province in which they lived. They buy their stock in large quantities, usually by the bale at so much a square foot, and then mark each according to their judgment so as to make the bale average up well and pay a good profit. So it is that an expert may occasionally select a choice piece at a bargain while the novice usually pays more than the actual worth. Every rug has three values, first the art value depending upon its colors and designs, second the collector's value depending upon its rarity, and third the utility value depending upon its durability. No dealer can buy rugs on utility value alone and he who sells Oriental rugs very cheap usually sells very cheap rugs.

It might be well right here to state that when rugs are sold by the bale the wholesaler usually places a few good ones in the bale for the purpose of disposing of the poor ones. Dealers can always find an eager market for good rugs, but poor ones often go begging, and in order to dispose of them the auction is resorted to. They are put up under a bright reflected light which shows them off to the best advantage; the bidder is allowed no opportunity for a thorough examination and almost invariably there are present several fake bidders. This you can prove to your own satisfaction by attending some auction several days in succession and you will see the same beautiful Tabriz bid off each time at a ridiculously low price, while those that you actually see placed into the hands of the deliveryman will average in price about the same as similar rugs at a retail store.

KHORASAN CARPET
Size 14' × 10'
LOANED BY A. U. DILLEY & CO.
OWNER'S DESCRIPTION

An East Persian rug of especially heavy weave in robin egg blue, soft red and cream.

Design: Serrated centre medallion, confined by broad blue corner bands and seven border strips. A rug of elaborate conventionalized floral decoration, with a modern rendition of Shah Abbas design in border.

(See page [207])

ANTIQUES

The passion for antiques in this country has in the past been so strong that rugs showing signs of hard wear, with ragged edges and plenty of holes, were quite as salable as those which were perfect in every respect and the amateur collector of so-called "antiques" was usually an easy victim. Of late, however, the antique craze seems to be dying out and the average buyer of to-day will select a perfect modern fabric in preference to an imperfect antique one.

There is no question that age is an important factor in the beauty of a rug and that an antique in a state of good preservation is much more valuable than a modern fabric, especially to the collector, to whom the latter has little value. In order to be classed as an antique a rug should be at least fifty years old, having been made before the introduction of aniline dyes. An expert can determine the age by the method of weaving, the material used, the color combination, and the design, with more certainty than can the art connoisseur tell the age of certain European pictures, to which he assigns dates by their peculiarities in style. Every time a design is copied it undergoes some slight change until, perhaps, the original design is lost. This modification of designs also affords great assistance in determining their age. In the Tiffany studios in New York City can be seen a series of Feraghan rugs showing the change in design for several generations.

As a rule more knowledge concerning the age of a rug can be obtained from the colors and the materials employed than from the designs. An antique appears light and glossy when the nap runs from you, whereas it will appear dark and rich but without lustre when viewed from the other end. Such rugs are usually more or less shiny on the back and their edges are either somewhat ragged or have been overcast anew.

With the exception of a few rare old pieces which may be found in the palaces of rulers and certain noblemen, the Orient has been pretty well stripped of its antiques. Mr. Charles Quill Jones, who has made three trips through the Orient in search of old rugs, reports that region nearly bare of gems. During his last sojourn in those parts he has succeeded in collecting a considerable number of valuable pieces, but his success may be attributed to the poverty and disruption of households occasioned by the losses of the recent revolution in Persia. As especially rare he writes of having secured five pieces which were made during the reign of Shah Abbas in the 16th century. In England, France, Germany, Russia, Austria, Poland, and especially Bavaria, there are many fine old pieces, those of London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and Budapest being particularly noteworthy. The Rothschild collection in Paris contains many matchless pieces and the Ardebil Mosque carpet, which is in the South Kensington Museum, London, is without doubt the most famous piece of weaving in the world. According to the inscription upon it, it was woven by Maksoud, the slave of the Holy Place of Kashan, in 1536. It measures thirty-four feet by seventeen feet six inches and contains 32,000,000 knots. No doubt there are more good genuine antiques in Europe and America than in the entire Orient. They are to be found, as a rule, in museums and in private collections. A number of really old and very valuable pieces may be seen at the Metropolitan Museum of Fine Arts in New York City. The Yerkes collection of Oriental rugs, which has recently been disposed of at public sale by the American Art Galleries, contained nothing but Polish fabrics and Persian carpets of royal origin, made at some early date prior to the seventeenth century. Some of the most prominent collectors of the United States are Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan of New York City, who has one of the most valuable collections in the world; Mr. H. C. Frick of Pittsburg, Pa., Miss A. L. Pease of Hartford, Conn., Mr. C. F. Williams of Morristown, Pa., the Hon. W. A. Clark and Mr. Benjamin Altman of New York City, Mr. Theodore M. Davis of Newport, R. I., Mr. Frank Loftus, Mr. F. A. Turner and Mr. L. A. Shortell of Boston; Mr. J. F. Ballard of St. Louis and Mr. P. A. B. Widener of Elkins Park, Pa. The late Ex-Governor Ames of Massachusetts was an enthusiastic collector and possessed many fine pieces.

The late A. T. Sinclair of Allston, Mass., possessed over one hundred and fifty antiques, which he himself collected over twenty years ago from the various districts of Persia, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Turkestan, and Beluchistan. Many of these pieces are from one hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty years old and every one is a gem.

