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See page [68].

CHAIN BRIDGE.

A
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
OF
USEFUL INVENTIONS
AND
SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES:

BEING A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION AND
ENTERTAINMENT.

BY GEORGE GRANT,

AUTHOR OF “PANORAMA OF SCIENCE,” “THE HISTORY OF LONDON,”
ETC. ETC.

LONDON:
PARTRIDGE AND OAKEY.
MDCCCLII.

PREFACE.

It has been demonstrated that the desire of obtaining knowledge is one of the most natural, and, at the same time, most ennobling attributes of the human mind. There is at the present time a great number of inquiring minds among the working classes of this kingdom, and a still greater number of the young of all classes thirsting for information, who in entering upon a course of general reading must be greatly at a loss for many things which are familiarly alluded to in ordinary conversation, with which everybody is understood to be acquainted, or would have people to think so, but which, in reality, are only familiar to persons who have been living for a considerable time in intimate converse with the world.

The “Historical Account of Useful Inventions and Discoveries in Science,” is intended in some measure to supply such information to the anxious inquirer after knowledge. Of the numerous articles here treated of, it will be perceived that each has been traced to its origin in as lucid a style as possible, and in so doing we have endeavoured to combine instruction with amusement. As a proof of this we need only refer to the table of Contents.

CONTENTS.

USEFUL INVENTIONS.

​

PRINTING.

Among the many arts and sciences cultivated in society, some are only adapted to supply our natural wants, or assist our infirmities; some are mere instruments of luxury, calculated to flatter pride, to gratify vanity, and to satisfy our desires of every description; whilst others tend at once to secure, to accommodate, delight, and give consequence to man. Of this latter kind, Printing undoubtedly stands pre-eminent; and if viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to possess a very considerable portion not only of the comforts, but the conveniences and positive utilities of life. The advantages derived from this invention must be acknowledged by all,—this art has proved the principal step towards civilization: by it has Christianity been propagated; and by its powerful means are we made acquainted with all that is useful in knowledge, in art, and science. It would take the pen of an inspired writer to enumerate all the blessings which flow from it. It is a patent engine which possesses a preponderating influence over the mind of man either for good or evil, according as it is used.

As we proceed we will have frequent occasion to express our feelings in grateful eulogium, when considering the benefits resulting to society from various ingenious inventions and discoveries; but when we consider the advantages derived from the typographic art, it appears like a vortex, drawing every other sensation into its deep interest, and engulphing every consideration, so that we can think of nothing but printing, and its extensive catalogue of benefits. This interest is wonderfully increased, whether it be viewed on account of its ingenuity, the extent of its benefits, or the benevolence of its objects. In whatever point of view we behold it, whether as a medium for giving the utmost facility to the despatch of the common concerns of life; or as affording the eager mind of the philosophic inquirer the ready means to gratify the inquisitive thirst of his knowledge; in every species of mental intelligence, the rapid facility which it affords to the multiplication of those mediums of communication, by which knowledge is promulgated in every part of the earth. We are at a loss for a term sufficiently comprehensive to express our sense of the infinite importance of those advantages which accrue to mankind from the invention of an art so replete with important consequences, which we hourly perceive to emanate from typography. We need therefore scarcely offer an apology for inserting a brief history of this divine art in our pages.

The earliest specimens of printing which have been discovered, consist in the stamped marks on the bricks and tiles used in building the tower and city of Babel, and which may be dated as far back as two thousand two hundred years before Christ. A number of these stamped clay materials of Babel are still preserved in antiquarian repositories. It is remarkable that they generally differ in shape and appearance, and that the letters or words, which are in ancient character, seem to have been stamped by the hand with moveable blocks. In Trinity College, Cambridge, some curious specimens are preserved, one of which is a round piece of clay, seven inches in height, and three in thickness at the end, resembling a barrel, being thickest at the middle. This interesting relic, this Chaldean book, is entirely covered with lines of letters and words running from the one end to the other; from its portable character it may be called a pocket volume, and one which cannot be less than four thousand years old. It is mounted on a marble pedestal, covered with a glass case, secured by an iron bracket, and so contrived that the curious inspector may cause it to revolve on its marble base; but the greatest care is taken of this valuable relic of antiquity. It appears to have been printed by two moulds, and at the middle of the circumference a small blank square has been left, in case as it is supposed, room should be required for a portion of the clay to escape in the action of compression.

Next to these extremely ancient stamped bricks, in point of interest and antiquity, are specimens of the earliest engraving of letters on stone. We are informed by various historical writers that Cadmus, a Phœnician, who lived one thousand five hundred years before Christ, at a period contemporary with Moses, and who was esteemed as the builder of the city of Thebes, was the first who taught the Greeks the use of alphabetic symbols, an art he most likely acquired from the Hebrews. The most ancient specimen of an engraved inscription now known to be extant, is the Sigean Inscription, so called from having been disinterred upon a promontory named Sigeum, situate near the ancient city of Troy, in Phrygia. It is engraved on a pillar of beautifully white marble, nine feet high, two feet broad, and eight inches thick, and which, from the inscription, served as the pedestal of the heathen god Hermocrates. The letters used in this inscription are the capitals of the Grecian language, though rudely cut, but read from right to left like the Hebrew. This specimen of engraving must be about three thousand years old.

Another not less interesting relic of the earliest age of printing is found in a Roman signet ring or stamp, approaching in character to that species of stamp now used by the post-office on letters. This curiosity is preserved in the British Museum. It is the very earliest specimen we possess of printing, by means of ink or any similar substance. It is made of metal, a sort of Roman brass; the ground of which is covered with a green kind of verdigris rust, with which antique medals are usually covered. The letters rise flush up to the elevation of the exterior rim which surrounds it. Its dimensions are, about two inches long, by one inch broad. At the back of it is a small ring for the finger, to promote the convenience of holding it. As no person of the name which is inscribed upon it is mentioned in Roman History, he is therefore supposed to have been a functionary of some Roman officer, or private steward, and who, perhaps, used this stamp to save himself the trouble of writing his name. A stamp somewhat similar, in the Greek character, is in the possession of the Antiquarian Society, of Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

It will be perceived that however curious these relics of antiquity may be, they do not bear any connection with the art of printing books. The origin of this invention seems to be quite independent of a preceding knowledge of impressing by means of stamps. What is, however, worthy of remark, the art of printing books, though on a rude principle, was known and in use among the Chinese, at least one thousand four hundred years before it was invented in Europe. The printing of the Chinese has never resembled anything of the kind in this country. From the first it has been conducted without moveable types. Each page has been, and continues to be, a block or cut stamp, which is thus useful for only one subject—so that every book must have its own blocks. No press is used. The paper being thin, when laid on the block receives the impression by being smoothed over with a brush. There is reason to infer that the art of printing, as thus practised by the Chinese, may have originated through a knowledge of the still more ancient Chaldean mode of printing by blocks on clay. But we may expect, from the well-known ingenuity of the Chinese, and their (in general,) having the organ of imitation so fully developed, that they will not much longer continue this primitive method of printing, as an enterprising practical printer has emigrated, with an excellent assortment of presses, types, &c., from Edinburgh, to conduct his business in the celestial empire. We wish him all success.

The discovery of the art of printing with moveable types, which took place in the fifteenth century, in Germany, was considerably aided by a fashion, which had been some time prevalent, of cutting blocks of wood into pictures, or representations of scenes illustrative of Scriptural history, and printing them on paper, simply by the pressure of the hand, a brush, or cushion behind.

One of the earliest of these wood-cuts is still extant, and represents the creation of man, as detailed in the book of Genesis. In the centre of the picture stands a figure, intended for the Divinity, having the appearance of an old man with flowing garments, a venerable beard, and rays proceeding from the head; on the ground, before him, lies a human being, intended for Adam, fast asleep; and from an opening in his side is seen proceeding the slender figure of a female, meaning Eve, who is taken by the hand by God, and is apparently receiving His blessing. The execution of this, and cuts of a similar nature, is of the rudest description, and is a striking testimony of the low scale of art at the time. Pictures of this nature, which were bound up into books, nevertheless, were the immediate forerunners of the great invention itself. Books of prints, it will naturally be imagined, would soon be found imperfect, for want of descriptive text; this, therefore, urged on the great discovery. The manufacturers of the books, at first, cut single sentences or words, and stamped them below the pictures; but this not conveying a sufficient idea of the subject represented, an anxiety arose to give a lengthened description on the opposite pages. This it seems was, at length, accomplished; still the sentences were all cut in a piece, and the notion of having separate letters, so as to form words at pleasure, was unknown at that period. We will now proceed to the introduction of the modern art of printing.

Ever since the typographic art has been introduced into modern Europe in its present form, the best, and one of the most certain criterions,—which prove the undoubted sense of our species,—exists in the multiplicity of claims which have been made by several cities for the honour of affording the earliest shelter to the infancy of this art. It really appears to be a question yet undecided, to what city, individual, or even era, to attribute this beneficial invention.

However, there is every reason to believe that in this art, as well as in most others, the improvements which have subsequently taken place, have benefited the art itself, as much as that has benefited mankind: therefore, the question of its origin does not appear to us to be of so much importance.

Amidst the claims of various individuals, Mr. Bouzer, in his “Origin of Printing,” says, that this honour ought to be adjudged to one of the three cities of Haerlem, Mentz, or Strasburg; of which, in his opinion, the first named city has best established her legitimate right. “But it appears,” to use his own words, “that all those cities, in a qualified sense, may claim it, considering the improvements they have made upon each other.”

The real and original inventor of the modern art of printing, as at first used, and from whence the improved practice is descended, was one Laurentius, of Haerlem; who, however, proceeded no further than to cut separate wooden letters. There is every reason to believe that, at first, these wooden forms were made upon the principle of the forma literarum of the Romans. This Laurentius, it appears, made his first essay about the year 1430; he died ten years afterwards, having first printed the “Horarium,” the “Speculum Belgicum,” and two editions of “Donatus.”

The individual on whom history most generally places the honour of being the earliest discoverer of the art of printing by means of moveable letters, or types, was John Guttenberg, a citizen of Mayence, or Mentz, who flourished from the year 1436 to 1466, in the reign of Frederick III. of Germany. The ingenious Guttenburg was born at Mayence, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, and removed to Strasburg about the year 1424, or, perhaps rather earlier. Here he became acquainted with the above-named Laurentius, with whom he proceeded to Haerlem, and continued in the employment of Laurentius for some time. However, he returned to Strasburg, where, in 1435, he entered into partnership with Andrew Dritzehan, John Riff, and Andrew Heelman, citizens of Strasburg, binding himself to disclose to them some important secrets, by which they would make their fortunes. The workshop was in the house of Dritzehan, who dying, Guttenberg immediately sent his servant, Lawrence Beildick, to Nicholas, the brother of the deceased, and requested that no person might be admitted into the workshop, lest the secret should be discovered, and the forms stolen. But they had already disappeared; and this fraud, as well as the claims of Nicholas Dritzehan, to succeed to his brother’s share, produced a law-suit among the surviving partners. Five witnesses were examined; and from the evidence of Guttenburg’s servants, it was incontrovertibly proved that Guttenberg was the first that practised the art of printing with moveable types in Strasburg; and that on the death of Andrew Dritzehan, he had expressly ordered the forms to be broken up, and the types dispersed, lest any one should discover his secret. The words given in his order, which were supported by documentary evidence, were these—“Go, take the component parts of the press, and pull them to pieces; then, no one will understand what they mean.” In the same document mention is made of four forms, kept together by two screws, or press spindles, and of letters and pages being cut up and destroyed.

It has been asserted that Guttenberg stole the types from Laurentius, with which he repaired to Strasburg, and commenced business; but of this we can find no corroboration. It has also been said that upon this occasion, Guttenberg stole his own materials, but this is likewise unauthenticated.

