Please see the [Transcriber’s Notes] at the end of this text.

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Muscat of Alexandria Raisin Grape, First Crop. One-half Natural Size.

THE RAISIN INDUSTRY.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE
ON THE
RAISIN GRAPES,
THEIR HISTORY, CULTURE AND CURING.

By GUSTAV EISEN.

SAN FRANCISCO:
H. S. CROCKER & COMPANY, STATIONERS AND PRINTERS,
1890.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1890, by
GUSTAV EISEN,
in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFACE.

f late years the raisin industry has been prominently before the horticulturists of California. Many people now make their living and acquire wealth by the cultivation of the raisin grapes, and many are now studying the methods of cultivation, pruning, curing and packing while waiting for their vines to bear. The literature of the raisin industry is a very scant one, and, with the exception of a few notices in works of travel, or in treatises on general fruit culture, we find not a single book in which this important and interesting industry is made the special subject of study and discussion. A book on the raisin industry may, therefore, be considered timely. I have endeavored to so write it that it would contain something of interest to all those connected with the growing and curing of the raisin grapes, to those who have already succeeded in building up fame and fortune, as well as to those who have just begun the cultivation of the vine, and who have as yet only realized the pleasures, but not the profits, of the industry. The historical part of the book will principally interest the former; for the latter the practical part on cultivation, pruning, curing and packing is intended.

As our climate and other conditions differ from those of any other country in the world, so must our methods of cultivation and curing differ from those practiced elsewhere. Foreign methods, while interesting and, in some respects, of great importance to us, had to be greatly modified and improved upon before our growers succeeded in producing raisins equaling the best from the raisin districts of the Old World. It has cost years of experimenting and study to attain success, as well as much money and disappointment to many who had nothing to guide them when they commenced.

These processes by which success was achieved can now become the property of all, and a safe guide to even the most inexperienced beginners. The methods advocated here are the result of practical experience of the author, as well as of the most successful raisin-growers of this State.

For the benefit of those of our readers who now study the raisin industry at a distance, but whose steps may in the future be directed to this Coast, a descriptive tour through the raisin districts of our State has been added in order that they may see what our country is like,—the country of the raisin and the fig; the country of almonds, olives, oranges and prunes; the country where health, profit and enjoyment are more than anywhere else derived from horticultural pursuits. It is for these prospective readers, that the short biographical sketches of our principal raisin-men are intended,—short records of the pioneers of the raisin industry,—men who have broken the way which is now easy to travel, and through whose experience and perseverance others are now being benefited.

GUSTAV EISEN.

San Francisco, Cal., October, 1890.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

THE RAISIN INDUSTRY.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE RAISIN GRAPES,
THEIR HISTORY, CULTURE AND CURING, WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CALIFORNIA,
BY GUSTAV EISEN.

Copyrighted.

HISTORICAL.

RAISINS.

The word “raisin” as spelled and pronounced to-day, is not of very ancient origin, but rather a corruption and evolution of older words, both spelled and pronounced differently. Thus Falstaff replies to Prince Hal: “If reasons were as plentiful as blackberries, I would give no man a reason upon compulsion” (Henry IV, Act II, scene 4). Also, Cooper, in his dictionary of 1685, indicates that “raisin” and “reason” are of identical sounds. The derivation of the word has, again, been very variously suggested either from “red” or “rose” color, connecting it with the German and Danish word “rosine;” and it has even been suggested that the word was derived from the fact that the raisins were cured in the “rays” of the sun. The true derivation, however, is from the Latin word “racemus,” meaning a bunch or cluster. Richardson, who first points out this derivation, quotes: “Whether a reisyn (E. V. graap, racemus) of Effraym is not better than the vindages of Abiezer” (Wicliffe Judges VIIJ, 2). “And there shall be left in it as a rasyn” (E. V., braunches of a cluster). Marginal note, “A rasyn is a lytil bow with a lytil fruit” (Idem. Is., XVIJ., 6). But we have much older testimony of this derivation being the correct one. An old document states that, in 1265 A. D., the Countess of Leicester paid in London twelve shillings for fourteen pounds, or, as the statement reads in Latin, “Pro uno fraello racemorum;” which, translated, would be, “for one frail of bunches.” The evolution of the Latin word racemus was thus seen to have been accomplished rapidly enough; but, on account of the illiteracy of the olden times, it was spelled and pronounced promiscuously. Thus we meet with such spellings as “reysyns,” in 1266; “reysons,” in 1447 (“Russell’s Book of Nurture”). In 1554 the Stationers’ Company in London paid twopence for one pound of “greate reasons;” while Andrew Borde, in his “Dietary” of 1542, says that “great raysens be nutrytyve, specyally yf the stones be pulled out.” In 1578 Dodoens speaks of dried raysens. In 1685 the word “raisin” is used and spelled as in our days, and from that time on the different spellings were used, if not promiscuously, still without any great uniformity. The term of “greate raysens” was introduced to distinguish them from the smaller raisins, or currants. In our own days, the latter is seldom classed or alluded to as a “raisin” proper, although it, strictly speaking, should be considered as such. The tendency at present in California is to make the distinction between “raisins” and “dried grapes,” meaning by the former certain varieties of grapes which have been skillfully dried and cured, and which are superior in taste, flavor, thinness of skin and saccharine matter. “Dried grapes,” again, are simply any kind of grape, especially wine-grapes, which have only been dried, and which have not undergone that skillful treatment which the grape-grower is so proud of, and justly enough designates as “curing.” They are an outgrowth from the late efforts of the French wine merchants to make genuine French wine out of anything that is sweet, and as they are immensely preferable to beets, potatoes and glucose, they will always be in demand.

With the above definition of the “raisin” accepted, we can proceed to consider their different varieties, their names and derivations. The old designations of the different varieties were derived from the places where they were produced, without special reference to the grapes from which the raisins were made. Thus we had Malagas, Currants, Valencias, Denias, Turkish and Italian raisins. But since it has been found that the same kinds of raisins have been produced in very different localities, and that some localities can produce all the different kinds, a new division has been found necessary. Thus, disregarding the many various brands with which this and other markets are flooded, the following different varieties of raisins will be found the principal ones: Currants, Muscatels, Dipped and Sultana.

THE CURRANT.

The currant is one of the very oldest raisins known. As early as 75 A. D. Pliny speaks of the fine grapes grown in Greece, the berry being thin-skinned, juicy and sweet, and the bunch being exceedingly small. This, then, must be the currant of later times. After this first mention of this grape, the same drops out of history for ten centuries, and the name currant is first to be identified with raisins de Corauntz, or rather, “reysyns de Corauntzs” as late as 1334. As early as the eleventh century, a lively traffic in this kind of raisins had taken place between the Greek producers, the Venetians and other of the Mediterranean merchant nations. In 1334 we find them called “corauntz;” in 1435, “corent;” and old MS. of the Grocers’ Company in London, speaks of “x butts and vi roundelletts of resins of Corent.” Thus spelled, the name was used for years. In 1463 “reysonys of Corawnce” were three pence per pound, and in 1512 the Duke of Northumberland paid two pence per pound for rasyns of Corens. In 1554 the name had changed to currans, and the Stationers’ Company provided for a banquet “5 punde of currans at one shilling and eight pence.” In 1558 the same company provided for “6 punde of currance for 2 shillings.” In 1578 we find in Lytes’ translation of Dodoens’s “Herbal,” in the description of different varieties of vines, that “Small raysens, commonly called Corantes, but more rightly raysens of Corinthe. The fruit is called in the shoppes of the countrie,[1] passulae de Corinthe; in French, raisins de Corinthe; in base Almaigne (Dutch) Corinthea; in English, Currantes, and small raysens of Corynthe.” Here, then, is indicated for the first time that the true and correct name should be “raisins of Corinth.” But we need not follow this evolution any longer; there can be no possible doubt that the name currant, the one now accepted for this class of raisins, is derived from the town of Corinth, on the mainland of Greece,—the Morea of our days, the Peloponnesus of the ancients. Until the time when the Turks conquered Greece, the port of Corinth was the principal point of export for this class of raisins, and while, after the subjection of Greece this commerce entirely ceased, still this fruit always continued to bear the name by which it first became known to commerce.