A PERSIAN RUG MERCHANT

EXPERT WEAVER AND INSPECTOR

With the exception of an occasional old Ghiordes, Kulah, Bergama or Mosul, for which are asked fabulous prices, few antiques can now be found for sale. It is on account of the enormous prices which antiques bring that faked antiques have found their way into the market. Rugs may be artificially aged but never without detriment to them. The aging process is mostly done by cunning adepts in Persia or Constantinople before they are exported, although in recent years the doctoring process has been practised to quite an extent in the United States, and a large portion of the undoctored rugs which reach these shores are soon afterwards put through this process. The majority of dealers will tell you that there is comparatively little sale for the undoctored pieces. The chemically subdued tones and artificial sheen appeal to most people who know little about Oriental rugs.

For toning down the bright colors they use chloride of lime, oxalic acid or lemon juice; for giving them an old appearance they use coffee grounds, and for the creation of an artificial sheen or lustre the rugs are usually run between hot rollers after the application of glycerine or paraffin wax; they are sometimes buried in the ground for a time, and water color paints are frequently used to restore the color in spots where the acid has acted too vigorously. Such rugs usually show a slight tinge of pink in the white.

There is a class of modern rugs of good quality, good material, and vegetable dyed, but with colors too bright for Occidental taste. Such rugs are sometimes treated with water, acid, and alkali. The effect of the acid is here neutralized by the alkali in such a way that the colors are rendered more subdued and mellow in tone without resulting injury to the material.

What the trade speaks of as a "washed" rug is not necessarily a "doctored" one. There is a legitimate form of washing which is really a finishing process and which does not injure the fabric. It merely washes out the surplus color and sets the rest. The belief that only aniline dyes will rub off when wet and that vegetable ones will not do so is erroneous. If a rug is new and never has been washed the case is quite the opposite. For the reader's own satisfaction, let him moisten and rub a piece of domestic carpet. He will find that the aniline of the latter fabric is comparatively fast, whereas, in a newly made vegetable dyed Oriental, certain colors, especially the blues, reds and greens, will wipe off to a certain extent. After this first washing out, however, nothing other than a chemical will disturb the vegetable color.

SARUK RUG
Size 14' × 10'
LOANED BY A. U. DILLEY & CO.
OWNER'S DESCRIPTION

The field: Three fawn and blue flower colored medallions and four arabesques in a line arrangement on a rose-colored background, strewn with garlands.

The border: One broad stripe, carrying elaborate floral sprays and arabesques, separated by four elongated corner designs in blue.

An elegant combination of brilliant color and ornate floral design. Cotton foundation and wool pile.

(See page [200])

ADVICE TO BUYERS

No set of rules can be furnished which will fully protect purchasers against deception. It is well, however, for one, before purchasing, to acquire some knowledge of the characteristics of the most common varieties as well as of the different means employed in examining them.

In the first place, avoid dealers who fail to mark their goods in plain figures. Be on the safe side and go to a reliable house with an established reputation. They will not ask you fancy prices. If it is in a department store be sure you deal with some one who is regularly connected with the Oriental rug department. You would never dream of buying a piano of one who knows nothing of music. So many domestic rugs copy Oriental patterns that many uninformed people cannot tell the difference. The following are some of the characteristics of the Eastern fabrics which are not possessed by the Western ones. First, they show their whole pattern and color in detail on the back side; second, the pile is composed of rows of distinctly tied knots, which are made plainly visible by separating it; third, the sides are either overcast with colored wool or have a narrow selvage; and fourth, the ends have either a selvage or fringe or both.

In buying, first select what pleases you in size, color, and design, then take time and go over it as thoroughly as a horseman would over a horse which he contemplates buying. Lift it to test the weight. Oriental rugs are much heavier in proportion to their size than are the domestics. See if it lies straight and flat on the floor and has no folds. Crookedness detracts much from its value. Take hold of the centre and pull it up into a sort of cone shape. If compactly woven it will stand alone just as a piece of good silk will. Examine the pile and see whether it is long, short or worn in places down to the warp threads; whether it lies down as in loosely woven rugs or stands up nearly straight as in closely woven rugs; also note the number of knots to the square inch and whether or not they are firmly tied. The wearing qualities depend upon the length of the pile and the compactness of weaving. Separate the pile, noting whether the wool is of the same color but of a deeper shade near the knot than it is on the surface or if it is of an entirely different color. Vegetable dyes usually fade to lighter shades of the original color, while anilines fade to different colors, one or another of the dyes used in combination entirely disappearing at times and others remaining. This will also be noticeable, to a certain extent, when one end of the fabric is turned over and the two sides are compared. Two rugs may be almost exactly alike in every respect excepting the dye, the one being worth ten to fifteen times as much as the other.

A good way to test the material is to slightly burn its surface with a match, thus producing a black spot. If the wool is good the singed part can be brushed off without leaving the slightest trace of the burn. The smell of the burnt wool will also easily be recognized. Ascertain the relative strength of the material, making sure that the warp is the heaviest and strongest, the pile next and the woof the lightest. If the warp is lighter than the pile it will break easily or if the warp is light and the weaving loose it will pucker. Rugs whose foundation threads are dry and rotten from age are worthless. In such pieces the woof threads, which are the lightest, will break in seams along the line of the warp when slightly twisted.