The result of this law-suit, which occurred in 1439, was a dissolution of partnership; and Guttenberg, after having exhausted his means in the effort, proceeded, in 1445, to his native city of Mentz, where he resumed his typographic labours.

Being ambitious of making his extraordinary invention known, and of value to himself, but being at the same time deficient in the means, he opened his mind to a wealthy goldsmith and worker in precious metals, named John Fust, or Faust, and prevailed on him to advance large sums of money, in order to make further and more complete trials of the art. Guttenberg, being thus associated with Faust, the first regular printing office was begun, and the business carried on in a style corresponding to the infancy of the art. After many smaller essays in trying the capabilities of a press and moveable types, Guttenberg had the hardihood to attempt an edition of the Bible, which he succeeded in printing complete between the years 1450 and 1455. This celebrated Bible, which was the first important specimen of the art of printing, and which, judging from what it has led to, we should certainly esteem as the most extraordinary and praiseworthy of human productions, was executed with cut metal types, on six hundred and thirty-seven leaves; and, from a copy still in existence in the Royal Library of Berlin, some appear to have been printed on vellum. The work was printed in the Latin language.

The execution of this—the first printed Bible—which has justly conferred undying honours on the illustrious Guttenberg, was most unfortunately, the immediate cause of his ruin. The expenses incident to carrying on a fatiguing and elaborate process of workmanship, for a period of five years, being much more considerable than what were originally contemplated by Faust, he instituted a suit against poor Guttenberg, who, in consequence of the decision against him, was obliged to pay interest, and also a part of the capital that had been advanced. This suit was followed by a dissolution of partnership; and the whole of Guttenberg’s materials fell into the hands of John Faust.

Besides the above-mentioned Bible, some other specimens of the work of Guttenberg have been discovered to be in existence. One in particular, which is worthy of notice, was found some years ago, among a bundle of old papers, in the archives of Mayence. It is an almanack for the year 1457, which served as a cover for a register of accounts for that year. This would most likely be printed towards the close of the year 1456, and may, consequently, be deemed the most ancient specimen of typographic printing extant, with a certain date.

Antiquaries and Bibliomaniacs have found considerable difficulty in ascertaining by what process Guttenberg manufactured types; but it appears to be the prevalent opinion, that those which he first used were individually cut by the hand; and being all made as near a height and thickness as possible, they were thus put together in the forms. The cutting of these types must have been a tedious, as well as laborious, occupation. This ingenious man, however, soon discovered the mode of casting his types, by means of moulds; for without this great accessory to the art of printing, he conceived it was next to impossible to carry on his business. The art of type-founding is therefore given to John Guttenberg, in which it would appear he has had no competitor for the honour; but, it is but justice to state that the plan of striking the moulds with punches was a subsequent invention of Peter Schoeffer, his successor, who became partner with Faust, and afterwards his son-in-law.

That Guttenberg was a person of refined taste in the execution of his works, is sufficiently obvious to every person who has had the opportunity of seeing any of them. Adopting a very ancient custom common in the written copies of the Scriptures and the missals of the church, he used a large ornamental letter at the commencement of books and chapters, finely embellished, and surrounded with a variety of figures as in a frame. The initial letter of the first psalm thus forms a splendid specimen of the art of printing in its early progress. It is richly ornamented with foliage, flowers, a bird, and a greyhound, and is still more beautiful from being printed in a pale blue colour, while the embellishments are red, and of a transparent appearance.

What became of Guttenberg immediately after the unsuccessful termination of his law-suit with Faust, is not well known. Like the illustrious discoverer of the great Western Continent, he seems to have retired almost broken-hearted from the service of an ungrateful world, and to have spent most of the remainder of his days in obscurity. It is ascertained, however, that, in 1465, he received an annual pension from the Elector Adolphus, but that he only enjoyed this trifling compensation for his extraordinary invention for a period of three years, and died in February 1468.

John Faust, who as we have seen, obtained the materials of Guttenberg, laid claim to the invention, which has been granted to him by several. Having sufficient capital at his command, he pushed the trade with great advantage to himself. In the Bibles which he printed he frequently omitted the capital and initial letters, leaving them blank for illumination in gold or azure; this was designedly done for the purpose of imposing upon the public printed copies for M.S. transcripts. The report which is in circulation concerning Faust, appears to come in support of this assertion: it being said he was at Paris, and offering a quantity of his Bibles for sale as M.S. The French, considering the number of them, and also remarking the exact similarity and accuracy of them, even to a single point, concluded it was impossible for the most accurate copyist to have transcribed them so correctly. They suspected him of necromancy, and either actually indicted him, or threatened to do, as a magician; and by this means obtained his secret: whence came the origin of the popular story of Dr. Faustus, his dealing with the devil, and tragical death.

In 1462, when Mentz was plundered and disfranchised of its former liberties, printing rapidly spread through a great part of Europe, particularly its artizans in that branch of art, settled at Haerlem, Hamburgh, and other places; from Haerlem it travelled to Rome in 1466, when the Roman character was adopted in 1467, and soon perfected.

In the reign of Henry VI., the Archbishop of Canterbury sent R. Turnour, master of the robes, and W. Caxton, merchant, to Haerlem, to learn the art. These individuals privately prevailed upon one Corselis, an under workman to come to England: and a printing press was established at Oxford. This appears in a MS. chronicle still preserved; it informs us, that the execution of the concern entrusted to Turnour and Caxton cost 1500 marks; and that printing was established at Oxford before there was any printer or printing presses in France, Italy, or Spain.

The University of Oxford press was soon discovered to be too remote from the seat of government, and too great a distance from the sea, other presses were speedily established at St. Alban’s and the Abbey of Westminster.

In 1467, printing was established at Tours, at Reuthlingen, and Venice, in 1469; and it is likely at the same period at Paris, where several of the German printers were invited by the Doctors of the Sorbonne, who established a press in that city.

All important as the art of printing is acknowledged to be, yet three centuries elapsed from the date of the invention before it was perfected in many of its most necessary details. At first the art was kept entirely in the hands of learned men, the greatest scholars often glorying in affixing their names to the works as correctors of the press, and giving names to the various parts of the mechanism of the printing-office, as is testified by the classical technicalities still in use among the workmen. From the great improvement of punching moulds for casting types by Schoeffer, as formerly mentioned, till the invention of italic letters by Aldus Manutius, to whom learning is much indebted, no other improvement of any consequence took place. It does not appear that mechanical ingenuity was at any time directed to the improvement of the presses or any other part of the machinery used in printing, and the consequence was, that till far on in the eighteenth century, the clumsy presses, which were composed of wood and iron, and slow and heavy in working, were allowed to screech on as they had done since the days of Guttenberg, Faust, and Caxton, while the ink continued to be applied by means of two stuffed balls, at a great expense of time and labour.

At length, an almost entire revolution was effected in the printing office, both in the appearance of the workmanship and the mechanism of the presses. About the same period the art of stereotyping was discovered, and developed a completely new feature in the history of printing. One of the chief improvements in typography was, the discarding of the long s, and every description of contraction; while, at the same time, the formation of the letters was executed with more neatness, and greater regularity.

Among the first improvers of the printing press, the most honourable place is due to the Earl of Stanhope, a nobleman who will be long remembered for his mechanical genius; besides applying certain lever powers to the screw and handle of the old wooden press, by which the labour of the workman was diminished, and finer work effected; he constructed a press wholly of iron, which is known by his name.

Since the beginning of the present century, and more especially within the last thirty years, presses wholly of iron, on the nicest scientific principles, have been invented by men of mechanical genius, so as to simplify the process of printing in an extraordinary degree; and the invention of presses composed of cylinders, and wrought by steam, has triumphantly crowned the improvements in this art. The alteration effected by steam power has been as great in the printing business, as in any branch whatever; for example, with the old wooden press, it took a man two days to complete 1000 sheets, (that is, printed on both sides); whereas the London “Times,” by means of the steam press completes 24,000 in one hour! Almost every newspaper in the kingdom is printed by cylinder-presses, although some are worked by hand instead of steam; they are also used in other departments of the printing business.

The introduction of steam-presses would have been of comparatively little benefit, if it had not been furthered by another invention of a very simple nature, now of great value to the printer. We here allude to the invention of the roller for applying the ink, instead of the old clumsy and inefficient balls. The roller, which is simply a composition of glue and treacle, cast upon wooden centre-pieces, was invented by a journeyman printer from Edinburgh, about thirty years ago, and was so much appreciated by the trade, as at once to spread over the whole of Europe.

Were it possible to conjure up the spirits of the illustrious Guttenburg and his contemporaries within the office of the London “Times,” or some other large printing-office, where everything is conducted with rapidity, quietness, and order, John Faust might well think that the printers of the nineteenth century had actually consummated what he was only accused of in the fifteenth—completed a compact with the devil!

As it would be a waste of time for us to pretend to describe the various processes and materials required in this beautiful art, as we are aware that, without actual observation, no conception can be formed,—this we know from experience, and though we might, like many others, have pretended to give a description, we are perfectly aware that we would have been unintelligible to the majority of our readers, and very deservedly laughed at for our trouble by any practical printer who might happen to read our pages; as far as we have gone, however, in giving a brief historical account of the art of printing, we have no doubt it will be found correct, as have consulted the best authorities.

STEREOTYPE.

Stereotype, as we have mentioned in the former article, was introduced about the middle of last century; and as it is so intimately connected with the art of printing, we could not find a more appropriate place than immediately following that noble art.—Earl Stanhope has been named as the inventor; but for this we have not sufficient authority, and it appears extremely doubtful; as stereotyping appears to have been invented simultaneously, in various parts of England and Scotland, by different persons; still it was upwards of sixty years before it was brought to such perfection as to be applicable for any beneficial purpose.

When properly made known, it was hailed with approbation by those more immediately interested—the printers and publishers: but as experience more fully developed its powers, it was found available only for particular work. For the better understanding of this art, which is comparatively little known, we will give a description of the process, which we are enabled to do by the assistance of an experienced workman.

In setting the types, they are lifted from the case, one by one, with the right hand, and built in a small iron form, called a composing-stick, held in the left hand of the compositor, who sets line after line till the stick is filled, when he empties it upon a galley, and commences again in the same manner, till he has got as much up as will make a page; this page he ties firmly up, and places upon a smooth stone, or cast iron table. In this manner he continues, till he gets as many pages as will make a form, which consists of 4, 8, 12, or more pages, as the case may be. If this form is to be worked off at press without stereotyping, the pages are all imposed in one chass, and carried to press for working, and when the whole of the impression is off, it is thoroughly washed, and carried back to the compositor for distribution—that is, putting the types in their proper places. When these pages are to be stereotyped, they are imposed separately, and carried to the stereotype foundry, where they are examined, and all dirt taken from the face; they are then slightly oiled, and a moulding-frame put round each. The frame is filled with liquid plaster of Paris, which is well rubbed into the face of the type to expel the air. As soon as this plaster hardens, it is removed from the page, and shows a complete resemblance of the page from which it is taken. The mould is put into an oven to dry, where it remains till it resembles a piece of pottery; it is then put into an iron pan, in which there is a thin plate of the same metal, called the floating-plate; it has also an iron lid, which is firmly screwed down, and the whole is immersed in a pot of molten type-metal, which fills the pan by means of small holes in the corners of the lid. The length of time it remains in the pot depends upon the heat of the metal, but it is generally from ten to fifteen minutes, when it is taken out, and put aside to cool. On opening the pan, nothing is seen but a solid lump of metal, which, when carefully broke round the mould, a thin plate is obtained from the mass, exhibiting a perfect appearance of the page from which the mould was taken.—This is called a stereotype plate, which in general is not above the eighth of an inch thick, and is printed from in the same manner as a page of types. Such is the process of stereotyping, which has become pretty general throughout the trade, but is not much known to the public.

ENGRAVING.

ON WOOD.