[1] Holland, Dodoens was a learned Dutch botanist.

MUSCATELS.

The principal and most valued class of raisins are the Muscatels or Muscats. They all derive their name from the Muscatel or Muscat grape, from which these raisins are made. As to the origin of the name Muscat, opinions differ. The most popular one is that the grape got its name from the supposed musky flavor peculiar to this variety of grape. It is, however, far more likely that the name is a very ancient one, and derived from the Latin word Musca, meaning a fly,—these fine grapes when drying being especially attractive to flies. The Romans called this grape, “Uva Apiaria,” meaning bee grapes, or grapes beloved by bees, from the fact that the bees are especially attracted to these grapes when they are being dried. The Muscat or Muscatel would then not originally designate a certain variety of grapes, but grapes used for drying generally. In the course of time the name was transferred to or especially given to the best grape for drying purposes,—the Muscatel of our own times.

DEHESA RAISINS.

The finest or at least the most expensive brand of raisins made is the Dehesa raisin of Malaga. They are produced from the Muscatel variety and the name they bear has an interesting origin, giving us at the same time an insight in the development of the agricultural and horticultural resources of Spain. The word “Dehesa” is found by reference to a good Spanish dictionary to mean pasture ground. The “Dehesa” raisins then are pasture-ground raisins, or raisins grown on former pasture ground. The way the raisins came to be given such a name is as follows. Between the years 800 and the end of the fifteenth century, the fairest part of Spain as well as Portugal was occupied by the Moors. Contrary to their nature in other countries, they proved here extremely industrious, and excelled both as merchants, artisans and agriculturists. The waters of the streams were conducted to the land in aqueducts, dams were thrown across the rivers, reservoirs were formed, and the whole of Southern Spain became most highly cultivated, rich and prosperous. In fact, if the historians are to be believed, and the yet remaining views of former grandeur can be trusted, no country either in ancient or modern times has ever in prosperity rivaled the ancient Moorish kingdoms of Granada and Andalusia. In the thirteenth century the Christian knights and kings of Central and Northern Spain succeeded in conquering the Moors, who again were unmercifully expelled, massacred or enslaved, their cities burned and razed, and the fertile and cultivated districts utterly ruined. Vast tracts were depopulated and abandoned, and, nature taking its course, wild grass, shrubbery and trees soon covered the former highly cultivated plains. In the course of time these uncultivated lands attracted the attention of the highland shepherds, who drove their herds to them during the winters, again returning to the mountains at the advent of the dry season.

By degrees the self-taken rights of the sheepmen became more widely recognized, and, while the less valuable lands were taken possession of by the poorer peasantry, these pasture lands were set apart for the exclusive use of the sheep-owners. The pasture lands thus being free, it was no wonder that the sheep industry flourished, and that the flocks increased. The wool industry soon became one of the most important in Spain. The flocks were principally owned by nobles and monks, and the poor peasants, who constituted the only agricultural population, had very little if any chance to oppose the ever greater encroachments of the wandering flocks or their insolent owners. The Merinos, or moving sheep, were wintered in the warm valleys of Andalusia, Murcia and Estremadura, only to be again removed to the cooler mountains of Leon and Castille at the advent of spring. What curse this would entail on the agricultural population is easy to be seen. The sheep were moving in bands of 10,000 each, and 700 to 800 such flocks were moved annually twice through a country devoid of fences or inclosures of any kind. Numerous disputes and constant bloody fights arose between farmers and the shepherd, to settle which the “Council of the Mesta” was instituted. In tyranny, this dreaded institution was only equaled by the famous Inquisition, with which in birth and death it was almost contemporaneous. In the year 1556 a code of laws was promulgated, and a compromise was entered upon. But the tyranny of the shepherds, upheld through their “Mesta,” was in no way diminished. The latter continually extended its power, encroached upon new territory, appropriating gradually the finest pastures of Spain, and finally obtained a monopoly of the wool trade. Its tyranny became at last intolerable. The shepherds of the Mesta were more dreaded than robbers and highwaymen in every place through which they passed. Agriculture became almost impossible. At last the “Mesta” was abolished by the Cortez in Cadiz in 1812, and a few years afterwards the pastures or Dehesas were sold. One of the finest Dehesas near Velez, Malaga, was planted to Muscatel grapes, and through the combined fertility of the soil, and the abundance of moisture, the vineyard proved a great success. So fine were the grapes grown there that they attracted great attention; no such fine grapes had ever been seen in Andalusia before. The merchants to whom the first raisins were sold were much astonished, and wonderingly asked whence they came. The reply, “from the Dehesa,” was from that time on applied to the finest Muscatel grapes.

LEXIAS, OR LYE-DIPPED, AND OTHER RAISINS.

The third class of raisins are the dipped raisins, so called from being dipped in boiling lye before being dried and cured. The Spanish name for these raisins is Lexias. The name Lexia is, again, derived from a more ancient word, the Latin lixivium, or lixia, meaning lye. To-day the continental name for this class of raisin is Lexias, when the more specific names of Denias and Valencias are not used. Here, in America, we generally use these names, and whenever we speak of Valencias and Denias we mean the dipped raisins of these districts. To the above three classes of raisins we might appropriately add Sultanas and Malagas. The Sultanas are made from the Sultana grape, a seedless grape from Asia Minor, now grown in many Mediterranean countries, as well as here in California. The Malagas, again, were originally the Muscatels grown around Malaga, in Spain; but of late this name is being, with considerable confusion, applied to a coarser raisin made in California from a grape here called, for want of a better name, the Malaga grape.

Among names which were formerly much used, but which have gone out of use, was the Solis, or sun-dried raisins, especially the sun-dried Muscatels of Malaga. As early as 1295 A. D., the Muscatels were generally called thus: Raisins of the sun; Solis, or sun-dried, so as to distinguish them from the inferior dipped, or Lexias. In our own time, this name was nearly being revived, when a couple of years ago our California sun-dried raisins were spoken of in opposition to our machine-dried raisins, and when both classes had their earnest and enthusiastic champions.

We cannot leave this chapter on names without referring to classes of raisins receiving their names from certain localities. Of course, the number of such names may be almost endless. It is, however, only of interest to refer to the principal ones, such as have been known to commerce in former days or are yet known. Thus, we designate as Malagas any of the raisins grown and shipped from Malaga. The Smyrnas (formerly Smirna) are those from Smyrna, in Asia Minor, both sun-dried and dipped raisins; the Alicantes, dipped raisins, from Alicante, in Spain; the Denias, dipped raisins from Denia, in Spain; the Valencias, dipped raisins from Valencia (include Denias); the Lipari, raisins from the Island of Lipari, near Sicily; the Belvideres, from the same island and from the Island of Pantellaria; the Calabrian raisins, from Calabria, in Italy; the Faro raisins, from the port of Faro, in Algarve, Portugal. We have above already referred to the currants, from the town of Corinth and the Grecian Islands, and the Malagas, from Malaga. The latter were also known as “great raisins,” on account of their superior quality. Among the latter we should, of course, count the California raisins; but, unfortunately, our raisin-growers have not until quite recently recognized the necessity of adopting names which should at once show the locality where the raisins are produced. But we will return to this further on.