Examine the selvage. It will often indicate the method of its manufacture, showing whether it is closely or loosely woven, for the selvage is a continuation of the groundwork of the rug itself. Also notice the material, whether of hair, wool or cotton. Separate the pile and examine the woof, noting the number of threads between each row of knots. If possible pull one of them out. In the cheaper grade of rugs you will often find two strands of cotton and one of wool twisted together. Such rugs are very likely some time to bunch up, especially if washed. See if the selvage or warp threads on the sides are broken in places. If so it would be an unwise choice. Now turn the rug over and view it from the back, noting whether repairs have been made and, if so, to what extent. View it from the back with the light shining into the pile to see if there are any moths. Pat it and knock out the dust. In some instances you will be surprised how thoroughly impregnated it will be with the dust of many lands and how much more attractive the colors are after such a patting. Rub your hand over the surface with the nap. If the wool is of a fine quality a feeling of electric smoothness will result, such as is experienced when stroking the back of a cat in cold weather.

Finally, before coming to a decision regarding its purchase, have it sent to your home for a few days. There you can study it more leisurely and may get an idea as to whether or not you would soon tire of the designs or colors. While you have it there do not forget to take soap, water and a stiff brush and scrub well some portion of it, selecting a part where some bright color such as green, blue or red joins a white. After the rug has thoroughly dried notice whether or not the white has taken any of the other colors. If so, they are aniline.

BERGAMA PRAYER RUG
Size 3'8" × 2'7"
PROPERTY OF MR. GEORGE BAUSCH
(See page [237])

A rather vulgar but very good way of telling whether a rug is doctored or not is to wet it with saliva and rub it in well. If chemically treated it will have a peculiar, disagreeable, pungent odor.

A fairly accurate way of determining the claim of the fabric to great age is to draw out a woof thread and notice how difficult it is to straighten it, even after days of soaking in water. Unless one is an expert, he should refrain from relying upon his own judgment in buying a rug for an antique.

It may be interesting to know the meaning of the tags and seals so frequently found on rugs. The little square or nearly square cloth tag that is so frequently attached at one corner to the under surface by two wire clasps has on it the number given to that particular piece for the convenience of the washer, the exporter, the importer and the custom officials. The rug is recorded by its number instead of by its name to avoid confusion and to save labor. The round lead seal which is frequently attached to one corner of the rug by a flexible wire or a string, especially among the larger pieces, is the importer's seal, on one side of which will be found his initials. These also are of great assistance to the custom officials.

Before closing this chapter a few words in regard to the selection of rugs for certain rooms might be acceptable, though this is, to a large extent, a matter of individual taste; yet in making a selection one should have some consideration for the decorations and furniture of the room in which the rugs are to be laid and they should harmonize with the side walls, whether the harmony be one of analogy or of contrast. The floor of a room is the base upon which the scheme of decoration is to be built. Its covering should carry the strongest tones. If a single tint is to be used the walls must take the next gradation and the ceiling the last. These gradations must be far enough removed from each other in depth of tone to be quite apparent but not to lose their relation. Contrasting colors do not always harmonize. A safe rule to follow would be to select a color with any of its complementary colors. For instance, the primary colors are red, blue, and yellow. The complementary color of red would be the color formed by the combination of the other two, which in this case would be green composed of yellow and blue; therefore red and green would form a harmony of contrast. Likewise red and blue make violet, which would harmonize with yellow; red and yellow make orange, which would harmonize with blue, etc.

SYMBOLIC PERSIAN SILK (TABRIZ) RUG
(See page [316])

Light rooms of Louis XVI style would hardly look as well with bright, rich colored rugs as they would with delicately tinted Kirmans, Saruks, and Sennas. Nor would the latter styles look as well in a Dutch dining room, finished in black oak, as would the rich, dark Bokharas and Feraghans. Mission rooms also require the dark colored rugs. If the room is pleasing in its proportion and one rug is used it should conform as nearly in proportion as possible. If the room is too long for its width select a rug which will more nearly cover the floor in width than it will in length. A rug used in the centre of a room with considerable floor area around it decreases the apparent size of the room. Long rugs placed lengthwise of a room increase its apparent length, while short rugs placed across a room decrease its apparent length, and rugs with large patterns, like wall paper with large patterns, will dwarf the whole apartment. The following ideas are merely offered as suggestions without any pretension whatever to superiority of judgment.

For a Vestibule a long-naped mat, which corresponds in shape to the vestibule and covers fully one-half of its surface, such for instance as a Beluchistan or a Mosul. Appropriate shorter naped pieces may be found among the Anatolians, Meles, Ladiks or Yuruks. As a rule the dark colored ones are preferable.

Hall.—If the hall is a long, narrow one, use long runners which cover fully two-thirds of its surface. Such may be found among the Mosuls, Sarabands, Hamadans, Ispahans, Shirvans, and Genghis.

For a reception hall a Khiva Bokhara, a Yomud, a dark colored Mahal, or several Kazaks or Karabaghs would look well if the woodwork is dark. If the woodwork is light several light colored Caucasian or Persian pieces such as the Daghestans, Kabistans, Sarabands, Hamadans, or Shiraz would be appropriate.

Reception Room.—A light colored Kermanshah, Tabriz, Saruk, Senna, or Khorasan. Usually one large piece which covers from two-thirds to three-fourths of the floor surface is the most desirable.

Living Room.—For this room, which is the most used of any in the home, we should have the most durable rugs and as a rule a number of small or medium sized pieces, which can be easily shifted from one position to another, are preferable. Here, too, respect must be had for harmony with the side walls, woodwork and furniture, as it is here that the family spend most of their time and decorative discord would hardly add to one's personal enjoyment. Many appropriate selections may be made from the Feraghans, Ispahans, Sarabands, Shiraz, Mosuls, Daghestans, Kabistans, and Beluchistans.