As we have shown in our article on Printing, Wood-engraving was in fashion prior to the invention of printing. We are informed by Albert Durer that Engraving on Wood was invented about the year 1520; he may be a good authority in some matters, but in this he has committed a mistake of nearly one hundred years; seeing that there is at least an impression of one engraving on wood, the representation of the Creation, which was in existence prior to 1430. It was undoubtedly a piece of rough workmanship; but what could be expected at that early period of the art? It has been, however, gradually improving ever since, and it has now attained a point of excellence equal to any of the fine arts, and calls forth the admiration of every lover of the beautiful. It would be invidious to select any of the numerous artists now flourishing—perhaps it would be difficult to make a selection where so many are upon an equality; and we are of opinion they themselves are more willing to accept the public approbation as their reward, than any praise our pen could bestow. All we can do is to recommend our readers to examine for themselves; they have abundant opportunities in the numerous illustrated publications that are daily issued from the press, and bestow that meed of praise upon the respective artists they may deem proper.

The process of engraving on wood is diametrically distinct and opposite to that of engraving on copper or steel; as in the former, the shades are produced by the parts of the work which are made most prominent, and obtrude upon the surface of the substance; whence its chief merit has been regarded in leaving broad and well-proportioned lights. The parts to produce this effect being of necessity excavated, great art and a masterly judgment are necessary to effect this, and at the same time not to weaken the substance, lest it should be injured in the pressure necessary to produce an impression.

The substance usually employed for these engravings is wood of a close grain; on this account box-wood is generally selected. The impressions are obtained from wood-engravings upon exactly the same principle as are the impressions from typography; and they can also be worked off at the same time with the descriptive text. This is a superiority which wood possesses over other engravings, and recommends itself to publishers on account of the immense saving in the expense of a double process in procuring copper-plate illustrations for typographical works, and enables them to keep pace with the ruling passion of this literary era—cheap publications.

ON COPPER.

The art of engraving on copper plates, for impressions, is alleged to have been invented by Peter Schoeffer, one of the early printers, and son in-law of John Faust, about the year 1450. The honour of this invention is also claimed by a Florentine goldsmith of the name of Finguires, who dates his invention in 1540. This artist having used liquid sulphur to take an impression of some chasing and engraving he had made, observed a blackness produced by the sulphur left in the deepest parts of his work, whence he obtained an impression on paper.

But we have no hesitation in giving the preference to Schoeffer, who, we have previously remarked, was of an ingenious turn, and assisted Guttenburg in producing moulds for casting his types; in addition to which, some of the books printed by him are ornamented with head and tail-pieces, with other rude attempts at engraving; and likewise because Schoeffer’s claim to the honour was acknowledged before Finguires was born.

Of engraving there are various kinds; that called by connoisseurs, the legitimate mode of engraving, is what is termed the line or stroke mode. Numerous have been the British artists who have excelled in this style, in affording the means of multiplying our graphical productions.

The next species of engraving we will notice is called the stipple, or chalk style,—imitations of chalk drawings. Portraits and historical pieces are executed in this style, which the celebrated Bartolozzi brought to perfection.

The third species we will mention, cannot properly be called engraving; the effect is produced by scraping and rubbing; this kind is called chiaro obscuro, or mezzotinto; producing prints which have the effect of Indian ink drawings.

A fourth species of engraving is what is commonly used for landscapes, which produces an effect like a pencil water-colour drawing; which is called aquatinta.

In all of these kinds of engravings upon copper the artists find the sulphuric acid, or aquafortis, a most powerful agent. Sometimes, indeed, it is suffered to execute the whole of the process of the graver, especially when it is called an etching.

For the same reasons as those mentioned with regard to wood engravers, we shall abstain from naming any of the very eminent artists now living.

We have already observed the mode of obtaining similar effects from wood and copper, are opposite to each other. The manner in which impressions from wood engravings are obtained, has likewise been noticed; and it remains that we observe the mode by which impressions are obtained from copper-plates. The plate is covered with appropriate ink; the surface is then carefully cleansed, leaving ink only in the excavations or lines in the copper. The plate and paper are passed through a roller press of great power, the roller being covered with a blanket, which presses the paper into all the crevices of the plate, and brings away the ink there deposited.

ON STEEL.

For several years steel has been used in great quantities, instead of copper-plates, by engravers. By this fortunate application of so durable, and it may be added, so economical a material, not only has a new field been discovered admirably suited to yield in perfection the richest and finest graphic productions, which the ingenuity of modern art can accomplish, but to do so through an amazingly numerous series of impressions without perceptible deterioration. The art of engraving on iron or steel for purposes of ornament, and even for printing, in certain cases, is by no means a discovery of modern times; but the substitution of the latter for copper, which has invited the superiority of the British burin to achievements hitherto unattempted by our artists, is entirely a modern practice.

In the year 1810, Mr. Dyer, an American merchant, residing in London, obtained a patent for certain improvements in the construction and method of using plates and presses, &c., the principles of which were communicated to him by a foreigner residing abroad. This foreigner was Mr. Jacob Perkin, an ingenious artist of New England, and whose name has become subsequently so extensively known in this country, in connection with roller-press printing from hardened steel plates. The plates used by Mr. Perkins were, on the average, about five-eights of an inch thick; they were either of steel so tempered as to admit of the operation of the engraver, or, as was more generally the case, of steel decarbonated so as to become very pure soft iron, in which case, after they had received the work on the surface, they were case hardened by cementation.

The decarbonating process was performed by enclosing the plate of cast steel properly shaped, in a cast iron box, or case, filled about the plate to the thickness of about an inch with oxide of iron or rusty iron filings; in this state the box is luted close, and placed on a regular fire, where it is kept at a red heat during from three to twelve days. Generally about nine days is sufficient to decarbonize a plate five-eighths of an inch in thickness; when the engraving or etching has been executed, the plate is superficially converted into steel, by placing it in a box as before, and surrounding it on all sides by a powder made of equal parts of burned bones, and the cinders of burned animal matter, such as old shoes or leather. In this state the box, with its contents, closely luted, must be exposed to a blood-red heat for three hours; after which, it is taken out of the fire, and plunged perpendicularly edgeways into cold water, (which has been previously boiled) to throw off the air. By this means the plate becomes hardened without the danger of warping or cracking. It is then tempered or let down by brightening the under surface of the plate with a bit of stone; after which it is heated by being placed upon a piece of hot iron, or melted lead, until the rubbed portion acquire a pale straw-colour. For this purpose, however, the patentee expressed himself in favour of a bath of oil heated to the temperature of 460 degrees, or thereabouts of Fahrenheit’s scale. The plate being cooled in water, and polished on the surface, was ready for use.

A more material peculiarity in Mr. Perkins’ invention, and one which does not seem to have been approached by any preceding artist, was the contrivance of what are called indenting cylinders. These are rollers of two or three inches in diameter, and made of steel, decarbonized by the process above described, so as to be very soft. In this state they are made to roll backward and forward under a powerful pressure, over the surface of one of the hardened plates, until all the figures, letters, or indentations are communicated, with exquisite precision, in sharp relief upon the cylinder; which, being carefully hardened and tempered, becomes, by this means, fitted to communicate an impression to other plates, by an operation similar to that by which it was originally figured. It will be obvious that one advantage gained by this method must be the entire saving of the labour and expense of re-cutting in every case, on different plates, ornaments, borders, emblematical designs, &c., as these can now be impressed with little trouble on any number of plates, or in any part thereof, by the application of the cylinder. At first sight, the performance of such an operation as the one now alluded to may appear difficult, if not impracticable; and, indeed, many persons on its first announcement were disposed to doubt or deny its possibility altogether. With a proper and powerful apparatus, however, this method of transferring engravings from plates to cylinders, and vice versa, is every day performed with facility and success, not only in the production of bank notes, labels, &c., but in works exhibiting very elaborate engravings.

LITHOGRAPHY.

Lithography is the art of printing from stone, which claims for its author Aloys Senelfelder, a native of Munich, in the kingdom of Bavaria. The history of this useful art is recorded by the only person capable of assigning proper and correct motives, and of tracing the various means which were employed to arrive at the desired end, to ultimate success: had all other useful inventions, profitable and elegant arts, had the good fortune which this has happily experienced, we should not have had so much cause to regret deficiencies as we have frequently experienced in the course of our inquiries; then would the various illustrious authors of arts have had justice rendered to them, and still have remained possessed of that glorious immortality so justly the reward of transcendant merit; for the history of this meritorious invention is given by the author himself, thereby securing to it those advantages, which the erudite author of the preface congratulates the public upon, when in his concise epistle he uses that beautiful expression of his countryman, Klopstock, where he says, “Covered with eternal darkness are the great names of inventors.”

This work has been translated into English, and published with the following title:—“A complete Course of Lithography, containing clear and explicit Instructions in all the different branches and manners of the Art; accompanied by Illustrative Specimens of Drawings; to which is prefixed a History of Lithography, from its Origin, by Aloys Senefelder, Inventor of the Art of Lithography, or Chymical Printing,” &c.

The author of the preface to this work, and friend of the inventor, states that this is an art, whereby the artist, a minister, a man of letters, or a merchant, &c., may multiply his productions at will, without the assistance of a second person.

The author of the above work proceeds to give in detail his motives for the original invention, in which he has not only been strictly circumstantial, but no more so than the curiosity of the public requires, which is always excited in a degree proportioned to the confessed utility of a work, or that demand which its elegance has upon cultivated and delicate feeling. His labours may be said to be divided naturally into two parts, of which division the author has availed himself; first, adducing its history, and secondly, affording the operation of its process.

Its history appears to have arisen with its origin; and both to have originated in the necessities of the author. From whence it appears, that after he had received a scholastic education to qualify him for the jurisprudence of his country, the death of his father, who was a votary of the Thespian art, deprived him of those resources essential to enable him to pursue his intended honourable vocation; he was consequently driven to seek support from the previous acquisitions of his mind. He accordingly devoted his earnest attention to solicit the favours of the dramatic muse as an author. After encountering numberless difficulties, he produced one play, which was published, and sold considerably well. But the honourable independence of his mind induced him to reflect upon the certainty of the large expense, which necessarily attends the practice of an author, who has not liberal patrons in the public or the trade; and the uncertainty of adequate remuneration from the public, for whose amusement they make such large sacrifices of time, ease, property, health, and often life itself. These reflections induced his ardent and ingenious mind to endeavour to avoid the uncertainty of this contingency. He did not possess property to enable him to establish himself as a printer, which was his desire; he was therefore compelled to have recourse to his own ingenuity. He tried various, and at first, unsuccessful experiments, which he ingeniously details; because, he considered, that nearly as much is learned from the failures of an artist, had he always the honesty to publish them, as is gained from his most successful discoveries.

Various were the materials upon which he first essayed to complete his purposes; till, at length, chance directed him to try what could be effected upon stone. For this purpose, he used a species found in Germany, of a beautifully close grained and dense kind, susceptible of receiving a fine polish, called Kellheim stone. Knowing the failures which his countrymen had experienced in endeavouring to fix the ink in this stone for etching, he had recourse to a chemical experiment to obviate this, which succeeded in the following manner:—To four or five parts of water, he added one of rectified vitriol, which instantly produced an effervescence, on being poured upon it; the stone was instantly covered with a coat of gypsum, which to vitriol is impenetrable; this is easily wiped off, and the stone being dried, it is ready for use. The next want he found, was a species of ink, proper to answer the peculiar purposes of the material whereon he had to operate; for which he discovered none so well adapted as the following mixture:—A composition of three parts of wax, with one of yellow soap, is melted over a fire, and mixed with a small portion of lamp-black, dissolved in rain-water. But this is now greatly simplified, as the lithographic printers generally use the same ink as the copperplate printers.

The process of lithography is very simple. The article wanted to be printed is written or drawn upon a piece of transfer paper, which being wet and laid on the stone, and put through the press, the writing or drawing remains on the stone, and any number of impressions may be taken off. Care must be taken, before inking, to come over the stone with a damp sponge, to prevent the ink adhering to the places not wanted, which it would otherwise do.