VARIOUS KINDS OF RAISINS.

a. Sun-dried raisins.

1. Muscatels, or Muscats, from Malaga or California. The former, also known at various periods as “Solis,” or sun-dried, or “great raisins,” on account of their very superior qualities.

2. Currants, raisins made of the small currant grape, originally from Corinth.

3. Belvideres, raisins from Calabria, in Italy, and from the Islands of Lipari and Pantellaria, near Sicily.

4. Black Smyrna, properly only a dried grape, not exported to this country.

5. California Malagas, made from the Malaga grape.

6. California sun-dried Sultanas, made from the Sultana grapes in this State. And, lastly,—

7. Seedless Muscatels, made in California, and being the smallest Muscats separated from the larger seed-bearing berries.

8. Thompson Seedless, a new, very promising raisin now being produced in this country from vines imported originally from Constantinople, producing seedless grapes, slightly larger than the Sultanas.

9. Dried grapes of any description, especially wine grapes, exported from this and Mediterranean countries for wine-making to France, England and the Eastern States.

b. Dipped raisins.

10. Lexias, or Dipped Muscatels, from Denia, Valencia, Alicante, in Spain.

11. California Dipped, especially second-crop Muscatels. Proper name not yet established.

12. Smyrnas, which again may be either Sultanas, Chesmes or Elemês. The first from the Sultana grape, the two latter, the “red” grapes, from Dipped Muscatels.

13. Faros, from Algarve, in Portugal, not known in this country.

c. Dried in the shade.

14. Huasco raisin, from Chile. To this list might be added many more varieties of less importance.

RAISIN DISTRICTS.

FOREIGN DISTRICTS.

RAISINS IN ANCIENT TIMES.

Previous to the production of raisins in California within the last twenty years, the raisin industry of the world was entirely confined to the Mediterranean district of Europe and Asia. At that period, however, raisin grapes became more disseminated, and raisins were produced to begin with in small quantities in widely distant countries, such as Chile, Australia and California. By virtue of their climatic conditions, the Mediterranean countries were the only parts of Europe where raisin culture could be successfully carried on, though it is almost certain that the original home of the raisin grapes must be looked for elsewhere. In searching for the original habitat for the ancient varieties of raisin grapes, we must look further east to ancient Persia, or to the tablelands of Western Asia generally. In remotest antiquity, grape culture was carried on there, and in the ancient records of travelers in those countries we find mentioned dried and seedless grapes. We can trace the origin of two varieties of raisin grapes to the beginning of our era, which must then already have attained perfection. As has been mentioned before, Pliny spoke of a small, sweet and remarkable grape grown by the Greeks, evidently the “currant;” he also mentions Uva Zibebae and Uva Alexandria.

The Latins generally spoke of Uvae Apiariae or Uvae Muscae, our present Muscatels or dried grapes generally. This carries us back fully nineteen centuries. But we may well believe, even in want of records, that the drying of grapes was practiced centuries before.

MODERN RAISIN DISTRICTS.

Leaving remote antiquity, it was only in the Mediterranean basin, and in comparatively modern times, that the drying of grapes developed to an important industry, and in more recent times yet that grapes were exported to Northern Europe. While thus the industry is old, it was not until the eleventh century, at the time of the Crusades, that it became important. The returning knights brought with them taste for and acquaintance with the products of the East. Northern Europe became the consumers of raisins, regarding them as the greatest luxuries, only to be afforded by the rich. It has been reserved for our time to make the raisin a necessity even in humbler homes. The perfection to which the raisin industry has attained is of modern origin not yet half a century old.

The raisin districts of the world are not large, and while for centuries every effort was made to extend the planting of raisin grapes and their curing into raisins, few of these efforts have been crowned with success. While raisin grapes may grow and be turned into raisins in almost every part of the Mediterranean basin, experience has demonstrated that it has only proved a paying business in comparatively few localities. The reasons of this are not fully apparent; but they are evidently dependent both upon climatic conditions and upon the capability of the natives to learn and profit by the experiences of others, and upon their enterprise in venturing upon a new industry. On the other hand, it is not likely that, even with extensive experiments and with the aid of large capital, the growing and curing of the raisin grapes could be very extensively extended. The question there as well as here is not one alone of agricultural consideration, but a financial problem dependent upon the labor supply, the facilities for shipping, climatic conditions during the curing season, etc. Such being the case, all the more interest is attached to those localities and districts where the raisin industry flourishes, and where there is every probability that it will remain a success.

THE MALAGA DISTRICT.

Extent and Age of the District.

—Malaga has been known to export raisins since 1295 A. D., but must have been a raisin-producing district centuries before. The raisin cult, then, is no doubt of Phœnician origin, and has been practiced in the same locality for two thousand years or more. Under the Romans the raisin industry was continued, but appears to have deteriorated and later on to have been abandoned altogether, as the local tradition credits the Moors with having re-introduced the raisin grape into Velez Malaga. The raisin district of Malaga extends along the southern coast of Spain for a distance of sixty or seventy miles. The district is subdivided into several other districts. Thus, the subdistrict of Malaga proper occupies a plain eighteen miles long by nine miles wide, in the northeast corner of which is situated the town of Malaga.

The best part of the whole district is, however, found at Velez Malaga, situated northeast of Malaga proper. It was here the raisin grape was first planted by the Romans or Phœnicians, and it was here also the devastating phylloxera first made its appearance. The raisin vineyards extend here not over a vega or plain, but occupy the fertile country along the coast or the litoral towards Malaga proper.

Beyond Velez Malaga to Algaroba, the Muscatel grape is of inferior quality, and is greatly superseded by the red Muscats, principally exported to France.

Another district is Marbella, on the coast, and in the interior we find Ronda and Albuñol. Of the principal towns in these districts, the population of Malaga is 120,000, that of Velez Malaga 24,000, of Marbella 7,700, and of Ronda 19,000.

Climate.

—The climate of Malaga is the very mildest. Frost is almost unknown, and is never heavy. The average temperature of Malaga during the winter months of November to January is 56 degrees Fahrenheit, while that of Pau in France is 41, and that of Nice 47. Malaga is well sheltered on the north and east by mountains, but is open to the south. It is the most equitable climate of Europe, although the winds are sometimes trying. The summer is very tempered. The air is, however, moist, and fog, while rare, is not entirely absent. Rain sometimes falls during the growing season of the grapes, and quite frequently during the drying season. But the fog is warm and not specially injurious to the grapes, the latter often growing within reach of the spray on the seashore.

Soil.

—The soil of the Malaga vineyards varies considerably, the best being a reddish clayey loam with much sand and gravel. But we have also other varieties of soil, such as the white ash, gray alluvial soils, and the very sandy loam on the hills.

Location of the Vineyards.

—In former years, the vineyards were principally located on the hillsides, only occasionally extending to the level plains. Of late, however, the hillside vineyards have suffered from the phylloxera and various other diseases, and many of them have been dug up. The lowland vineyards are now the best, although even they are, by far, not free from disease. Few of the vineyards are located on entirely level ground, there being but little such in the district. The nature of the country is rolling, with small valleys or flats. The raisin grapes grow apparently well both inland and on the coast. According to Consul Marston, about eighty per cent of the vineyards are situated on rolling land, ten per cent on lowland and ten per cent on the very coast. The vineyards on the coast are actually within reach of the spray.