Dining Room.—Ordinarily nothing would be more appropriate than one of the Herez or Sultanabad productions unless the room be one of the Mission style, in which case a Khiva Bokhara would be most desirable. Small pieces would not be suitable.

Library or Den.—One large or several small pieces, usually the dark rich shades are preferable, such for instance as are found in the Khivas, Yomuds, Kurdistans, Feraghans, Shiraz, Kazaks, Beluchistans or Tekke Bokharas, the predominating color selected according to the decorations of the room.

Bath Room.—One heavy long-piled, soft piece such as are some of the Bijars or Mosuls in light colors.

Bedrooms.—For chambers where colors rather than period styles are dominant and where large rugs are never appropriate, prayer rugs like those of the Kulah, Ghiordes, Ladik, Anatolian, or Daghestan varieties are to be desired. Those with yellow as the predominating color blend especially well with mahogany furniture if the walls are in buff or yellow tones. The Nomad products are especially desirable for bedrooms on account of the comfort which they afford. Being thick and soft the sensation to the tread is luxurious. An occasional Anatolian, Ladik, Bergama, Meles, or Bokhara mat placed before a dresser or a wash-stand; a Shiraz pillow on the sofa; a Senna Ghileem thrown over a divan; a Shiraz, Mosul, or Beluchistan saddle-bag on a Mission standard as a receptacle for magazines; a silk rug as a table spread, etc., will all add greatly to the Oriental effect.

SHIRAZ RUG
BY COURTESY OF NAHIGIAN BROS., CHICAGO, ILL.

This piece is typical of its class with the small tassels of wool on the side edging; with the ornamental web and the braided warp threads at each end, also the pole medallion and the numerous bird forms throughout the field.

(See page [204])

THE HYGIENE OF THE RUG

In all the literature on Oriental Rugs no mention has been made of their sanitary condition when laid on the floors of our homes. In response to a letter of inquiry, one of our American missionaries, a young lady stationed at Sivas, Turkey in Asia, who very modestly objects to the use of her name, so well explained the condition of affairs that portions of her letter given verbatim will prove most interesting. She says:

"In Sivas there are a number of rug factories in which are employed many thousand little girls, ages ranging from four years upward. They work from twelve to fourteen hours a day and I believe the largest amount received by them is five piasters (less than twenty cents) and the small girls receive ten to twenty paras (a cent or two). These factories are hotbeds of tuberculosis and we have many of these cases in our Mission Hospital. Of course this amount of money scarcely keeps them in bread and in this underfed condition, working so long in ill ventilated rooms, they quickly succumb to this disease. These girls are all Armenians in that region. The Turks do not allow their women and children to work in public places. The Armenians are going to reap a sad harvest in the future in thus allowing the future wives and mothers of their race to undermine their health working in these factories. These rugs are all exported to Europe and America.

"No matter what part of the city you pass through this time of the year you will see looms up in the different homes and most of the family, especially the women and children, working on these rugs, and it is very interesting to watch them and to see how skilful even the small children grow in weaving these intricate patterns. Making rugs in the homes is quite different from making them in the factories, for in the summer at least they have plenty of fresh air.

"No doubt many rugs made in these homes are filled with germs of contagious diseases, for they use no precautions here when they have such diseases in the family, and usually the poor people only have one room, and if a member of the family is stricken with smallpox or scarlet fever the rest of the family continue to work on the rug often in the same room."

Another correspondent from Marash, Turkey in Asia, says, "If you are interested in humanity as well as in rugs, please put in a strong plea against some of these factories which are employing children who can scarcely speak. These little babies sit from morning till evening tying and cutting knots in damp and poorly ventilated places. Is it a wonder that diseases, especially tuberculosis, are developing rapidly among them?"

A third correspondent says, "Often rugs upon which patients have died from contagious diseases are sold without cleaning. In fact, they are rarely cleaned."

Upon receipt of the above a letter of inquiry was at once sent to the Treasury Department at Washington regarding the disinfection of textiles from the Orient immediately upon their arrival into this country, to which we were informed that "The Surgeon-General of the Public Health and Marine Hospital Service stated that such rugs, if originating in parts or places infected with quarantinable diseases, would be required to be disinfected under the quarantine laws." This sounds sensible, but when the rugs are sent from all parts of the Orient to Constantinople, from whence they are shipped in bales to the United States, pray how can the Surgeon-General discriminate? The only safe way is for the government to have strict laws regarding their immediate and thorough disinfection. We already have a law which requires the disinfection of hides before they are shipped to this country. It reads: "Officers of the customs are directed to treat hides of neat cattle shipped to the United States without proper disinfection as prohibited importations, and to refuse entry of such hides." Also, "the disinfection of such hides in this country or storage of the same in general order warehouses will not be permitted, for the reason that the passage of diseased hides through the country or their storage with other goods will tend to the dissemination of cattle disease in the United States." (See Section 12 of the Tariff Act of August 5, 1909.)

Ex-President Taft once recommended a new department of public health whose duty it would be to consider all matters relating to the health of the nation. If his suggestions are carried out no doubt the question of disinfecting Oriental imports will be satisfactorily disposed of.

Until then we should see to it that all Oriental rugs are at least clean and free from dust before allowing them to be delivered in our homes. The great majority of these rugs, when leaving the Orient, are impregnated with dust from their adobe floors and, if free of this dust, they have in all probability been pretty thoroughly cleaned by some reliable importer or dealer, the majority of whom are beginning to realize the importance of this procedure.

ANTIQUE ANATOLIAN MAT
Size 3'5" × 1'10"
FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE AUTHOR

Knot. Nine to the inch vertically and eight horizontally, making seventy-two to the square inch.