We understand the Bath and Portland stone is successfully used; but the best yet found in Britain, for the purpose, is what is known by the name of lias, raised near Stratford-on-Avon, in Warwickshire; it is a calcareous and partly siliceous stone, and we think not destitute of magnesia, having, when, polished, a very silky and somewhat saponaceous feel.

This art has flourished to a greater extent than we believe the most sanguine expectations of its inventor could have anticipated. Many beautiful specimens of art have been produced equal to the finest copper-plate engravings. It is excellently adapted for drawing of plans, bill-heads, circulars, cards, and many other light articles, which used formerly to be printed by means of letter-press; and on account of the numerous ornaments so easily applied to the lithographic process, the most of these, and similar articles, are principally lithographed, to the detriment, we would conceive, of the letter-press and copper-plate printers.

PAPER.

Before the invention of paper, in ancient times, a great variety of substances have been used for the purpose of recording events, or delineating ideas, of which it becomes our duty to give a somewhat detailed account, to show our readers the numerous advantages they enjoy, in having a material which, like everything in common use, is but little thought of. But let any one suppose himself to be without this necessary article, or the means of communicating his ideas, he would be sensible of the difference.

Rough stones and stakes were used as the first known records of the ancient Phœnicians, remains of which are reported to be still visible; and to confirm this persuasion, certain heaps of stones have been discovered in the environs of Cadiz, which are currently believed to be the remains of those monuments alleged to be made by Hercules, in memory of his famous expedition to the gardens of the Hesperides, for the golden fruit, or as others have it, against Spain. It is also stated, that the usual mode of recording great events, in the north of Asia and Europe, was by placing stones of extraordinary size; in aid of this, we have a great variety of instances.

Since the scriptural art has been introduced, or invented, many materials have been, in a variety of ages, and in numerous countries, used for the purpose of recording events to posterity; characters cut upon rocks, upon tables of stone, upon bark, pieces of wood, written upon skins of fish and animals, palm-leaves, besides a great variety of other articles, of which we will only enumerate a few.

There is a Bible still preserved, written on palm-leaves, in the University of Gottingen, containing 5,376 leaves. Another Bible, of the same material, is at Copenhagen. There was also, in Sir Hans Sloane’s collection, more than twenty manuscripts, in various languages, on the same material.

The protocols of the Emperors in early times were written upon bark. In the British Museum are many specimens of this substance; also in the grand Duke’s gallery at Florence.

To this mode is supposed to have succeeded the practice of painting letters on linen cloth and cotton; what was the difference in the preparation of that material to the one now employed is not ascertained, but it is considered that some preparation was necessary in order to use that substance. There have been frequently found in the chests or cases containing the Egyptian mummies, very neat characters written on linen. Linen being subject to accidents from becoming mouldy, &c., asbestoes cloth had been occasionally used in small quantities.

The accidents to which these species of materials were most of them subject, and linen particularly so, induced man to endeavour to remedy those objects; he accordingly is found to have recourse to the animal creation.

In the convent of Dominican monks at Bologna, are two books of Esdras, written on asses’ skins, said to have been written by Esdras himself. The ancient Persians wrote on hides, from which the hair was scraped. The shepherds wrote their songs with thorns upon straps of leather, which they wound round their crooks.

The ancient Welch had a peculiar manner of writing upon small squared oblong pieces of wood, which they called billets, which name forms the appellative to numerous of their productions, as the “Billett of the Bard.”

The Italian kings, Hugo and Lotharis, gave a grant to the Ambrosian church, at Milan, written on the skin of a fish.

In the Alexandrian Library there were the works of Homer, written in golden letters on the skins of animals. In the reign of the Emperor Baliskus, the head and “Odyssey” of Homer, written in golden letters, on the intestines of beasts, one hundred and twenty feet long, were burned at Constantinople.

In the royal library at Hanover, there is a gold plate, written by an independent prince of Coromandel to George II., three feet long and four inches wide, inlaid on both sides with diamonds.

At last we have arrived at the period for the introduction of the Egyptian papyrus, a kind of rush of large dimensions, growing in the marshes on the banks of the Nile. This plant is described as growing in swamps to the height of fifteen feet; the stalk triangular, of a thickness to be spanned, surrounded near the root by short leaves; stalk naked, has on the top a bush resembling the head with hairs, or long thin straight fibres; root brown.

The Egyptian papyrus was manufactured into paper from very fine pellicles near its pith, separated by a pin or pointed mussel-shell spread on a table in such form as was required, sprinkled with Nile water; on the first layer a second layer was laid crosswise to finish the sheet, then pressed, hung to dry, and afterwards polished with a tooth. The Nile water was very carefully used to prevent spots. Twenty skins were the greatest number which could be procured from one plant. Those nearest the pith made the finest paper. Twenty sheets glued together were called scapus, but sometimes scapi went to form a volumen. This part of the business was executed by the glutinatoris, who resembled our bookbinders.

This plant yielded materials for making four sorts of paper.

With respect to other substances for the same purpose, there are many, but as most of these have one generic character, being manufactured from the bark of trees, the detail is not here given, as it might not, perhaps, be generally interesting, especially as nothing new appears in this respect.

With respect to the paper now in use, Dr. Blair says, the first paper-mill (in England, we suppose) was erected at Dartford, in the year 1588, by a German of the name of Spiellman; from which period we may, perhaps, date its manufacture in this country.

It appears, however, that it was known in the East, much earlier; it being observed that most of the ancient manuscripts in Arabic and other Oriental languages, were written upon cotton paper, and it is thought the Saracens first introduced it into Spain.

Anderson, in his “History of Commerce,” says, that till the year 1690, there was scarcely any paper made in England, but the coarse brown sort. Paper was previously imported from France, Genoa, and Holland.—However, the improvement of this article in England, in consequence of the French war, produced a saving to this country of £100,000 annually, which had been paid to France for paper alone.

After linen and cotton are so much worn as to be unfit for any other purpose, the several kinds are collected together, and the hard seams and other accumulations, which would require a much longer time to prepare proper for the general mass, than would be consistent with the economy of the whole, those shreds are then separated and thrown away; the different kinds are then collected and kept separate from each other. In such a state of separation they are laid in troughs, which are afterwards filled with water, where they are suffered to remain till a species of fermentation takes place; and the separation of the parts formed by art is not only rendered easy, but also, a division may be made of the most minute parts; the separation is then made by machinery. When properly prepared, a sufficient quantity is placed upon a wire frame, or otherwise one formed of cloth; by mechanical pressure, the moisture is extracted, after which the sheets are hung up separately on lines to dry, in a building properly constructed to admit a free circulation of air.

Manufacturers of paper, originally, could only use white rags to make white paper; but Mr. Campbell, in 1792, discovered a method of discharging any colour from rags, by bleaching with oxi-muriatic acid gas, for which he obtained a patent.

The next considerable improvement which appears to have been made in the manufacture of paper, consists in using felt or woollen cloth in conjunction with the wire cloth formerly used, and now of necessity retained, and other processes too voluminous to be inserted here.

The only remaining circumstance we have to mention is, that in the beginning of the present century there was manufactured, in the vicinity of London, a very good printing paper, made entirely from wheat straw; for which manufacture, the inventor obtained a patent, but he did not succeed, we presume, because it is now discontinued. Considerable quantities of paper is now made from straw in France; but it is of a yellow tinge. Paper made from linen is the best.

PAPER HANGING.

The desire of man, for the gratification of his natural wants, being soon satisfied, he yet is wanting—those artificial wants which arise in the mind, and are the source of his comforts, because their gratification yields him high delight. Having built him a house, to shelter himself from the exigencies of the weather, to enlarge the sphere of his pleasures, he is desirous to ornament it; and because he cannot, perhaps, construct his house of silver, gold, or costly stones, he endeavours, at least, to have an imitation; and gilding, lacquering, painting, or staining is substituted. This idea, we will presume, to have given origin to every species of decorative ornament in the construction of houses—and among the rest to paper-hanging, which is carried on to a greater extent in this country, than at any former period.

The ancient Greeks, according to Archbishop Potter, constructed not only their arms, but also their houses, occasionally of brass, whilst the Romans frequently gilt theirs; they often covered them with costly casings or veneers, sometimes with precious stones. Since they went to such great cost to ornament the outside of their habitations, we need not wonder that they spared no expense in endeavouring to ornament them within.—Those people, however, who could not procure these extravagancies in reality, thought they would, at least, have the nearest imitation of them; accordingly they had recourse sometimes to veneers of those substances they had seen substantially employed by the rich and luxurious, as well for outside ornament as interior decoration; those who could not afford this, had recourse to pigments and the graphic art; for this purpose, the ingenuity of man was employed to devise various modes of ornament and decoration. Hence arose the various kinds of painting, the fresco, scagliolo, &c., and lastly, came staining of paper in use.

To enumerate the various kinds of this, might be attended with very little benefit, because the principle of all is nearly the same. However, it has been remarked that three kinds are deserving of notice. The first and plainest is that which has on it figures, drawn and painted with one or more colours, consisting only of painted paper. The second contains a woolly stuff, dyed of various tints, and made to adhere to the paper, in certain forms, by a glutinous matter; and the third is a species of paper covered with metallic dust. There are other papers used for hangings, which contain a representation of many kinds of stones, of which we understand there is a large manufactory in Leipsic.

There is also a species of velvet paper—a paper covered with sham plush, or wool dyed and cut short, and made to adhere to the paper by some kind of cement, said to have been the invention of an Englishman, of the name of Jerome Lanyer, in the reign of Charles I., for which he received a patent. In the specification it is stated, that he had found out an art and mystery for affixing wool, silk, and other materials, upon linen, cotton, leather, and other substances, with oil, size, and cements, so as to make them useful and serviceable for hangings and other purposes; which he called Londrindina; and he said it was his own invention, and formerly used within this realm.

However, it appears that this invention of Lanyer was afterwards disputed by a Frenchman of the name of Tierce, who said it was the production of a countryman of his, named Francois, who, he stated, had made such before 1620, and supported his assertion by producing patterns, and the wooden blocks with which it was printed, with the dates inscribed upon them. The son of Francois, it appeared, followed his father’s business, at Rouen, for more than fifty years, where he died, in 1748. Some of his workmen are said to have left him, and gone to the Netherlands, Germany, and other places, where they sold their art.

It appears that Nemetz ascribes the invention of wax-cloth hangings, with wool chopped and beat fine, to a Frenchman, named Andran, who, he says, in the beginning of the last century, was an excellent painter in arabesque and grotesque figures, and inspector of the palace of the Luxembourg at Paris, in which he had a manufactory for hangings of that kind. It is also stated that a person of the name of Eccard invented the art of printing, on paper-hangings, gold and silver figures, and that he carried on an extensive manufactory for such works.

It certainly does appear that the Germans cannot claim the privilege of invention here, but were behind their neighbours in this art.

One of the most ingenious of the many new improvements is said to consist in the art of manufacturing paper-hangings by affixing to the substance of the proper metallic dust, commonly called Nuremberg dust, by which it acquires the appearance of various costly metals in a state of fracture, varied with glittering particles of differently formed parts; and receiving the light in every direction, produce certainly a novel effect, which is rich and beautiful, while it is obtained at little expense.

The Nuremberg metallic dust is said to have been the invention of an artist of that city, named John Hautsch, born in 1595, died in 1670; his descendants have continued its preparation to the present time. It is produced from filings of metals of several descriptions washed well in a strong lixivious water, then being placed upon a sheet of copper, are put upon a strong fire, and continually stirred till the colour is altered. Those of tin, by this process, acquire every shade of gold colour, with its metallic lustre; those of copper, different shades of flame colour; those of iron or steel, a blue or violet; of tin and bismuth mixed, a white or bluish white colour. The dust tinged in this manner is then put through a flatting-mill, consisting of two rollers of the hardest steel, like those used by gold and silver wire-drawers; for the greater convenience a funnel is placed over them. French covered paper manufactured from this material is called papiers avec paillettes. Its lustre is so durable that it is said to continue unaltered for many years even on the walls of sitting apartments. This metallic dust is an article of commerce, being exported from Germany.