The vineyards are generally small, none being over eighty acres in extent. Most contain, perhaps, from three to four acres each; while from twenty to forty acres is considered a good-sized vineyard.

Varieties of Grapes.

—The principal variety used is the Gordo Blanco or Muscatel. It is identical with the grape known by us under that name, and which was imported to us from Malaga. But several types are found, although none superior to the Gordo Blanco.

Characteristics of the Raisins.

—The Malaga raisins were, until lately, the finest raisins in the world, and for the present have only the California raisins to compete with. They are characterized by great sweetness, deep bluish color, great size and by good keeping qualities. The best raisins are those called Dehesas, being produced on the valley lands of the districts.

Yield of Grapes.

—The yield of Malaga vineyards varies of course. The best yield eight or nine tons of grapes to the acre,—just like those of California. But there is a great difference between new and old vineyards. In many vineyards where formerly the yield was nine tons, the soil has been so exhausted by continuous croppings that to-day, even with manuring, two or three tons of grapes must be considered a high yield.

Distances of the Vines.

—The older vineyards had their vines set seven feet by seven feet, but of late the vines are planted generally eight feet by four feet, thus much closer than by us in California.

Pruning.

—The pruning of the vineyard is performed very much as in California. Formerly the soil had to be removed from the vines before they could be pruned; now this is not necessary except while the vines are very young. The various branches are pruned back to a few inches, with two eyes each, while the heads are elevated only a few inches above the ground.

Manuring and Fertilizing.

—The Malaga vineyardist fully understands the value of manuring his vineyards, and uses for this purpose not only all fertilizers available at home, but also imports directly from distant countries. The most valued fertilizers are the Mexican and Chilean guanos or phosphates. The Mexican phosphate costs in Malaga sixty-five dollars per ton; still it is used by all the principal vineyardists, who know the value of fertilizers. In fact, concentrated fertilizers are a necessity to the Malaga vineyards; without them they could not be cropped. Even the most virgin soil is exhausted in ten years’ time by constant croppings of raisin grapes; no paying crops could be expected if fertilizers were not used yearly. This fertilizing of the soil is, however, of recent origin, and fifty years ago was almost unknown.

When home manures are used, it is placed in holes dug round the roots of the vines, which, after exposure to the air for several months, are again filled up at the advent of spring, generally in March, before the vines start to bud.

Drying-floors, or Sequeros.

—The raisins, when picked, are dried on so-called sequeros, or drying-floors, characteristic of the Malaga district. These floors are of different sizes and lengths in different vineyards, but everywhere constructed on the same general principles. Where an incline or a hill is found, the floor may simply be built on the slope, with no artificial elevation; but, where the ground is level, the structure of the sequero is different. The floor must always face the south, and the back is raised to give the floor the proper slope. The sequero thus consists of four walls, the front one of which is only a foot high, and the back wall from six to eight feet high. The side walls slope between these, generally with an angle of forty-five degrees. In length, these floors vary from forty to fifty feet, according to the different ideas of the vineyardists. The whole interior is filled with black gravel, and is tamped hard. These sequeros are divided in beds, fourteen feet or so wide, by tiles that are sunk, thus forming walks of several feet in width, and which also serve for leading off the rainwater. Around every little bed of this kind are small upright tiles to prevent the rainwater entering from the walks. Finally, in the center of the bed, is a long row of upright tiles, high enough to support either boards, mats, or more generally canvas, in order that they may shed the rain into the tile walks. The value of such floors is evident. Being covered with canvas, etc., every night, the heat is preserved, and every morning, when the sun rises, the grapes are yet warm. The drying on such beds has never, in fact, been interrupted. The drying-floors are also useful in case of too hot weather, when the grapes can be properly sheltered with canvas and prevented from being cooked; when finally dried, the covering, again, will serve to keep the moisture from too quickly evaporating.

Drying and Curing.

—When the grapes are picked, the best vineyardists separate the bunches immediately in three different grades. Each grade is placed by itself on the gravelly drying-ground, and remains there to dry. When half dried, they are taken bunch by bunch by a workman, who picks out bad or overdried berries and rubbish, and in putting the bunch back turns it over. In ten days the grapes are generally dried, provided the weather has been favorable. Every night the canvas covering is slid down over the sequero, and the grapes protected from dew and cold, or rain. The drying is sometimes greatly hastened by the Terral or hot winds blowing from the plains of La Mancha, a wind very similar in its effect to the desert wind of Riverside and Santa Ana, in California.

Packing.

—The raisins in Malaga are packed by the large growers themselves, and every such grower packs almost to a man. The generally accepted idea that a few packers living in Malaga pack all the raisins is erroneous. This is not the case.[2] Nearly all packers there are also growers owning their own vineyards. The raisins are all packed in 22-pound boxes or in quarters, etc., according to the demands of the trade.

[2] According to A. B. Butler.

The various raisin brands packed in Malaga are different according to the different markets that are to be supplied. Thus for England we have: Finest Dehesa, three crown; finest Dehesa, two crown; finest Dehesa, one crown; Dehesa; Choice layers; London layers, three crown; London layers, two crown; London layers, one crown.

For France again we have: 1 Imperiaux; 1 Royaux; Couches; Surchoix; Choix; Ordinaire; Surcouches, etc.

The loose raisins or Brena and the seedless or Escombro generally go to the continent or even to the United States. The old terms Garoon or Sun are now never used.

For American markets we have: Imperial Dehesa; Royal finest Dehesa; finest Dehesa; fine Dehesa; Dehesa; London layers, three crown; London layers, two crown; London loose, one, two and three crown.

Boxes are generally made from fir imported from Portugal, at fifteen cents each. Of late years, however, they are also received from Canada, and cost only seven cents each.

Labor.

—The labor in Malaga is the most expensive in Spain, the best laborer being paid forty cents per day, while in Denia the labor is obtained for fifteen cents only; but it must be remembered that the packing of the Malaga raisins is a much more particular work than the packing of the dipped Denias.

The price paid for Malaga raisins at the packing-house is at an average of seven cents per pound for the best, or from one to two cents more than what is paid in California. The lower grades bring from two and a half cents upwards.

VALENCIA AND DENIA.

Extent of the Districts.

—The Valencia raisins, or, as they are called, the Lexias or Spanish dipped raisins, are produced in the province of Valencia, situated on the east coast of Spain. The district contains three sub-districts, the southern one, the Alicante district, extending from Villa Joyosa in the north to Elche in the south. The raisins of the Alicante district are inferior to those produced in the other districts, both as regards quality and quantity. The most northerly district is the Valencia district proper, extending from Cullera in the south to Castellon in the north. North of the latter place the Muscat grape does not come to perfection, and even within this district comparatively few raisins are now produced as compared with a few years ago. But the bulk of all the raisins produced in the province are exported from Valencia city, and hence these raisins are known as Valencias, while in reality they come principally from Denia.

The bulk of the Valencia raisins come from the central district, or the Denia sub-district, comprising the land between Villa Joyosa in the south and Cullera in the north, or about thirty miles on each side of the town of Denia. Towards the interior the raisin district extends at the most nine miles, but the average is less, so that the whole district over which the Denia vineyards are spread includes only an area of 350 square miles, equal to ten townships of land, or about 224,000 acres. A large part of this land is not cultivated, and consists of mountains and waste places only suitable as watersheds. The town of Denia is the principal town of the sub-district, and has now a population of about 2,600 people. It is situated about half way between Valencia in the north and Alicante in the south, on the shore of the Mediterranean, in about the latitude of Sacramento in California, or thirty-eight degrees, fifty minutes north. Being one of the oldest towns in Spain, Denia was first founded by the Phœnicians, who here established the worship of Diana, from which word the name Denia is a corruption. The Phœnicians also introduced the grapes, and possibly also the drying of raisins; but the local tradition gives the honor of the latter industry to the Moors, who are said to have brought with them the variety of grape known as the Muscat of Alexandria. During a part of the year, Denia is the export harbor for the raisins of the district. This is only possible in the early part of the raisin season, as then only are the winds favorable,—the so-called harbor being nothing but a roadstead. Later in the season, when storms and rains set in, all the raisins are shipped to Valencia by railroad, and from there exported by steamers and sailing vessels.