This is a most unusual piece. It has a long nap, is tied with the Turkish knot and in many respects resembles the Bergama while on the back it has a distinctly Khorasan appearance. It is an old piece with a most lustrous sheen and the colors are of the best, every one being of exactly the same tint on the surface as it is down next to the warp threads.

The prevailing color is a rich terra cotta with figures of lilies in olive-green, old rose, blue and white. There are also a number of six-petaled flowers in red, white and blue. In the centre there is a diamond-shaped medallion with triangular corner pieces to match, all of which are outlined in natural black wool. The nap is so cut as to give the surface the characteristic hammered-brass appearance so common in many of the antique Bergamas and the lustre is such as is only found in the very old pieces.

(See page [234])

THE CARE OF RUGS

There is a popular idea that an Oriental rug will never wear out and that the harder it is used the more silky it will grow. This is an erroneous idea and many rugs that would be almost priceless now are beyond repair, having fallen into the hands of people who did not appreciate them and give them the proper care. Oriental rugs cannot be handled and beaten like the domestics without serious injury. In the Orient they receive much better treatment than they do at our hands. There they are never exposed to the glare of a strong light and are never subjected to the contact of anything rougher than the bare feet. The peculiar silkiness of the nap so much admired in old pieces is due to the fact that the Oriental never treads on them with his shoes.

Large rugs, having a longer pile, resist more the wear and tear from the shoes, but they must be handled with greater care than the small ones, as, being heavier, the warp or woof threads are more liable to break.

As a rule rugs should be cleaned every week or two. Never shake them or hang them on a line, as the foundation threads may break, letting the knots slip and spread apart. There are more rugs worn out in this way than by actual service. Lay them face downward on the grass or on a clean floor and gently beat them with something pliable like a piece of rubber hose cut in strips. With a clean broom sweep the back, then turning them over, sweep across the nap each way, then with the nap. Brushing against the nap is most harmful, as it may loosen the knots and force the dust and dirt into the texture. Finally dampen the broom or, better still, dampen a clean white cloth in water to which a little alcohol has been added, and wipe over the entire rug in the direction in which the nap lies. The sweeping process keeps the end of the pile clean and bright and gives it a silky, lustrous appearance. Sometimes clean, dampened sawdust can be used and, in the winter time, nothing is better than snow, which will clean and brighten them wonderfully.

Many rugs are improved by an occasional washing. It is usually advisable to have some reliable man, who understands this work, to do it for you, as it is quite a task and few homes have a suitable place for it. A good concrete floor will answer nicely. With a stiff brush, a cake of castile or wool soap and some warm water give the pile a thorough scrubbing in every direction excepting against the nap. Rinse with warm water, then with cold, turning the hose upon it for fifteen or twenty minutes. Soft water is preferable if it can be obtained. Finally, with a smooth stick or a wooden roller, squeeze the water out by stroking it in the direction of the nap. This stroking process should be continued for some time, after which the rug is spread out on a roof face upward for several clear days.

Unless rugs are frequently moved or cleaned moths are sure to get into them. Sweeping alone is not always sufficient to keep them out. For this purpose the compressed air method is par excellence.

If you expect to close your home for several weeks or months do not leave your rugs on the floor. After having all necessary repairs made, have them thoroughly cleaned by the compressed air process, then place them in canvas or strong paper bags, sealing them tightly. A large rug may be wrapped with clean white paper, then with tar paper. It is better to roll than to fold them, but if folded always see that the pile is on the inside, else bad creases may be made in them which may never come out. They should be stored in a dry, airy room, as they readily absorb moisture.

When a rug shows a tendency to curl on the corners only, a very good idea is to weight it down with tea lead which is folded in such a way as to make a piece about four inches long, one inch wide and one-eighth of an inch thick. This is inclosed in a cloth pocket which is sewed to the under side of the rug at the corners so that its length lies in the direction of the warp.

Many rugs that are crooked may easily be straightened by tacking them face downward in the proper shape and wetting them. They should be kept in that position until thoroughly dried and shrunken to the proper shape. Obstinate and conspicuous stains may be removed by clipping the discolored pile down flat to the warp, carefully pulling out the knots from the back of the rug and having new ones inserted. This, however, with all other extensive repairs, should be done by one especially skilled in that line.

Considering the rapid increase in the price of good Oriental rugs within the past few years we should appreciate and care for all the fine examples which we already have in our possession.

GHIORDES PRAYER RUG
PROPERTY OF LIBERTY & CO., LONDON, ENGLAND.

The prayer niche, the cross panels and the main border stripe are all characteristic of its class.
(See page [238])

THE MATERIAL OF RUGS

The materials from which rugs are made, named in order of the ratio in which they are used, are wool, goats' hair, camels' hair, cotton, silk, and hemp.

Wool.—The wool produced in the colder provinces is softer and better than that produced in the warmer provinces. Likewise that produced at a high altitude is superior to that from a lower altitude. The quality of the pasturage plays a most important part in the quality of the wool. For this reason no better wool is to be found anywhere in the world than from the provinces of Khorasan and Kurdistan. Very often the sheep are covered over with a sheet to protect and keep the wool in a clean, lustrous condition. The quality of the wool also depends to no small extent upon the age of the sheep from which it is taken, that from the young lambs being softer and more pliable than that from the older animals. The softest and most lustrous wool is that which is obtained by combing the sheep in winter and is known as kurk. From this some of the choicest prayer rugs are made.