As early as the seventeenth century, the miners of Silesia collected and sold, for various purposes, a material they call glimmer, being bright, shining particles of various metals, which those mines produce in great profusion; even the black, we are told, acquires a gold colour by being exposed to a strong heat. This was manufactured by the holy sisters of Reichenstein, into a variety of ornaments; with it they decorated their images, strewing over them a shining kind of talc. The silver coloured glimmer had not, however, so great a brilliancy or variety as the Nuremberg metallic dust; for which purposes that article has a decided superiority.

For the various purposes to which these ornaments are to be applied, different adhesive substances should be used; in some cases glue would have the effect, to be first drawn over the substance; in others, a strong varnish, in which wax is dissolved; and for others, various kinds of gums.

Those substances being so covered, the dust may be put in a common pepper-castor, and applied by sifting it over the substance to be so covered. Different figures may be drawn with a pencil, and the box of dust shook over them, as far as the extent of the lines covered with glue; the dust will only fasten so far as it meets with what produces adhesion.

PAINTING.

Its origin is to be traced up to that known source, from whence most of those arts, which humanise society and lend a polish to life, first had being. Diodorus Siculus speaks of bricks burnt in the fire with various colours, representing the natural appearance of men and animals; which is the first fact upon record. As this occurred during the building of Babylon, it is as remote an original as we are, perhaps, authorised to depend upon; although it is extremely probable it might be traced to an anterior date: which conclusion, though made from inference alone, we are allowed to suppose must have been the case; as a knowledge of the nature of pigments must first have been ascertained before the Chaldean artists could have been informed what colours would fade, or what would withstand the operation of the enamelling process in the intense heat necessary to produce the effect. They must at least have understood the difference between vegetable colours, which are the first presented to the senses, and most probably were the first which were used, and those afforded by the mineral kingdom, which alone were proper for the operation they performed. Therefore, the arts of painting and chemistry, we would presume must have made considerable progress prior to the erection of the tower of Babel.

The next people, who, in point of time as well as of importance, offer themselves to the notice of modern Europeans, are the Egyptians; and their perfection in the use of the various colours which constitute the compound idea we entertain when we think of painting, is well known and appreciated; when we may any day consult our judgment by inspecting those beautiful specimens of their eternal mode of colouring we have in the exhibition on mummy-cases in the British Museum, and other depositories of that species of antique preservation. The third people who excelled in giving a beautiful and tasteful variety to surfaces in colouring and effect, were the Etrurians, a people anciently inhabiting a district of Italy, now known as Tuscany. Of the perfection to which they brought the art we may form an adequate and proper judgment by inspecting those beautiful vases preserved in the Hamiltonian collection in the British Museum, and also in some very curious specimens of ancient painting, procured from the ruins of Herculaneum, collected likewise by Sir William Hamilton.

It cannot be doubted, that most distinct societies of men have, after the gratification of their first wants, and when leisure hours permitted the exercise of their ingenious and inventive faculties, invented a great variety of useful and ornamental arts; therefore, there cannot be a question, but various arts of utility as well as of ornament, have been invented by a great variety of people, who all, agreeably to our prior definitions, are well entitled to the distinct appellation of original inventors; consequently in such a case question must evidently submit to the determination of chronology.

Eudora, the daughter of a potter of Corinth, is presumed to have introduced the art into Greece. The art of painting in Greece is also claimed by Sicyon as the original. Mr. Fuseli has beautifully observed in his first lecture illustrative of the former of these two claimants, that “If ever legend deserved our belief, the amorous tale of the Corinthian maid, who traced the shadow of her departing lover by the secret lamp, appeals to our sympathy to grant it.” This invention is becoming doubly interesting in that country, first, because of its elegance and utility; and secondly, because it is ascribed to one of the noblest and most powerful passions, which distinguish the human species, the wonderful effects of which have given to humanity the most exalted and illustrious of actions, which ennoble the character of man—to delicate, refined, and almighty love. Numerous artists in the Grecian school brought the art of painting to great perfection.

The restorer of this delightful art in Europe was Cimabue, a native of Italy, who first studied under some Grecian artists, and furnished some admirable productions in fresco, in several Italian churches about the renovation of the arts in modern Italy; since which time, this purely intellectual art has been successfully cultivated in almost all the countries of Europe, certain masters in all schools of which have been eminent for some peculiar eminence.

An analogy has been drawn by comparison between the fascinating effect of music on the ear, and colour on the eye, wherein it is observed the comparison very nearly approximates; whence the term harmony, applied to the former, may correctly, and with singular propriety be used, when speaking of the latter. And also, it is said, for the same reason, and proceeding upon the like analogy, the term tone is applicable to both; they are accordingly used indiscriminately. Without questioning their propriety, we give in to our sensations, and as far as our judgment goes, believe they are not improperly introduced into the pictorial art.

It cannot be presumed that we should have the temerity to aspire to the task of giving a full and complete description of every variety which constitutes perfection in the art; for this would be to infer professional ability, equal, or perhaps, superior to what any one individual ever was, or, we may venture to say, ever will be, known to possess. Besides this inference, another must be presumed, because perfection in description must also anticipate the most delicate, refined, and, as termed, classically correct taste; neither to these do we assume the possession of such well-known essentials as are positively necessary to its formation. It is, besides, altogether difficult, as the world acknowledges, to fix a standard to the ideal faculty of taste, and which, we hereby take occasion to notice; therefore we hope to avoid the sin of presumption, and trust that our readers will observe that what we do state is upon good authority, if we have not full confidence in our own experience; but our sin, if sin there be, is rather that of omission than of commission—of saying too little, rather than too much.

STATUARY.

The origin of Statuary, or what we would term its parent—modelling, is of very great antiquity, as we are authoratively informed by the Grecian historians, whose testimony is supported by Monsieur D’Anville and Major Rennel, two of the most eminent geographers of modern times. From them we learn that three massy statues of gold were erected to ornament the temple of Jupiter Belus. Those were erected by the Chaldeans about two thousand two hundred and thirty years before Christ.

There is also sufficient evidence, that the most eminent and intellectual people, subsequent to the Chaldeans, were the Egyptians.

Every individual, who is in the slightest degree conversant with the history of the arts, knows that the Egyptian artisans had from the earliest periods been in the habit of constructing colossal statues of their numerous deities, and also of their benefactors, raised from gratitude and adulation.

To name only a single instance, the immense colossal statue of Memnon, who perished before the fall of Troy, according to Homer: also Ovid, who speaking of his mother Aurora, says,

“Nor Troy, nor Hecuba could now bemoan,
She weeps a sad misfortune now her own;
Her offspring, Memnon, by Achilles slain,
She saw extended on the Phrygian plain.”

Professor Flaxman has informed us, that this celebrated statue, had it stood upright, would have measured ninety-three feet and a half high; calculating from the dimensions of its ear, which is three feet long. We are informed by Dr. Rees, in his valuable Cyclopedia, that sculpture in marble was not introduced till eight hundred and seventy-three years before Christ. But having said this much for the origin, let us proceed to the art; and we candidly acknowledge that it is from the lectures of that truly distinguished individual, Professsor Flaxman, we are principally indebted for our information.

Sculpture in Greece remained long in a rude state; but we need not wonder at that, when we reflect that art is only an imitation of nature. Hence it follows that man, in a rude state of nature, for want of proper principles to direct his inquiries, and determine his judgment, is continually liable to errors, physical, moral, and religious;—all his productions, of what kind soever, partake of this primitive imbecility.

The early arts of design in Greece resembled those of other barbarous nations, until the successive intellectual and natural, political and civil advantages of this people raised them above the arts of the surrounding nations. The science employed by the Greeks may be traced in anatomy, geometry, mechanics, and perspective. From their earlier authors and coeval monuments, Homer had described the figure with accuracy, but insufficient for general purposes.

Of Anatomy.—Hippocrates was the first who enumerated the bones, and wrote a compendious account of the principles of the human figure; he described the shoulders, the curves of the ribs, hips and knees; the characters of the arms and legs, in the same simple manner in which they are represented in the basso relievo of the Parthenon, now in the National Gallery of the British Museum.

The ancient artists saw the figure continually exposed in all actions and circumstances, so as to have little occasion for other assistance to perfect their works; and they had also the assistance of casting, drawing, and other subsidiary means. The succeeding ancient anatomists did not describe the human figure more minutely or advantageously for the artist, than had been done by Hippocrates, till the time of Galen, whose external anatomy gave example for that analytical accuracy of arrangement followed by more modern artists. Sculpture, however, profited little from Galen’s labours, for the arts of design were in his time in a retrogade motion towards anterior barbarism.

The anatomical researches from Alcmæon of Crotona, a disciple of Pythagoras, to those of Hippocrates and his scholars, assisted Phidias and Praxiteles, their contemporaries and successors, in giving select and appropriate forms of body and limbs to their several divinities, whose characters were fixed by the artists from the rhapsodies of Homer, having then become popular among the Athenians.

Phidias was the first in this reformation. Minerva, under his hand, became young and beautiful, who had before been harsh and elderly; and Jupiter was awful, as when his nod shook the poles, but benignant, as when he smiled on his daughter Venus. Apollo and Bacchus then assumed youthful resemblances of their sire; the first more majestic, the latter more feminine; whilst Mercury, as patron of gymnastic exercises, was represented as more robust than his brother. Hercules became gradually more powerful; and the forms of inferior heroes displayed a nearer resemblance to common nature; from which, both sentiment and beauty can alone be given to imitative art. The near approach of ancient art to nature, considering their high advance to accuracy of imitation, should likewise encourage the modern to imitate the ancient artists. The moderns now also enjoy superior auxiliary assistance from engraving, printed books, &c., which the ancients did not possess.

Mechanism of the Human Frame.—The human figure with the limbs extended, may be inclined and bounded by the circle and square; the centre of gravity, its change of situation, is susceptible of description, and may be exemplified in rest and motion;—running, striving, leaping, walking, rising, and falling. Those principles of motion may be exhibited in a skeleton, by the bending of the backbone backwards and forwards, whilst the limbs uniformly describe sections of circles in their motions, constantly moving on their axis.

Dimensions of the Human Figure, as exhibited in Grecian Statuary.—The height, eight heads (or usually ten faces); two heads across the shoulders; one head and a half across the hips; three noses, the thickest part of the thigh; two, to the calf of the leg; one, the narrowest part of the shin, &c. The above is the general proportion of the male figure. The female figure is narrower across the shoulders, and wider across the hips than the male.

The beauty of the human figure is found in its proportion, symmetry, and expression; it really appears that the beauty of the human figure is the chief or ultimate of beauty observed in the visible works of creative Omnipotence. From thence every other species of beauty graduates in just ratios of proportion. From considering the intellectual faculties of man, we assimilate the idea, and connect beauty with utility, as this union of his physical and mental powers unquestionably renders him one of the most beautiful objects in the creation. This consideration leads us involuntarily to a train of thought, suggested by a principle laid down by Plato, “That nothing is beautiful which is not truly good;” which also induces the following corollary, and which is confirmed by reason, and sanctioned by revelation, that perfection of human beauty consists of the most virtuous soul in the most healthy and perfect body.

Inasmuch as painters and sculptors adhered to those principles in their work, they assisted to enforce a popular impression of divine attributes and perfections, even in ages of gross idolatry.

In the highest order of divinities, the energy of intellect was represented above the material accidents of passion and decay.

The statues of the Saturnian family, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, were the most sublime and mighty of the superior divinities. Apollo, Bacchus, and Mercury, were youthful resemblances of the Saturnian family, in energetic, delicate, and more athletic beauty: Apollo-Belvidere supplies Homer’s description to the sight; he looks indignant, his hair is agitated; he steps forward in the discharge of his shafts; his arrows are hanging on his shoulder.