Among other industries of the Denia district are the cultivation of onions, the manufacture of cotton goods, its sardine fisheries, etc., all giving work to the vineyard workers during a time of the year when there is nothing or but little to do in the vineyards and packing-houses.

The raisins of Denia are not all of the same quality, but vary according to the locality where grown. The whole district is dotted with small villages, all producing raisins. The principal ones of these are, besides Denia proper, Jabea, Jaraco, Jerrea, Oliva, Pedreguer, Jalon, Gandia, Ondara, Vergel, etc. Of these, Denia proper produced in 1876 over 2,500 tons of raisins, Jabea 1,700 tons, Oliva 1,600 tons, Pedreguer 1,000 tons, Retoria 900 tons, Jalon 850 tons, Ondara and Benisa 800 tons each. But, besides these, there are some twenty odd more villages or smaller raisin centers, which produce from 200 to 700 tons each, or an aggregate of 20,000 tons of raisins.

Soils and Appearance of the Districts.

—The soils of the province of Valencia, where the vineyards are situated, are of various kinds, such as cretaceous and calcareous soils, containing admixtures of clay, sand and gravel. The color is often red, changing to gray where irrigation has been practiced, but much of the soil is of an ashy white color, similar to that of bottom lands generally. In many of the lower situated plains, the soils are blackish or dark gray, especially so where stable or other manures have been used for years.

Many vineyards are situated on the hillsides or on the rolling lands, where the gravelly soils produce raisins of smaller size and in less quantity, but sweeter and finer flavored. But the largest bulk of the vineyards are on comparatively level land, which can be and which is irrigated. The raisins produced on these low grounds in the moist and cool valleys are larger, but not of equal flavor and sweetness. In wet seasons, the hillsides are preferred, the valley lands then being too wet and cold. Accordingly, as the seasons are wet and cold, or dry and warm, the various localities produce raisins of different qualities, which again are valued and paid for differently. The extent of the valley or plain lands decides the extent of the raisin districts, and of late years the rolling vineyards have decreased in quantity, while those on the plains have increased, until at the present time almost all the plain lands are occupied with raisin vineyards, especially in the Denia sub-district.

Climate.

—The climate of Denia and its surroundings is rather cold and windy; damaging spring frosts, as well as early fall rains, frequently interfere with the setting of the grapes and with the harvesting of the crop; it has even happened several times that the entire crop has been seriously injured by one of these, or by both causes combined. Farther north, or in the Valencia district proper, the climate is milder, and frost is rare. Oranges are here at home, while the culture of raisin grapes becomes less every year. North of Castellon the climatic conditions are such that no raisin culture is possible.

As compared with the climate of Malaga, that of Denia is much less favorable to the raisin grape. The production of sun-dried and undipped raisins in Denia is not possible, and, although it has been attempted several times, it has seldom succeeded. The rainfall of Denia averages twelve inches per year. The rainiest months are those of November, February and April, but the heaviest rainfall at one time occurs quite frequently in the first week of September, while light showers are not uncommon in August, at that time doing much damage to the grapes or the just exposed raisins.

Irrigation.

—Not only is irrigation necessary to grow the vines successfully and to produce an abundance of grapes, but the irrigation in the province of Valencia is necessary to the health and longevity of the vines. Nowhere else in Spain is the water so abundant, and no saving of the water is necessary in the majority of the districts. Through an abundance of water, the soil on the lowlands has now filled up to such an extent, that in the best vineyards the surface water is only from five to eight feet from the surface of the ground. Those vines which could not be irrigated have gradually become diseased, and the hillside vineyards are being rapidly abandoned and devoted to something else. Upon the abundance and constancy of the water depends the prosperity of the whole province, and there is hardly a more prosperous country in Spain. To show the close connection between irrigation and raisin production in Spain, it will no doubt interest many to know something of the irrigation system and the irrigation districts of the province of Valencia, than which no more important ones are found in Spain.

The district of Alicante is supplied with water from the river Monegre, and the Elche district from the river Minalapo. In the northern part of the province is the Murviado irrigation district, taking its water from the river Palencia. The Jucar irrigation district, situated immediately south of the huerta of Valencia, takes its water from the Jucar river, distributing 850 cubic feet of water per second upon some 50,000 acres of land.

The Valencia irrigation district consists of 26,350 acres of land close to the town of Valencia, and is watered by the river Guadalaviar, or, as it is generally called, the Turia. The water is distributed through eight canals, each carrying from 35 to 120 cubic feet of water per second, the combined low-water discharge of all the canals being from 250 to 350 cubic feet of water per second. Of the importance of irrigation in this district, we can judge when we learn that the above 26,350 acres contain 72,000 inhabitants and sixty-two villages, or an average of 1,774 people per square mile, not including the city of Valencia itself, with a population of 120,000 people. It is also remarkable that this enormous population on a territory not as large as the arable land surrounding any one of our principal inland towns in California, is not alone due to the irrigation and care of the land, but to the minute subdivision of the land, which makes this culture and irrigation possible. It is a practical illustration of the value of the colony system as inaugurated in California, showing what we can expect of our inland plains when they become fully irrigated and the land properly subdivided.

Quality of the Raisins.

—It has already been stated that the grapes grown in Denia are the Muscat of Alexandria, which were introduced there by the Moors. Farther south, in the Alicante district, other varieties are more common, but play no important part in the raisin production of the district. The Valencia raisins are inferior to those of Malaga, the want of heat requiring them to be dipped in lye before drying. This, again, gives these raisins a peculiar reddish, semi-transparent color, which unfits them for table raisins. The Valencia raisins are principally used for cooking; even the best grades of Valencias are inferior to the inferior grades of Malaga raisins. During the last season (1889) large quantities of Denia grapes were cured on the Malaga style, and with great success. Large quantities of such sun-dried Denias were sent in bulk to Malaga, and there repacked for export to the United States, the Malaga crop having so diminished that the usual demand could not be supplied. Years in which such sun-drying is possible in Denia are rare.

Planting and Care.

—The Muscat cuttings are planted generally in February. The best cuttings are considered to be those taken from vines at least six years old. The cuttings are set at various distances according to the richness of the soil. The richer the soil the less room is given the vines. Thus the vines are set either five by eleven feet or five by twelve feet, or, in other words, they are set in rows eleven or twelve feet apart, with the vines five feet apart in the row. The depth of the cutting is regulated by the moisture of the surface soil, but averages eighteen inches. The vines begin to bud in the middle of March, and are from the start subject to great care and constant cultivation. The first operation after the cutting is planted is to cut off the top bud as soon as the vine starts to grow, leaving the two shoots only from the two lower buds. No more shoots are allowed to grow the first year. Next winter the smaller of these two branches is cut off completely and the remaining branch is pruned back to two eyes. In the second year the young shoots from the vine are allowed to grow to ten inches or so long, when all are cut away except two of the strongest. Next winter again these are pruned so to leave only two eyes on each, or four buds on the whole vine. In the succeeding years the branches are gradually increased in number, but always pruned back to two eyes. After the vine is five years old, it is seldom increased as to branches; it is then always pruned back to the same number of spurs. It can be said that the Denia growers pay less attention to the quality of the raisins, and prune more to attain quantity. They leave more spurs on their vines than do those in Malaga, and in this respect resemble many of our own California growers, who frequently leave from twelve to fifteen spurs on a vine. The vines in Denia are also raised higher above the ground than in Malaga, very much as we have been in the habit of pruning our own vines. At the age of three years the vines come into bearing; but no fine raisins are made until the vines are five or six years old.