Goats' Hair.—From the goats of some localities, especially in Asia Minor and Turkestan, is obtained a soft down which is used to a large extent in the manufacture of rugs. The straight hair of the goat is also used. It is of a light brown color and, as it will not dye well, is sometimes used without dyeing to produce brown grounds, as in some of the Kurdistan products. It is quite commonly used as a selvage and fringe in the Turkoman products. When wet it curls so tightly that it is difficult to spin it, therefore it is not always washed. This accounts for the strong odor which is especially noticeable in warm weather.

Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat of Asia Minor, while cashmere consists of the soft under-wool of the Cashmere goat of Tibet.

Camels' Hair.—In Eastern Persia, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan are camels which produce a long woolly hair suitable for rug weaving which is never dyed, is silky and soft, has phenomenal durability and is used quite freely in the Hamadan, Mosul, and Beluchistan products. It is more expensive than sheep's wool but has one great drawback in that on the muggy days of summer it has a disagreeable odor. Most of the alleged camels' hair of commerce is a goats' hair pure and simple.

Cotton.—The majority of the finer Persian rugs have cotton warp and woof. It makes a much lighter, better and more compact foundation on which to tie the pile, and a rug with such a foundation will hold its shape much better. Seldom is cotton used for the pile excepting once in a great while a Bokhara may be found with small portions of the white worked in cotton.

Silk.—In the regions bordering on the Caspian Sea and in some parts of China where silk is plentiful it is used to quite an extent in the making of rugs, not only for the nap but frequently for the warp and woof as well. It makes a beautiful fabric, but of course will not wear like wool.

Hemp.—Hemp is seldom used in rug making for the reason that it rots quickly after being wet and the entire fabric is soon gone.

Preparation of the Wool.—After being sorted, the wool is taken to a brook and washed thoroughly at intervals in the cold running water for several times until all foreign matters are removed, leaving the animal fat which gives it the soft, silky appearance. The results of washing depend to a certain extent upon the quality of the water used in the process, soft water giving much better results than does the hard.

After a thorough bleaching in the sun's rays it is placed in a stone vessel, covered with a mixture of flour and starch, then pounded with wooden mallets, after which it is again washed in running water for several hours and again dried in the sun. Under this process it shrinks in weight from forty to fifty per cent., and after being spun the yarn is sold everywhere for the same price as twice the amount of the raw material.

It is spun in three different ways. That which is intended for the warp is spun tightly and of medium thickness, that for the woof rather fine, and that for the pile heavy and loose.

There are so many different natural shades of wool that much of it can be utilized in its natural color. The dyeing is always done in the yarn, never in the loose fibres, and will be explained in the chapter under Dyes.

SPINNING THE WOOL
COURTESY OF PUSHMAN BROS., CHICAGO.

LADIK PRAYER RUG
Size 7'2" × 4'
BY COURTESY OF NAHIGIAN BROS., CHICAGO, ILL.

Owners' Description.—These rare rugs, so renowned for their splendid coloring, are well represented by this specimen. The very unusual shade of green, the sacred color, the deep ivory, and the rich reds and blues are blended into each other in an artistic manner.

In and above the "Mihrab" or niche will be noted the "Ubrech" or pitcher, a most interesting design. It is from this "Ubrech" that water is poured upon the hands of the Mohammedan as he makes his ablutions. Wash basins are unknown in the Orient and no follower of Mohammed will consent to wash in anything except running water.

So the "Ubrech" is almost as important as the prayer rug itself, and the four reproductions on this rug emphasize to the devout Mohammedan owner that cleanliness is next important to Godliness.

Rhodian lilies, with long stems and inverted in the frieze below the "Mihrab" or niche, are an often noted feature of the Ladik prayer rugs.

(See page [228])

DYES AND DYERS

The secrets of the Eastern dye-pot are responsible for the unrivalled beauty and durability of the Oriental rug. These secrets of extracting coloring matter from roots, leaves, flowers, barks, and various other vegetable and animal products by a process of boiling, fermenting, etc., were guarded religiously and descended from father to son, many of them having been lost as the family became extinct. Each dyer or family of dyers has some peculiar and secret method of producing certain shades.

Our great knowledge of chemistry has aided us little in our effort to duplicate and produce certain colors which the Orientals produced with the simplest ingredients and without any knowledge of chemistry whatever. Every kind of plant from which dyestuff is obtained is a product of geographic environment, the quality of which depends upon certain conditions of climate and soil. For this reason those of one locality may be superior to those of another. On the other hand it must not be forgotten that there are many classes of vegetable dyes which are not scientifically or honestly made.

After the wool has gone through the washing process and dried it is dipped into one or more pots, according to the shade desired, for a certain length of time, when, without being wrung out, it is hung up over the dye-pot to drip and after being washed once more in cold water it finally is spread out in the sun. Even when the same process is followed each time it is seldom that two bunches of material dyed have exactly the same shade, as the density of the dye and its shade differs somewhat with each dip of wool from a previous pot. This probably accounts in part for the innumerable shadings seen in the rugs of certain localities. Formerly the dyers employed as mordants, valonia, pomegranate rind, sumac, and the barks of certain trees, but in some districts of late they use alum. This, with the lime solution in which the wool is washed before dyeing to increase the brilliancy of the dyes, makes the yarn brittle and lessens its wearing quality. Most vegetable dyes fade, but they fade into softer and more pleasing shades. The best colors for service are, as a rule, the blues, yellows, and reds, all of which improve greatly with age. The browns are apt to lose their lustre, while the blacks, which are really mineral, being made by the action of vinegar on iron shavings, seem most corrosive and gradually eat the wool. Many of the antiques you will find in a splendid state of preservation with the exception of the black, which has eaten the pile down to the warp threads. Natural colored black and brown wools and brown camels' hair are frequently used and they are, of course, durable.