A youthful and infantine beauty of the highest class distinguish the Cupid of Praxiteles, and the group of Ganymede and the Eagle. The order of heroes or demigods excel in strength, activity, and beauty; Achilles, Ajax, Hæmon, Zethos, and Amphion, are examples in Grecian statuary to establish this remark.

The Giants are human to the waist; their figures terminate in serpentine tails. Ocean and the great Rivers have Herculean forms, and faintly resemble the Saturnian family, and have reclining positions. The Tritons resemble the Fauns in the head, and upper features, with finny tails, and gills on their jaws; their lower parts terminate in the tails of fish.

In the highest class of female characters, the beauty of Juno, is imperious; that of Minerva, wise, as she presides over peaceful arts; or warlike, as the protectress of cities. Venus is the example and patroness of milder beauty and the softer arts of reciprocal communication; of which the Venus Praxiteles and Venus de Medicis are instances. The Greeks had also a Venus Urania, the goddess of hymenial rites and the celestial virtues.

The Graces are three youthful, lovely sisters embracing: they represent the tender affections, as their name implies; while their character gives the epithet graceful to undulatory and easy motion. The universe was peopled by genii, good and evil demons, which comprehends every species and gradation from the most sublime and beautiful in Jupiter and Venus, to the most gross in the Satyr, resembling a goat, and in the terrific Pan.

As the public have now an opportunity of consulting many of the objects above referred to, in our great national gallery in the British Museum, those of our readers who can obtain this advantage will do well to pay a visit to that celebrated depository for the relics of antiquity, where they will have it in their power to convince themselves of the truth of the foregoing remarks.

The progeny of Ham, the son of Noah, we find, peopled Egypt, Medea, Chaldea, Phœnicia, and several other adjoining countries. It will be remembered that two of the three sons of Noah possessed these countries which the folly of idolatry overflowed; whilst it was in the line of Shem alone, that the true faith was continued. The Mosaiac narrative is chiefly descriptive of events which occurred in the posterity of that patriarch, because from it the righteous line of the faithful in Abraham, David, Solomon, and ultimately Christ, proceeded. Thus more than two-thirds of the inhabitants of the world were gross idolators: we often find the Omniscience of the Highest forewarning the sacred line to avoid its fascinations. Nay, when, upon more occasions than one, the descendants of the faithful forgot themselves, and those admonitions of the Creator were neglected, we find the sacred race flying before the face of puny foes, which defeat was declared to be from their having prostrated themselves before strange gods: they were bowed thus low in battle. Not to mention their disobedience immediately beneath Mount Sinai, which protracted their journey through the wilderness to forty years, which, perhaps, under other circumstances, would not have required as many days. All those troubles, their subsequent captivities, and national afflictions, were the produce of disobedience. This is one of those means which retributive justice resorts to punish wilful sin; so, however, it was with the seed of Abraham. And so it is presumed to be with the present race of men; either immediate or remote punishment vindicates the Omnipotence of Heaven. From the frequent maledictions we discover in the sacred volume against idol worship, we cannot doubt that it was peculiarly offensive to the Deity. that the great majority of the world were addicted to this proscribed practice is equally certain. And as the Spirit of Truth had declared in the decalogue, that “It would not be worshipped under any form in the heavens above, in the earth below, or in the waters under the earth;” so was image-worship, and consequently the construction of such things, forbidden.

We discover that as this mania infected all nations, tongues, and people, so did not the Israelites escape it; but immediately after their departure from Egypt we find an exact similitude of the sacred calf of the Egyptians, cast in melted gold, which they constructed below Mount Sinai. In Egypt, metallic statues, as well as those of stone, must have existed anterior to that event, as they actually had done to our own knowledge, and long before idolatry had made its appearance in Egypt, it had existed in Chaldea, as already shown.

As that worship had first its being in Chaldea, so had the art of statuary its origin in that country; it was improved, perhaps, in Egypt, and perfected in Greece, from the time of Pericles to that of Alexander, commonly called the Great.

DRAWING.
THE HUMAN FIGURE.

From what has been said in the previous article, it would appear that drawing of the human figure was nearly coeval with the art of statuary, or perhaps prior to it in Greece. As there is ample room to suppose the rude aboriginal inhabitants of Greece borrowed their art, as they did their religious and civil policy, from the Egyptians, and in fact from every nation where they discovered anything worthy their attention, so must we suppose they had also this art, in its infancy it is true, from the same people. Upon reflecting for a single moment, we are fully satisfied that the origin of the art now under contemplation came from Egypt. An ancient philosopher expressed himself with great truth, when he said, “Necessity was man’s first instructor.” We accordingly perceive the necessity of the earliest inhabitants of Egypt to exercise the art of drawing, they having determined to record their transactions by hieroglyphical representation. We have not the slightest doubt but we have now in the British Museum some of the earliest specimens of Egyptian hieroglyphical delineation, in the sarcophagi; from its inscription, it has been discovered that that identical monument cannot be less than three thousand five hundred and ninety-eight years old!

Previous to this, we can have no doubt that the art of drawing must have existed.

Like its sister art, sculpture, it received every improvement of which it was susceptible, from the mature conceptions and the delicate hand of Grecian artisans; words are, perhaps, inadequate to convey this art to a second person. Years of incessant labour, with an attention to principles established and found to correspond correctly with nature, are the only means to obtain a just knowledge of its principles, and to judge tastefully of its correct execution.

However, in addition to the rules laid down in the preceding article, we add the following, which have been approved by Sir Joshua Reynolds, by no means a contemptible judge of the art:—

1. That from the crown of the head to the forehead is the third part of a face.

2. The face begins at the root of the lowest hairs that grow on the forehead, and ends at the bottom of the chin.

3. The face is divided into three proportionate parts; the first contains the forehead or brow; the second, the nose; and the third, the mouth and chin.

4. From the chin to the pit between the collar-bones, is two lengths of a nose.

5. From the pit between the collar-bones to the bottom of the breast, one face.

6. From the bottom of the breast to the navel, one face.

7. From the navel to the genitories, one face.

8. From the genitories to the upper part of the knee, two faces.

9. The knee contains half a face.

10. From the lower part of the knee to the ancle, two faces.

11. From the ancle to the sole of the foot, half a face.

12. A man with his arms extended, is from his longest finger on each hand, as broad as he is long.

13. From one side of the breast to the other, two faces.

14. The bone of the arm called humerus, i.e., from the shoulder to the elbow joint, is the length of two faces.

15. From the end of the elbow to the joint of the little finger, the bone called cubitus, with a part of the hand, is also two faces.

16. From the box of the shoulder-blade, to the pit between the collar-bones, one face.

17. To be satisfied in measures of breadth. From the extremity of one finger to the other, so that his breadth should be equal to the length, it should be observed, that the bones of the elbows with the humerus, and the humerus with the shoulder-blade, or scapula, bear the proportions of a face when the arms are extended.

18. The sole of the foot is one-sixth part of the length of the entire figure.

19. The hand is the length of a face.

20. The thumb contains a nose in length.

21. The inside of the arm, from the place where the muscle disappears, which is connected with the breast (called the pectoral muscle,) to the middle of the arm, four noses long.

22. From the middle of the arm, at the top, to the beginning of the head, five noses.

23. The longest toe is one nose.

24. The outermost parts of the paps, and the pit between the collar-bones of a female, form an equilateral triangle.

The knowledge of the preceding proportions, are as mere rudiments essential to the delineation of the human figure; but they relate to a body in a quiescent state only. The more difficult task remains to become thoroughly acquainted with its actions. To obtain this, a rudimental and even an intimate acquaintance with the skeleton, and assiduous and incessant practice are necessary.

However, the lectures delivered to the Royal Academy have furnished us with the probable extent to which the motions of the human frame may be carried.

First, premising that the motions of the head and trunk of the body are limited by the several joints of the spine.

2. The motion of the body upon the lower limbs takes place at the hip-joints, at the knees, and at the ancles.

3. Those limbs, called great limbs (the whole frame being technically divided, and denominated the upper and lower extremities), have rotatory motions at their junctions with the trunk, by means of a ball and socket joints, at the shoulders and the hips. The analogy of parts between the upper and lower extremities is not carried through the structure of those limbs in the body.

4. The fulcrum of the upper limb is itself moveable upon the trunk, as appears from the extensive motions of the scapula, which so generally accompany the rotation of the shoulder, and supply the limb with a great variety of motion, much more than the lower limb possesses.

5. The junction of the thigh with the mass without motion, called the pelvis, limits its rotation to the ball and socket-joint without farther extension.

6. The rotation of the head and neck takes place at the joint between the first and second vertebræ.

7. When the nose is parallel with the sternum, the face may be turned towards either shoulder, through an angle of 60 deg. on each side; the whole range of its motion being 120 degrees.

8. The lateral bending of the neck is equally divided between the seven vertebræ; but the bowing of the head, and violently tossing it backward, are chiefly effected at the joint of the skull, and the first bone of the vertebral column called the atlas.

9. Although the preceding motions are consistent with an erect stature of the neck, yet the lateral motions demand a curvature of its whole mass.

10. The movements of the trunk are regulated by rotary and lateral motions, nearly equally divided among the several joints of the vertebræ of the back and loins.

11. The joints or the dorsal or back vertebræ are, notwithstanding, more close and compact than those of the loins; allowing of a wider range for bending and turning in the loins than the back.

12. The sternum and ribs move upward, to assist the chest in the expansion required for respiration; drawing the clavicles and the shoulders upwards in full inspiration, and tend to a contrary motion on expiration. Such movements also, characterise strong action and certain passion, and very apparent in a naked figure.

13. In stooping to touch the ground, the thigh-bone forms an angle of somewhere about 55 degrees with the average direction of the vertebræ.

14. The leg bends upon the thigh at an angle of about 75 degrees, and the line of the tibia forms, with the sole of the foot, when that is elevated, an angle of 65 degrees.

15. The whole of this limb is susceptible of motion at the hip-joint forwards to a right angle with its perpendicular position; and backwards to an angle of 20 degrees. The leg will then continue to move by itself to its own angle of 75 degrees with the thigh. Its extreme motion does not exceed 45 degrees.

16. When the shoulders are quiescent, the clavicles usually meet in an angle of 110 degrees at the sternum.

17. The utmost elevation of the upper joint of the arm generally forms an angle of 155 degrees with the vertebræ, and about 125 degrees with the line of its clavicle. The flexion of the fore-arm upon its upper part is confined to an angle of nearly 40 degrees.

18. The whole arm is capable of moving forward or outward through nearly 80 degrees, and backward to nearly the same angle with its perpendicular station.

19. The actions of pronation and supination in the hand, range through all intermediate degrees from a horizontal or perpendicular direction to 270 degrees; but 90 degrees of its rotary motion in pronation comes from the shoulder joint.

20. The palm of the hand admits of flexion and extension to 65 degrees in each direction; its lateral motions are 35 outward, and 30 inward. The flexion of the fingers at each phalanx is a right angle.

But it must be observed that in drawing the joints, very considerable difference is found in their length, from inequality of action. The elbow joint, when bent inward, lengthens the arm nearly one eighth; the same general law operates on the knees, fingers, &c. When a man is at rest, and standing on both feet, a line drawn perpendicularly between the clavicles will fall central between his feet. Should he stand on one foot, it falls upon the heel of that foot which supports his weight.

If he raises one arm, it will throw as much of his body on the other side as nature requires to support the equilibrium. One of his legs thrown back brings the breast forward, to preserve the gravity of the figure: the same will be observed in all other motions of the parts to keep the central gravitation in its proper place.

The equipoise of a figure is of two sorts: simple, when its action relates to itself; and compound, when it refers to a second object.