Dipping and Scalding.

—The dipping process is one of the greatest importance, and gives the peculiar characteristics to the Valencia or Denia raisins. As a similar process will sometime or other be more generally used in California, a more detailed description may prove interesting to California growers. We can probably not do better than to imitate them, although in mechanical appliances we will readily improve upon their methods. The dipping is always done at the drying ground or secadero. The larger part of the dipping apparatus, or the kettles, are placed under the ground so as to save heat and fuel. A trench eight or nine feet in length is dug to the depth of three or four feet. At one end is built a chimney protruding three or four feet above the level of the ground. In the other end of the trench is built a brick wall with an opening for feeding the fire. Some trenches are lined inside with bricks, making them more permanent and solid. On the top of this flue, and on a level with the ground, are built the kettles or boilers, containing not less than twenty gallons each. The boiler nearest the fire entrance is destined to contain a solution of lye or ashes, the one next to the chimney being for boiling water only.

The lye is made from the ashes of burnt vine cuttings, together with lime and sometimes some salt, by men who have acquired the art from years of experience, and who know by the appearance of the scalded grapes whether the solution is too strong or too weak. If too weak, the skins of the grapes will be insufficiently cut, which will delay the drying of the grapes, and cause them to rot if the weather is damp and foggy. If, again, the lye solution is too strong, the skin will be destroyed and the berries seriously injured.

The grapes to be dipped should be perfectly ripe. If dipped before, they will become inferior both as to color and taste. The perfect ripeness is a most important point. The grapes are picked in baskets of about ten pounds each, and carried to the scalder. The man nearest him on the right fills a perforated ladle with about twenty pounds of the grapes. The ladle is made either of wire netting or of tin or zinc, with large perforated holes about three-eighths of an inch wide. There is a scalder at each boiler. The first scalder dips the grapes in the scalding water for a second, and immediately hands them to the second scalder, who dips the same ladle in the boiling lye solution for not over two seconds. The grapes are then carefully turned out on trays to dry.

The dipping first in scalding water is of the greatest importance, both in washing off the dust of the grapes and in preparing them to receive the alkali wash with more effect. Since the hot-water process was introduced, the Valencia raisins have materially improved in quality. The grapes are never rinsed in cold water after being dipped, and it is more than likely that the lye prevents molding, as, according to A. B. Butler, dipped raisins are sometimes exposed to the rain for three weeks without being totally ruined. In California, our dipped and washed raisins spoil quickly if exposed to rain. The object of dipping is, of course, to slightly crack the skins so as to allow the water to readily evaporate. Dipped raisins dry sometimes in five days, while undipped raisins would require as many weeks. Efforts to produce sun-dried raisins without dipping them have repeatedly been made in Denia; but they are invariably spoiled by the rain, and lately two firms were ruined in their attempts to dispense with the dipping process.

Drying and Curing.

—After the grapes have been properly dipped, the drying proceeds very quickly. The grapes are immediately spread on cane trays or cañezos, about six feet long by three or four feet wide. These cane trays are made of the common Italian reed or Arundo donax, which grows everywhere, even in California, and is here incorrectly known as bamboo. The trays are made either of split or of entire canes tied strongly together. These trays are placed flat on the ground, only leaving enough space around each one to allow the workmen free access to the tray on all sides. After having been exposed to the sun for three days, the grapes are turned, in order to dry evenly on both sides. On the fifth day, the raisins are turned again, and, if the weather has been favorable, many of the raisins are then ready to pack. A day or two after this, all the raisins are ready, and are collected and housed. If, again, the weather has been unfavorable, the drying is very much delayed. At the approach of rain, the mats or trays are taken up and piled on the top of each other, under sheds previously made. Every drying ground has stationary appliances for this purpose. These simply consist of poles stuck in the ground, and extending five or six feet above the same. Other cross-rafters or scantlings are nailed between the poles, thus forming rows of roofless sheds eight or nine feet wide, of greater or shorter length. Painted canvas, or simply mats or empty reed trays, are used as covers, under which the raisin trays are piled. Under and between each tray are placed five little cubes of wood, for the purpose of lifting the tray and preventing it from pressing too heavily on the grapes underneath.

Packing and Disposing of the Crop.

—When at last the raisins are dried, they are either stored by the producer, or, as is more generally the case, are taken to the merchant or packer who has supplied the grower’s wants during the year in anticipation of the coming crop. There are thus a number of special packers in Denia, who own large and splendid packing-houses in which the crop is yearly handled. The grower never packs himself, the enhanced value of the raisins not being sufficient to warrant the trouble. One of the best and by far the largest packing-houses in Denia is owned by J. D. Arquimbau. A more perfectly equipped establishment is not found anywhere else.

Views from Col. Wm. Forsyth’s Raisin Vineyard, Near Fresno: Residence, Lake, Raisin Dryer, Packing House.

All of the packing is done by women, while the men do the carting of the raisins from the vineyards to the packing-houses. During the balance of the year, when there is no more work in the packing-houses, these very men occupy themselves with the sardine fishery, while their wives then dress the sardines and pack them in oil. They have thus work all the year round,—an absolute necessity in a country where the wages are so small, and where the poor man has no chance to save up a capital. The wages paid for packing in Denia is only fifteen cents per day; while in Malaga the same work commands from forty to sixty cents per day. In some of the warehouses in Denia, from two to three hundred women are employed, as well as a number of men. The boxes now used are halves of twenty-eight pounds, or quarters of fourteen pounds each. The large or whole boxes of fifty-six pounds each are no longer in use. The raisins are all packed “off-stalk,” or, as we say, “loose.” Bunch or stem raisins, or “on-stalk” raisins, are seldom seen. This great improvement in packing is of recent origin, and is due entirely to the influence of English merchants. Some thirty years ago, the raisin industry of Valencia had so deteriorated, that it threatened to entirely cease. The cause of the deterioration was principally the habit of the buyers to pay for crops, not according to the quality of the raisins, but according to the quantity. The small farmer with a few hundred pounds of raisins carefully cured was paid less, or at least not any more, than the man who had hundreds of tons carelessly cured. As a consequence, it was to no one’s interest to take any particular pains in curing. The raisins deteriorated; no care was paid to packing; anything, almost, stalks, dirt and bruised berries were dumped in boxes together; brands, trade-marks and labels were unknown. The whole business was apparently going to ruin. The orders from England became less and less every year. Those from America almost ceased. The “equality price” or “average price,” which has been so much in vogue in California, actually ruined the Valencia raisin industry. We ought to take a lesson from them, and change this system in time, or we will be in the same bad fix as they were.

The improvement in Valencia raisins was entirely due to the energetic efforts of English gentlemen. Mr. George Graham, agent for an English firm, established himself in Valencia, investigated the raisin business, and, seeing the true cause of the ruin, set himself to work to remedy the same. He introduced better methods in growing, curing and packing; and through his efforts a better price was paid for a better grade of raisins, and it was not long before the raisin business was on an entirely different footing. The object of the grower was from that on, not only to increase the quantity, but to increase the quality as well. To begin with, the raisins were shipped off-stalk or loose; but the boxes were not faced. Now the raisin boxes are all faced, and the raisins are carefully selected and assorted. As a consequence, the Denia trade has of late years increased enormously, until at present all the land available has been planted to raisins. There is at present but little or no first-class raisin land left in Denia, and it looks as if the raisin production there could not be further expanded.