There is no doubt that the increasing demand in this country for the Eastern rug, together with the Russian influence in the Orient, tends towards more hasty commercial methods of manufacture and is, to a great extent, responsible for the introduction there of aniline dyes. The coal tar products have been readily accepted by the Eastern dyers, as they are cheaper, more easily used, and offer a greater number of brilliant shades, all of which appeal very much to the Oriental taste.

The aniline dyes are more commonly used through Asia Minor and, to some extent, in the Caucasus and even in Persia. In 1903 a law was enacted by the Persian government forbidding the importation of chemical dyes and seizing and destroying all fabrics in which they were used. It was also decreed that a dyer found guilty of using them would have his right hand cut off. The government has never been very strict in enforcing this law, else there would be at the present time many one-handed men in Persia.

As there is no such law in Asia Minor, fully seventy-five per cent. of the rugs now imported from that country are aniline dyed. The Kurdistan, Khorasan, and Kirman products, as well as those made by the Nomads in the Fars district of Persia, have been particularly free from outside influences and as a rule are honestly dyed.

The nomadic life of the Kurds in former times enabled them to gather plants more easily and so they were able to obtain good vegetable dyes. Now that they do not roam as much the result is, less vegetable and more aniline dyes. Formerly also, the best wool only was used by the Kurds for the making of rugs and the women chose only that which they knew would take the colors well. Now the men sell the best part of the wool and the women use what is left and press aniline dyes into service to hide any possible defect.

Some of the coal tar products will resist light, water, and air even better than many of the vegetable pigments, but the former have a tendency to make the wool fibres more brittle so that they break easily, while the latter preserve the wool and lengthen the life of the fabric.

Each nation uses to a large extent its favorite color, thus the Persian is partial to the dark greens and yellows, the Turk to the reds, and the Armenian to the blues. Asia Minor and Persia being countries of intense sunshine, in which the colors of the sky and land are most pronounced, the neutral tints and hues make little impression on such surroundings and are therefore little used. All the rug making people use more or less yellow, blue, orange, red, ruby, and green, excepting the Turk, who regards the latter as a sacred color and not to be trodden on. He therefore seldom uses it in any but those of the prayer design.

An expert can often distinguish between an aniline dyed rug and a vegetable dyed one merely by feeling of it, as the coal tar product robs the wool of its oil, making it stiffer, harder, and dryer. Another way to differentiate is to examine some of the white which lies next to some bright color like blue, red, orange, or green and see if it has become tinted with the brighter color. If not, wet the two and after they dry see if the white has taken any of the other color. If so it is probably aniline. In the Orient they use a string of amber beads with which to test the dyes. The beads are drawn over the surface of the rug so that the colors reflect through them. If aniline they are said to have a cloudy appearance, while if vegetable they have a clear wavy appearance. If there is any knowledge imparted by this test it certainly is only in the hands of the experienced. A vegetable dye will fade into a lighter tone of itself, while in a chemical dye some one of the colors used to make up the composite color will disappear. For instance a blue, which has been used with yellow to make green, may entirely disappear, leaving the yellow; thus in the aniline product the surface will show the changed color and the original color will show down next to the warp, while in the vegetable dyed product there will simply be two shades of the same color.

Weavers frequently choose colors according to their symbolic significance, so that they work into their rugs a sort of poetry which only the initiated can read. Thus to the Persian, the Chinese, and the Indian Mohammedan, white is an emblem of mourning; green is regarded by the Mohammedan as a sacred color and denotes immortality; blue to the Persian means air, while to the Mongolian it means authority and power; black denotes sorrow, evil, and vice; red denotes joy, happiness, life, truth, virtue, and sincerity; yellow is a Chinese color for royalty; orange is the Buddhist and Mohammedan color for sorrow, and rose for divine wisdom. The following is a list of some of the most common Oriental colors with a short description of the sources from which they are derived:

PERSIAN DYE POTS

A PERSIAN VILLAGE

Red.—The best and most lasting is the rich carmine known as Kermes and consists of dried insects which live on a species of oak tree. These insects are collected in the month of June and are killed by being exposed to the vapors of acetic acid evolved by heating vinegar. Kermes was known to have been used in Syria in the time of Moses, and is probably the most lasting and most preservative of all dyestuffs. Of late years, however, it has been to a large extent supplemented by cochineal, which is more brilliant. Madder root, ground and boiled, is the basis of a multitude of reds and is also noted for its fastness. From it can be obtained many degrees of red from pink to intense scarlet, but the shade most commonly used by the Persians of to-day is obtained by combining madder with alum and grape juice. Although cochineal is used considerably by Eastern dyers, it is really a modern dye, being obtained from dried insects which are found on the cacti of Mexico. It gives soft, beautiful reds, is absolutely fast and is very expensive. With bichromate of potash it gives purple; with sulphuric acid, crimson and scarlet, and with madder, cherry and various shades of pink. One of the best, richest and most lasting vermilions was made by a secret process from sheep's blood, but the secret has long since been lost. In recent years many reds have had as a basis the dye woods, such as Campeachy wood, Brazil wood, and others. They are sometimes obtained from onion skins, ivy berries, beets, and other plants, but these latter pigments are not as enduring as those previously mentioned.