The equilibrium of nature is constantly preserved; for in walking, leaping, running, &c., similar precautions are taken. By the flexibility of our bodies in striking, according to the proportionate force meant to be employed, the body is first drawn back, then the limb propelled forward, bringing with it the weight of the body.

In striking, lifting, throwing, &c., a greater proportion of force is employed than may be necessary to effect the intended purpose. This is mentioned because, in representation, the force employed in an action should be marked in the muscle producing that action; if it be marked rather stronger than may be necessary, the cause is obvious, for Nature so employs her powers.

In studying this art, students should have selected for them the best examples to copy from at first; then they should draw from the figure as soon as possible, and if it be possible from the best specimens of the antique. Their first drawings are recommended to be made with chalk, and in large proportion; attention to these will communicate ease and freedom to their future performances.

It will be likewise found necessary for them to draw upon geometrical principles; this communicates a truth, which greatly adds to their certainty and confidence, and ultimately to their ease.

This is mentioned, because it will be found that there is no portion of the human frame, quiescent, or in an active state, but what is susceptible of geometrical definition.

Experience and exercise communicate truths which produce certainty, whence come ease and grace.

ARCHITECTURE.

This is a science most beneficial to humanity. It is very evident that it must have an extremely ancient origin. The origin of this art is presumed to have been imitated by man, from those natural caves and recesses, which are discovered in various parts of the earth. For in those, it is reported, the first men took shelter from the inclemency of elemental strife, and to avoid the piercing contingencies of ultimate and precarious uncertainty. The oldest buildings in the world are accordingly said to be beneath the surface of the earth; among which are reckoned the famous temple of Elephanta, in the Delta of the Ganges; the Catacombs, in Egypt; and upon the surface of the earth, the tower of Belus, at Babylon; the Egyptian Mausoleum, and the Druidical Temples in Gaul and Britain.

Architecture may well be denominated one of those arts which accommodate, delight, and give consequence to the human species; while at the same time it is calculated to flatter pride, and gratify vanity. If viewed in its full extent, it may be truly said to possess a very considerable portion, not only of the comforts, but the conveniences, the positive utilities, and many of the luxuries of life. The advantages derived from houses only are very great, being the first step towards civilization, having great influence both on the body and mind of man. Secluded from each other in woods, caves, and wretched huts, the inhabitants of such recesses are generally found to be men, indolent, dull, inactive, and abject; their faculties benumbed, their views limited to the gratification of their individual and most pressing wants. But when societies are formed, and commodious dwellings provided, where well sheltered, they may breathe a temperate air, amid summer’s scorching heat, and winter’s biting cold; sleep, when Nature requires, in ease and security; study unmolested; converse and taste the sweets of social enjoyments;—they are spirited, active, ingenious, and enterprising, vigorous in body, and active in mind. If benefits like these previously enumerated result from any art, then will that of the architect claim a decided pre-eminence. When we reflect on the almost infinity of useful purposes to which this art is conducive;—that it erects us temples for the worship of our Creator, the benevolent dispenser of all good things, that it provides us with habitations, where ease and simplicity are agreeably combined;—that it is conducive to our safety, comfort, and convenience, in uniting different districts of the country by the facility of bridges, roads, &c., is contributive to the gratification of our natural wants, and to our safety.

As inhabitants of a great commercial country, the benefits we derive from naval architecture are unspeakably great; when we reflect that it operates as a medium of communication between us, an insulated people, and the whole earth, in its remotest colonies; that it serves to convey between our people and the most distant nations the native produce of the respective countries, with the effects of mutual industry; that it clothes, feeds, and furnishes employment to thousands of our fellow-countrymen; and, in a national point of view, our wooden bulwarks have been the wonder of the world, and continues to afford us protection from our enemies, should all other hopes fail. What can surpass its utility in the latter point of view? what can exceed the assistance derived from it? By the criterions formerly mentioned let us determine. We shall find, that of all the arts the world has ever boasted, there are but few, if any, that can claim a superiority.

There are no other designs, whether necessary or superfluous, so certainly productive of their desired object, so beneficial in consequences, or so permanent in their effects, as is the art of the architect. Most other inventions which afford pleasure and satisfaction soon decay; their fashion fluctuates—their value is lost; but the productions of architecture command general attention, and are lasting monuments, beyond the reach of ephemeral modes: they proclaim to distant ages the consequence, genius, virtues, achievements, and munificence of those they commemorate to the latest posterity. The most obvious and immediate advantages of building are, the employment of numerous ingenious artificers, industrious workmen, and labourers of all kinds; converting materials of small value into the most noble productions, beautifying countries, multiplying the comforts and conveniences of life.

But not the least desirable effects of the architect’s art, perhaps, remain yet to be noticed, in affording to the numerous train of arts and manufactures, concerned to furnish and adorn the works of architecture, which employ thousands, constituting many valuable branches of commerce. Also from that certain concourse of strangers to every country celebrated for stately structures, who extend your fame into other countries, where otherwise, it would never have been heard of; adopt your fashions, give reputation, and create a demand for your productions in foreign parts; these are circumstances which certainly should not be too lightly valued, and these circumstances result from architecture.

At this day, the ruins of ancient Rome support the splendour of the modern city, by inviting travellers, who flock, from all nations, to witness those majestic remains of former grandeur. The same may be said of many other countries famous for architectural remains. Thus architecture, by supplying men with commodious habitations, procures that health of body and energy of mind, which facilitates the invention of arts: when by the exertion of their skill and industry, productions multiply beyond domestic demand, she furnishes the means of transporting them to foreign markets: whenever by commerce they acquire wealth, she points the way to employ their riches rationally, nobly, and benevolently, in methods honourable and useful to themselves, and beneficial to posterity, which add splendour to the state, and yield benefit to their descendants. She further teaches them to defend her possessions, to secure their liberties and lives from attempts of lawless violence or unrestrained ambition. So variously conducive to human happiness is this art, to the wealth and safety of nations,—so, naturally, does it demand that protection and encouragement which has ever been yielded it in all well governed states.

The perfection of virtuous other arts we have beheld to be a consequence of this; for when building is encouraged, painting, sculpture, and every species of decorative art will flourish of course. It should not, however, be imagined that the heaping of stone upon stone can be of consequence, or reflect honour on individuals or nations. The practice of architecture infers actual art to be an essential preliminary; without this, and having some laudable end in view, it is apt to raise disgust. This art is generally classed under three distinct heads, viz., Civil, Military, and Naval Architecture.

In the first attempts of architecture it was extremely rude, as might naturally be expected. It has, however, from time to time, as improvements have advanced, been raised to relative importance, as the education of the people progressed; and it certainly gives the best record of the mental progress of every people which can be collected. It has always been found to flourish best in free states, and when the rulers have possessed genius, virtue, and good taste. The most eminent era of Grecian architecture was when the Athenian republic was under the direction of Pericles; at this period, also, existed the first of statuaries, Praxiteles. Where that eminent artist and their admirable architects were employed, in the words of Pausanius, “they rendered the whole of Acropolis as an entire ornament.” There are various characteristic distinctions to be made in the several orders of architecture which distinguish the Grecian people. The Doric is eminent for primeval simplicity; the Tuscan embraces more ornament; the Ionic unites simplicity and elegance; but the sum of all excellence appears to be united in the Corinthian. The Composite is also a most elegant order, but appears to have added but little to the Corinthian elegance and majesty. Various nations have a great diversity of architecture; as the Egyptian, Persian (distinguished by human figures supporting entablatures), Hindostanee, Arabasque or Marisquo, which are very peculiar, generally having the walls to project most at the top, which is indicative of the natural jealousy of all oriental people; they all regarding their women as their chief treasure, it appears meant for their especial protection.

A greater simplicity does not appear anywhere than in the architecture of the Druids, consisting of most extensive circles of immense stones, chiefly raised perpendicularly, with occasionally a larger stone placed upon the apex of two others horizontally.—There are in Great Britain numerous remains of these constructions: the chief are Stonehenge, near Salisbury; at Avebury, also in Wiltshire; Pomonca, in the Orkneys; Rollright, in Oxfordshire. But the most eminent spot for Druid temples was Mona, in Anglesea, in Wales. The reason for such apparently unmeaning erections will be found in their peculiar belief, in the religion they professed.

The Saxon is a very heavy order of architecture. It was used in this kingdom much in the erection of religious edifices, and is frequently found mixed with the Norman in such structures. The grand and most obvious distinction is a semi-circular arch, with massy columns, variously ornamented, and most frequently the columns which support the same arch are diversely sculptured. The chief sculptures of this kind in Britain, are Gloucester Cathedral; Malmesbury Abbey, Wilts; Sedbury Church, Herefordshire; several churches in Rutland, Lincoln, Somerset, Devon, and other counties.

There appears to us to be no order of architecture better calculated for the purpose to which it is generally adopted, than the chaste and pure Norman style, barbarously denominated Gothic. It affords a great variety of light, airy beauty, and tasteful grandeur.

In this country, the Norman order succeeded the Saxon, and we lost nothing by the exchange; for even now, that we have the entire benefit of a choice of the purest Grecian (since its revival by Inigo Jones), it is a matter of taste to be certain; but in our estimation, the chaste Norman is to be preferred to the purest Grecian, for the purposes for which it is intended; and if the means answer the ultimate end, we submit this to be the proper criterion for preference. We find it usually employed in religious edifices; it is pure, light, airy, and cheerful: and we are of opinion that the service of gratitude and thanks to the Creator demands a disposition of mind which these feelings are best calculated to inspire.

Domestic architecture is various, and chiefly regulated by the various purposes for which it is designed. Its characteristic is utility.

CHAIN-BRIDGES.

(See [Frontispiece].)

It appears, from a description of bridges of suspension, communicated by R. Stephenson, civil engineer, some time ago, to the “Philosophical Journal,” that the first chain-bridge constructed in this country is believed to be one over the Tees, forming a communication between the counties of Durham and York. It is supposed, on good authority, to have been erected about 1741, and is described in the “Antiquities of Durham” as “a bridge suspended on iron chains, stretched from rock to rock, over a chasm nearly sixty feet deep, for the passage of travellers, particularly miners. This bridge is seventy feet in length, and little more than two feet broad, with a hand-rail on one side, and planked in such a manner that the traveller experiences all the tremulous motion of the chain, and sees himself suspended over a roaring gulf, on an agitated and restless gangway, to which few strangers dare trust themselves.” In 1816–17, two or three bridges of iron were constructed; the first, by Mr. Lees, an extensive woollen manufacturer, at Galashiels, in Scotland. This experiment, although made with slender wire, and necessarily imperfect in its construction, deserves to be noticed, as affording a practical example of the tenacity of iron so applied.—These wire bridges were suspended not upon the catemarian principle so successfully adopted in the larger works subsequently undertaken, but by means of diagonal braces, radiating from their points of suspension on either side towards the centre of the roadway. The unfortunate fabric next mentioned was constructed on this defective principle. Among the earliest practical exhibitions of this novel architecture in the United Kingdom, may be mentioned the uncommonly elegant and light chain-bridge which was thrown over the Tweed at Dryburgh, in 1817, by the Earl of Buchan, for the accommodation of foot passengers. Its length, between the points of suspension, was two hundred and sixty-one feet, being considered the greatest span of any bridge in the kingdom. This useful structure, the theme of such just applause, and which harmonised so finely with the far-famed scenery of Dryburgh Abbey, was entirely destroyed by a tremendous gale of wind, at the beginning of the year following its erection.—This bridge was subsequently restored upon a more secure system.

CLOCKS.