Export and Production.

—Although the raisin industry had long existed in the province of Valencia, it was only in late years that it assumed an importance. They were already known as Duracinae by the Romans. Re-introduced or improved by the Arabs or Moors, it soon became a prominent industry, and the export of raisins to England was already of some consequence in the time of William and Mary. In the year 1638, Lewis Roberts, in his merchant map of commerce, informs us that Denia raisins cost eighteen rials or three shillings per hundred weight. In 1664, Gandia raisins were quite famous, and were known as Pasas. At the end of the last century, the raisins from Denia and Liria reached forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons, distributed as follows: Spain, six thousand; France, six thousand; England, twenty-eight thousand,—equal to one million, four hundred and thirty thousand boxes, forty thousand quintals, or two thousand tons. In 1862, the raisin export from Valencia had dwindled down to seven thousand tons. In 1876, it had again risen to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1883 to forty thousand tons. Of these, nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes were exported to the United States, one million, three hundred and eighty-five thousand were sent to England, and four hundred and thirty-six thousand found their way to other parts of Europe and Spain. In 1888, the yield was two million, three hundred and sixteen thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each, equal to thirty-two thousand, four hundred and twenty-four tons. If packed in twenty-pound boxes, this crop would have equaled three million, two hundred and forty thousand, four hundred boxes, or four times as much as California produced at the same time. The crop of 1889 is calculated to have reached two million, eight hundred thousand boxes of twenty-eight pounds each.

When we remember that this class of raisins is as yet hardly produced in California, and that the nine hundred and seventy-nine thousand boxes or more imported could and should be supplied by us, it would seem that our fears of overproduction will not immediately be realized. The tendency of the raisin market is now to supplant these Valencia dipped raisins with California undipped or sun-dried raisins, the California Sultanas being considered superior for the same purpose that Valencias were formerly used.

CORINTH AND CURRANTS.

Historical and Geographical Notes.

—The principal and only raisins of any great commercial importance which are produced by Greece are the currants. We have already spoken of their name, and its supposed origin from the town of Corinth, and of their having been mentioned by Pliny in the year 75 A. D. The currants must thus very early have been of considerable importance as a commercial product, although the great increase in their production is of more recent date. The crusades which brought the nations of the North in contact with the Orient and the South also spread the knowledge of the Grecian currants to the distant parts of Europe. After the Latin conquest, currants became a commercial article, and we have every reason to suppose that, as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century, currants had reached the English shores, and that in the middle of the fourteenth century the English trade was fully established. Raysins of Corauntz were quoted in 1374 at two pence and three farthings per pound, equivalent to one dollar and twenty-five cents in our money at its present value. In 1513, the first English consul was appointed at Chios, and from that time on a direct traffic was maintained between the Grecian Islands and the North of Europe. In 1582, Hakluyt writes that efforts had been made to introduce the coren plant or vine into England, but that the same failed to fruit. The first introduction of the Zante vine into England is supposed by Anderson to have taken place in 1533. In the end of the sixteenth century, the currant traders were in full intercourse with the Venetians on the Island of Zante, and the Turks on the mainland or Morea. In 1581, the Levant Company received a monopoly in the trade of the small fruits called currants, being the raysins of Corinth. According to Wheler, who traveled in the Ionian Islands in 1675, Zante produced enough currants to charge five or six vessels, Cephalonia three or four, and Nathaligo, Missolonghi and Patros one each. Some few were also brought down from the Gulf of Lepanto.

As to the native home of the currants, opinions have considerably differed. Some have supposed Zante or Naxos to have been the original home of this grape; while others, with better reasons, have held that their original home was Corinth. Beaujour, who was French consul in Greece in 1790, says: “The fruit is not indigenous to Morea. No writer before the sixteenth century mentions it, and the result of my inquiries is that the currant came from Naxos into the Morea about 1580. It is true no such plant now exists in Naxos, but it has similarly disappeared from the territory of Corinth, though it is very certain it was cultivated there in former days, when the Venetians held the country.” This account does not agree with the statements of Comte Grasset St. Sauveur, consul to the Ionian Islands from France in 1781. He states, in his History of the Ionian Islands, that “the first plants were imported from Corinth to Zante about two centuries ago” (or about 1580). There are no exact records of the time or of the introducer; but the date is fixed by the regulations of the Senate of Venice relating to custom duties. It is likely this introduction took place not much before 1553, and was caused by the hostility of the Turks, who then held Morea, to the merchant vessels of the other nations of Europe, who in fact forbade them any entrance to the Gulf of Corinth, the principal export place for the currants. Thus John Locke, who in 1553 describes Zante, speaks of other products of the island, but not of currants.

Hakluyt states that, in 1586, the chief commodities of the island were “oyle and currants.” The latter, then, must have been introduced some time in the middle of the sixteenth century. Lithgow, a Scotch traveler who in 1609 visited the islands and published an account of the same in 1633, informs us that, besides oyle and wine, Zante produced one hundred and sixty thousand chickens of currants, each chicken of gold being equal to nine shillings of English money. And he adds that the custom duties on those currants amounted to twenty-two thousand piasters (one piaster is equivalent to six shillings), a sum of money which those Islanders could not have afforded (they having been, not above sixty years ago, but a base, beggarly people, and in an obscure place) if it were not that in England there are some who cannot digest bread, etc., without these currants. This seems to imply that, since the introduction of the currant culture in the Island of Zante about the year 1550, the Zanteans had suddenly become comparatively wealthy. So suddenly had this important industry spread, that in 1610, according to Sandys, the chief export of both Zante and Cephalonia was currants. In 1612, Coryat says that “Zante is famous for its wine, oile and currants.” Fynes Moryson, in his “Itinerary” published in 1617, states that “the English merchant vessels exported currants from Zante and Cephalonia, and from Petrasso in the Gulfe of Corinth.” Tavernier says, in 1678, that, “Corinth exports great quantities of currants. Patras does the same, which is all the trade from those two places.” In 1682, Wheler states that “the ports of Patros, Nathaligo and Missolonghi, all three together having enough to lade only one good ship every year.” Randolph, in 1689, mentions that currants were first planted on the plains of Corinth, and that the plain about Vostizza produced corn, currants and wine. Of Zante, he says that it produced two thousand tons of currants. Thus it will seem as if, through the fostering care of the Venetians, the currant trade was transplanted from the mainland of Morea to the Islands of Zante and Cephalonia, there to become of almost national importance. Until the Turks were expelled from Morea, the latter never made any serious efforts to recover the lost trade. First in later times the culture of currants has again spread on the mainland, especially on the northern shore of the Gulf of Corinth, and to-day the combined production of the Morean vineyards is largely in excess of that of the Ionian Islands.

In our times the currants are exported either from the mainland of Greece, the Morea, the ancient Peloponnesus, or from the Grecian Islands,—Cephalonia and Zante. In Morea, the principal ports for the exportation of the currants are Patras and Vostizza, although other ports export a few. Even the Islands of Ithaca and Santa Maura contribute a few. Efforts have been made to extend the culture of the currant vine, and introduce it to other islands, but not with any great degree of success. This is entirely attributed to climatic conditions.

Characteristics and Quality.