Blue.—Indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid, to which is added alum, forms a basis of most blues and was used long before the Christian era. It is obtained from the leaves of various specimens of Indigofera which are cultivated largely in India. The deep Persian blue is obtained by applying indigo over madder. It can be compounded with almost any other dyeing material known and it is by this mixing process that beautiful violets, porcelain blues and pinks are obtained. A superb dark blue found in some of the antique Persian rugs has been in disuse for nearly a half century. The secret of making it seems to have been lost and no one has been able to reproduce it.

Green.—Indigo in combination with one of the yellows furnishes most of the greens. With buckthorn it produces Chinese greens, both bright and dull.

Brown.—Browns are most frequently obtained by mixing madder with yellow or by dyeing with madder over yellow. Valonia, catechu, gall-nuts, and the green husks of walnuts also enter largely into the making of browns.

Yellow.—The principal yellows are obtained from the Persian berries, from turmeric, from saffron and sumac roots. Persian berries give a fast dull yellow. Turmeric is from the root of a plant growing abundantly in East India and China and it gives a bright orange color. Orange yellow is also obtained from henna and by combining madder and turmeric. A light yellow is obtained from larkspur; a greenish yellow from a fungus of the mulberry, and, of late years, a buff colored yellow has been obtained from quercitron bark.

Black.—Black seems to be the only color which the rug makers of older days were unable to produce from vegetable or animal sources. The principal black used was that made from iron filings with vinegar and pomegranate rind, but it destroyed the fibres of the wool. For this reason very little black was used in the antique pieces excepting where the fleece of black sheep could be obtained. Nowadays logwood, which grows in Central America, is the essential basis of all blacks in wool, although other colors are frequently used with it to modify or intensify the shade.

Purple.—From very early times the Phœnicians were renowned for a purple which they obtained from a shellfish found in the Ægean Sea, but the secret of making it has long since become a lost art. A great many shades of purple, heliotrope and lavender are obtained from the different red dyes in combination with indigo and the dye woods as well as from the bodies of marine insects and mollusks.

Gray.—Gray is secured from Smyrna gall-nuts with copperas.

Salmon.—Salmon is obtained by mixing madder with valonia.

Violet.—Violet is frequently made from milk, sour grape juice, madder and water.

DAGHESTAN RUG
Size 8' × 3'6"
FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE AUTHOR

Knot: Ghiordes. Seven to the inch horizontally and eight vertically, making fifty-six to the square inch.

This rug illustrates the best Caucasian spirit in design and workmanship. It is glorious in color and its combination of blues, reds, yellows and greens belong to an age which is bygone in the textile art of Caucasia.

The Georgian design in the outer border is a Caucasian characteristic and especially of the Daghestans.

(See page [254])

WEAVING AND WEAVERS

The method of weaving in the Orient to-day is practically the same as it was one thousand years ago with the exception, perhaps, that there are now fewer crooked fabrics woven than in the days gone by. Next to the quality of the material from which it is made, and the dye with which it is colored, the splendid durability of the Oriental rug is due to the manner in which the pile is tied to the warp thread. It is so secure that it is impossible to remove it by pulling either end of the knot. This differs from the domestic method in which the pile is merely drawn between the warp threads without tying or fastening. In the finer fabrics of the East the knots are so close that it requires careful examination to discover them except in very old rugs where the pile is worn down, then the knot is distinctly seen.

In some parts of Persia the best artisans are men but in most other sections the weavers are mostly women and children. The latter begin working at the loom as early as four or five years of age and serve an apprenticeship of two years, after which they receive a few pennies a day. A skilful woman weaver will earn from three to six shillings a week and they usually work from sunrise to sunset, week after week, month after month, year after year. As a rule they have no education, can neither read nor write, and have absolutely nothing else to do but weave and gossip. Rug weaving proves a sort of an amusement and a source of income; besides they take a great interest in the work and the height of their ambition is to realize hope of royal recognition for their superior workmanship.

Each rug is given in charge of a master weaver who usually gets one anna (two cents) for every eleven hundred knots tied. He it is who hires and pays the weavers and makes himself responsible for the quality of the work done.

The girls, especially those of Asia Minor, frequently buy with their earnings perforated gold coins with which to decorate themselves by making them into necklaces or bracelets or by arranging them on their headgear. These coins not only serve to make known their skill as weavers, but also answer as dowries for their future husbands. A skilful weaver can tie from twelve to fourteen knots a minute or from seven to eight thousand knots a day. This would be equal to from fourteen square inches to three square feet, according to the fineness of the rug. For this she receives, on the average, nine cents a day. For a rug 10 × 6 with 182 knots to the square inch, she would receive, in rough figures, from $18.00 to $20.00, and the rug would sell in Constantinople for no less than $75.00. If the women of the Orient are ever emancipated we will have to pay much higher prices for Eastern carpets than we do now.

A TURKISH LOOM

The Eastern loom, which is the same to-day as it was a thousand years ago, consists merely of four poles joined together by ropes according to the size of the rug to be woven. On these the warp threads are strung and kept at the proper tension by weights, which are attached to one of the cross poles.

From one to six, or even more, weavers work on a rug at the same time, according to its size. They sit cross-legged either on the floor or on a raised frame, so that their work will be on a level with their knees. Before them, as seen in the accompanying illustration, is fastened the model which they are to follow or what is known as the "talim," a chart which indicates the colors to be used and the number of knots to be tied in each color. Like expert pianists their fingers seem to know the pattern and much of the time their eyes are not even upon the work.