The invention of clocks, such as are now in use, is ascribed to Pacificus, Archdeacon of Verona, who died in 846; but they were not known in England before the year 1368. They were ultimately improved by the application of pendulums, in 1657, by Huygens, a Dutch astronomer and mathematician. Although Dr. Beckmann differs in some slight degree from the previous relation concerning clocks, yet he says, “It is sufficiently apparent that clocks, moved by wheels and weights, began certainly to be used in the monasteries of Europe, about the eleventh century.” He does not think, however, that Europe has a claim to the honour of the invention, but that it is rather to be ascribed to the Saracens; this conjecture, he confesses, is chiefly supported by what Trithemius tells us, of one which was sent by the Sultan of Egypt to Frederick II., in 1232. He thinks that the writers of that century speak of clocks as though they had been then well known; he adds, that in the fourteenth century, mention is made of the machine of Richard de Wallingford, which has hitherto been considered as the oldest clock known. The fabricator of this machine called it Albion.

It appears that clocks had been hitherto shut up in monasteries and other religious houses, and that it was not till after this time they were employed for more general purposes, as the convenience of cities, &c. The first instance on record, that has been yet noticed, occurs where Herbert, Prince of Carrara, caused the first clock that was ever publicly exposed, to be erected at Padua. It was erected by John Dondi, whose family afterwards, in consequence, had the pronomen of Horologia assigned them, in remembrance of this circumstance: it is also mentioned on the tombstone of the artist. The family of Dondi now followed the profession of manufacturing clocks; for his son, John Dondi, constructed one upon improved principles.

The first clock at Bologna was put up in the year 1356. Some time after the year 1364, Charles V., surnamed the Wise, King of France, caused a clock to be placed in the tower of his palace, by Henry de Wyck, whom he had invited from Germany for the purpose, because there was then at Paris no artist of that kind, and to whom he assigned a salary of six sols per diem, with free lodgings in the Tower. Towards the end of that century, probably about the year 1370, Strasburg had a clock. About the same period, Courtray was celebrated for its clock, which the Duke of Burgundy carried away, A. D. 1382. A public clock was erected in the Altburg gate at Spire, in 1395, the works of which cost fifty-one florins.

The greater part of the principal cities of Europe, however, at this period, had clocks without striking. Clocks could not be procured but at a very great expense: of this, an instance occurred in the city of Auxerre, in the year 1483, when the magistrates being desirous of a clock, but discovering that it would cost more money than they thought themselves justified in expending on their own authority, applied to the Emperor Charles VIII. for leave to employ a portion of the public funds for that purpose.

In 1462, a public clock was put up in the church of the Virgin Mary at Nuremberg.

At Venice a public clock was put in the year 1497. In the same century an excellent clock was put up for Cosmo de Medici, by Lorenzo, a Florentine.

Having thus mentioned their origin in various places, until they came to ornament the religious houses, the palaces of kings, and the chief European cities, it now remains for us to take some notice of their existence in our own country for public use. From public documents still extant, it appears that so great was their expense considered in those early times of their introduction, that it was only the powerful and the rich who could procure them. We discover that the first clock for public and lay purposes in England was one erected on the north side of Old Palace Yard, Westminster, on which was this inscription, Discite justitiam moniti; which inscription is said to have been preserved many years after the clock-house had been decayed.

It is asserted that this clock was placed in that situation, for the purpose of being heard by the members of the courts of law; and the occasion which produced its existence is thus recorded. It was the produce of a fine levied upon the lord chief justice of the court of King’s Bench, in the reign of Edward I. A. D. 1288, of whom it appears by a book called the “Year-Book,” that this magistrate had been fined 800 marks for making an alteration in a record, wherein a defendant had been fined 13s. 4d., and he, the chief justice, made it appear to be 6s. 8d. instead of that, the larger sum.

Notoriety, however, was attached to this transaction from the following circumstances. First, it appears to have been one of three questions put by Richard III. to his judges, with whom he was closeted in the Inner Star Chamber, to take their opinions on three points of law. The second question was, “Whether a justice of the peace, who had enrolled an indictment which had been negatived by the grand jury, among the true bills, might be punished for the abuse of his office?” On this question a diversity of opinion arose among the judges, some of whom supposed a magistrate could not be prosecuted for what he might have done; whilst others contended that he might, and cited the case of the lord chief justice above mentioned: so far was the answer of the judges strictly proper and historically true. The third circumstance to which we have alluded, and which is most material to our present question, is the application of the fine. It appears that it was expended in the construction of a clock, which was erected on the north side of Old Palace Yard; so that the judges, barristers, and students could not enter or leave the court, without having an opportunity of being reminded of the punishment of the chief justice, for presuming to violate the impartial duty of his high office; nor could they even hear it strike, whilst upon the throne of justice, without having his case repeated in their ears; thereby acting as a constant remembrancer, intimating they were to administer justice more than mercy.

Sir Edward Coke observes that 800 marks were actually entered upon the roll, so that it is extremely probable he had himself seen the record.

This clock was considered so important during the reign of Henry VI., that we find that the king gave the charge of keeping it, with its appurtenances, to William Warley, dean of St. Stephen’s, with the pay of sixpence per diem, to be received at the exchequer.

The clock of St. Mary’s, Oxford, was also furnished in 1523, out of fines imposed upon the students of that university.

With respect to the clock procured from the fine of the lord chief justice, we must also observe that its motto appears to relate to that circumstance; but though it might be said that it might relate to a dial as well as to a clock—a material observation to our present inquiry—yet, with respect to its present absence, it should be noticed, that it is probable that clock was a very indifferent one, but from its antiquity and the tradition attending it, was permitted to remain till the time of Elizabeth; then being quite decayed, a dial might have been substituted upon the same clock-house, bearing the very singular motto which, however originally applied, clearly alludes to such a circumstance as reported of the lord chief justice. This dial is placed on the very site where the clock-house stood.

But it is said by Derham, in his “Artificial Clockmaker,” that the oldest clock in this kingdom is in Hampton Court Palace, marked with the letters N. O., presumed to have been the initials of the maker’s name, of the date of 1540; but that author is evidently mistaken, in alleging that to be the oldest, because the Oxford clock bears a date seventeen years anterior to that period. With respect to the initials, or whatever they may be, we do not consider them of the smallest importance.

From Shakspeare’s “Othello” it is proved that the ancient name of this instrument was Horologe; which various passages in our poets and old authors establish:—

“He’ll watch the horologe a double set,
If drink rock not his cradle.”

Chaucer also says of a cock,

“Full sickerer was his crowing in his loge,
As is a clock, or any abbey orloge;”

which tends to show that, in his time, clocks had been confined to religious houses.

So Lydgate’s prologue to the story of Thebes:—

“I will myself be your orologere
To-morrow early.”

With respect to our modern clocks, it would be presumption in us to say one word, as there is not an individual but knows as much about them, as we could tell him. We have fulfilled our intention in giving this historical account, which we are persuaded will afford some information. We will now proceed to

WATCHES,

Which are not of so great antiquity; as it is only about 1490, mention is made of watches, which first occurs in the Italian poems of Gaspar Visconti. Dominico Maria Manni says the inventor was Lorenzo a Vulparia, a native of Florence.

One might naturally be inclined to believe that the honour of original invention is duly demanded by the whole Germanic people, from the claim of the invention of watches being aspired to by the Nurembergians; as Doppelenayer gravely alleges they were first invented by a person residing in that city, in the sixteenth century, of the name of Peter Hale; and, perhaps, he has no better foundation for his conjecture, than that watches were at first of an oval shape, and were called Nuremberg eggs.

Shakspeare, in his “Twelfth Night,” speaking of a watch, has the following expression, used by Malvolio: “I frown the while; and perchance wind up my watch, or play with some rich jewel.” Also, the Priest, in answer to Olivia,

“Since when, my watch hath told me, toward my grave
I have travelled but two hours.”

The following observations appear to sanction our opinion of the early existence of those machines in this country. Dr. Derham, in his “Artificial Clockmaker,” published in 1714, mentions a watch of Henry VIII., which at the period he wrote was in good order. Indeed, Dr. Demainbray says that he had heard Sir Isaac Newton and Demoire both speak of that watch.

An anecdote is related of the Emperor Charles V., contemporary with Henry VIII., which it appears has reference to the policy of Europe at that day. It is said, the emperor, after dinner, used to sit with several watches on the table, with his bottle in the centre. After the prince’s retirement to the abbey of St. Just, he still continued to amuse himself with keeping them in order. From his inability to effect this correctly, it is reported he drew the rational reflection, that it was impossible to effect what he had attempted—the regulation of the policy of Europe.

It also appears that many watches of that day struck the hours. The “Memoirs of Literature” report that such watches having been stolen from Charles V. and Louis XI. whilst they were in a crowd, the thieves were detected from their striking.

It also appears from the evidence of certain watches of ancient construction formerly held by Sir Ashton Lever, and also by Mr. Ingham Forster, that catgut usually supplied the place of a chain in ancient watches; also that they were of a smaller size than now made, and generally of an oval form.

Imperfections of this nature, and probably other causes, might have rendered their truth uncertain, and this most probably precluded their general use, until the latter end of the reign of Elizabeth. The instances we have shown will prove they were generally known, and perhaps used at the time of Shakspeare writing the “Twelfth Night.” And in the first edition of Harrington’s “Orlando Furioso,” published in 1591, the frontispiece represents the author with what appears to be a watch, although the engraving is extremely indistinct; moreover, the inscription to which engraving, of Il Tempo passo, clearly indicates the same thing.

Charles I., in 1631, incorporated the clockmakers company, and by charter, which prohibits clocks, watches, and alarums from being imported; which circumstance proves, that the English at this period, had no need of the aid of foreign ingenuity in this branch of mechanism.

We are told that Guy Fawkes and Percy were detected in the third year of James I., with a watch about them, which they had purchased, “to try conclusions for the long and short burning of the touchwood,” (in the words of the time) which was prepared to give fire to the train of gunpowder.

The most material improvement introduced in this branch of mechanical knowledge took place in the addition of pendulums, by Huygens, as applied to clocks; for which conception he was indebted to Galileo, which that philosopher adopted for measuring time, he having taken the idea from observing the vibrations of a lamp in a church. This reign also boasts of the production of repeating-watches in England; first fabricated under the direction of the celebrated Dr. Hook, and manufactured by Tompion.

An anecdote is related of the attention paid to watches by James II., recorded by Derham, in the “Artificial Clockmaker:” One Barlow had procured a patent, in conjunction with the lord chief justice Allebone, for repeaters; but a person of the name of Quare making one at the same time, upon principles he had entertained before the patent was granted to Barlow, the king tried both in person, and gave the preference to Quare’s, and caused it to be notified in the gazette.

In the next reign, the reputation of British watchmakers had increased so much, that an act was passed by parliament, enacting that British-made watches should be marked with the maker’s name, in order to preserve the reputation of this branch of British manufacture from coming to discredit in foreign markets.

Thus we have given a general outline of the history of this branch of mechanics, for a period of nearly a thousand years, from the first invention of clocks by Pacificus of Verona, in 846, to the beginning of last century, since which period they have become an article of such general use to require no comment from us. We have noticed the various improvements in the order in which they occurred, among which the most striking feature appears to be the addition of the pendulums, as serving to regulate the motion of the machine; from its given length, certain weight and uniform vibration, it must be conceived to have been a happy thought in Galileo, for the admeasurement of time, and its application to this branch of mechanics was no less fortunate in Huygens. To discover the first invention of time, we will require to look back for upwards of two thousand years, at which period we will find

WATER-CLOCKS.

These are called Clepsydræ. Vitruvius, the Roman architect and mechanist, attributes the invention of the water-clock to Ctesibus of Alexandria, who flourished in the reign of Ptolemy Euergetes, about two hundred and forty-five years before the Christian era. The same author says, the machine was first introduced at Rome, two hundred and fifty seven years previous to the Christian era. There is reason to believe it was first introduced at Rome into courts of justice, from Greece, as it had been originally used in Greece for this purpose; the Roman orators being guided in the time they occupied the court, by this instrument, as we may learn from this expression of Cicero, “Latrare ad clepsydram.” Cicero also informs us, that it was first introduced into courts of justice, in the third consulate of Pompey.