—The currants are small, seedless raisins produced from the currant grape, which again is characterized by small clusters, which, when perfect, are very compact like the heads of Indian corn or maize. The skin of the berries is thin, the pulp very sweet, with a strong flavor and aroma. The raisins are similarly aromatic and very sweet, sometimes semi-transparent, but generally dark violet. The flavor of the raisins is entirely distinct from the Muscatel, and is very superior to that of the also seedless Sultana raisins.

Soil and Irrigation.

—The soil best suited to the currant grape is a calcareous marl, which must be of good depth, loose, and easily worked. Such marls are also prized for their great power of retaining moisture. But vineyards are planted in Cephalonia, Zante and Ithaca in the most different soils and situations. They are found in gray marls, in red clay, on the plains and among the hills, in fact, in the most widely different situations. The soil of Zante contains a small percentage of sulphate of lime or gypsum, which is by many considered indispensable for the successful and profitable culture of the currant vine. The currant vine thrives especially in low and rich land which can be irrigated, and irrigation is quite essential to the perfect development of the grapes. Many vineyards, however, are not irrigated, the irrigation, of course, only being practicable on the plains. This irrigation is practiced from October to the end of December, often while the natural rainfall supplies the artificial watering. The lands are generally small freeholdings, owned by the peasants. The most valuable currant vineyards are situated on the rich and level valley lands.

Preparation of the Land for Irrigation.

—The preparation of the land for a currant vineyard is expensive, as the land is hardly ever level enough to admit of the vines being immediately planted. The surface is therefore first leveled and divided up in smaller cheeks or flats, each one surrounded by a bank. The whole is covered with a network of ditches, which are necessary for the perfect irrigation of the soil. Where there is water enough, the vineyards are irrigated in November and December, and are then flooded as often as practicable, the water sometimes standing on the ground for weeks in succession. In perfectly arranged vineyards, the irrigation is so managed that the water flows from one check to another, and is first shut off at the advent of the New Year, when the pruning and cultivation begins. By this plentiful irrigation, the ground becomes thoroughly soaked, and remains saturated until the next season, when rain again sets in and fills the irrigation canals. No summer irrigation is used in old vineyards, and in young vineyards only in case of great necessity.

Distances of the Currant Vines.

—The vines are set at various distances, in some places four feet each way, in others again six by ten, giving a various number of from 740 to 2,622 to the acre. In some places, the old practice of planting the vines in groups of four still exists. Each group consists of four vines one and a half feet apart, and each group distant six feet from each other either way. Of late, however, the vines are planted farther apart, probably because the soil is becoming exhausted, a favorite way being to have the vines closer one way than the other.

Care of Cuttings, Planting and Grafting.

—Great importance is attached to procuring cuttings from a distance, or in getting new strains. Cuttings from the nearest vineyard are never used, as they are considered to produce inferior vines, and not do as well. To procure cuttings or vines, the old vines are sometimes cut a few inches below the surface of the soil, causing the parent plant to throw off numerous suckers or shoots, which the following winter are separated and used as we do rooted vines here in California. Three or four years will elapse before they come into regular bearing. Some vineyards are produced by grafting the black currant on the wine grape, and many wine vineyards that do not pay are thus transformed into paying raisin vineyards. The grafted vines come into bearing much sooner than those grown from cuttings. The grafting is performed in Zante as follows: The soil is dug away from the main trunk of the old vine to the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches, and the trunk cut off square at the bottom of the pit. Two or three scions are then inserted in the trunk, and made to slightly project above the ground, in no case with more than two or three eyes. Clay is then applied to the joint of the graft, and the trunk slightly covered with leaves, and the hole then filled up with soil. The grafting is done in the spring, and the cuttings must be kept dormant in dark and cool cellars.

Pruning the Vines.

—The pruning is done in the fall, just as soon as the leaves have fallen, and is performed in two parts. In December, the vines are cleaned of all small, weakly or dead branches, and at that time only the large and strong branches are left. In February, the regular cutting back commences, two or three eyes being left on every spur. There are as many different ideas of pruning the vines in Greece as there are in California, each one having his favorite methods and theories as to what is proper and what is not. Some vineyardists prefer to delay the second pruning until after the vines have started to bud out, and, when the young shoots are two weeks old, the old wood is so cut that the bleeding of the vine will not run down on the bud. Bleeding is at any time considered injurious. The principal pruning is therefore conducted in February, as being the time most suitable to the currant grape and conducive to the best crops. Mr. Manoti, a very intelligent Zanteote currant grower, told Dr. Davy (Ionian Islands, page 343) that he had at one time experimented with pruning the currant vine at different times of the year. Those pruned in December yielded very few grapes, which were large; those pruned in April gave plenty, but very small berries. Again, those pruned in February were in every way the best. Mr. Manoti added that if he had told one of his neighbors of his experiments they would have laughed at him, and said, “Whoever thinks of pruning the uva passa (or currant) in December or April.” This shows how much the growers are opposed to experimenting and improving upon the methods which have been handed down to them from their forefathers. As we have shown, the currant vines are all very closely pruned, very much in the same way as our Muscats. Seldom more than three spurs are allowed to remain, each one with two or three eyes. Summer pruning or topping the branches is never practiced on the currant vines, but generally on the wine grapes. On the contrary the currant branches are carefully guarded, and in order that they may not break are tied to stakes from four to five feet high.

Care of the Vineyard.

—After irrigation is over, the vineyards are dug over. The soil is dug up around the vines and placed on top of the ground in small heaps, which process is considered beneficial both to the roots of the vines and to the soil. In April, this soil is all put back, and the ground leveled. Each vine is staked. By the middle of April, the vines are in leaf. By the middle of July, the first fruit is ripe, and by the middle of August the harvest has everywhere begun. The stakes for the vines are imported at a cost of $15 or $16 per thousand, and constitute the most expensive item in the construction of a currant vineyard.

The mildew or oidium, which some fifty years ago spread all over the world, destroyed many of the vineyards before the sulphuring was discovered as a sure remedy. Sulphuring the vines is now regularly practiced in all the vineyards; but there is a popular belief that the raisins are no longer of the same fine and pure flavor as they used to be before the advent of the oidium and the sulphur.

Ringing the Branches.

—A process much used in the currant vineyards is the ringing of the branches. At the time of blossoming, some of the main branches are cut in such a way that a small ring of bark is separated from the branch near its base. The sap which ascends in the interior of the branch, but which returns by the bark, is thus prevented from returning, and must remain in the branch. The effect is that a large number of clusters are formed with berries both larger and sweeter than those not thus treated. But the practice is not without its drawbacks. In the dry lands of Cephalonia, where it was first introduced, it was soon discovered that the ringed vines began to fail after two or three years, and the method had to be modified or abandoned. In Morea, where the soil is moister and richer, the ringing did not prove as dangerous, and is yet practiced, though great care is taken that the same branch is never girdled or ringed in two successive years. Only the strongest vines are able to resist the exhausting effects of the process; the weaker ones should never be forced to overproduce.

The exhalations of fig-trees and pomegranate bushes are considered most beneficial to the currant grape, and the former are found everywhere among the plantations, especially along roads and ditches.

Drying and Curing.

—The drying and curing of the currant grapes are done on drying grounds. These are simply leveled places covered with fresh cow dung, or cow dung first mixed with water into a paste. When this paste is dried, it presents a smooth surface, firm but elastic, and entirely free from smell. This kind of drying ground is considered the best kind. Inferior drying grounds are simply made of the cleared soil. The currants dried on the latter are always full of sand and dirt to an alarming extent, and bring an inferior price in the market. The bunches are turned several times until dry, when they are raked over with a wooden rake or broom, by which process the stalks are separated from the berries. The berries are now gathered, and the better qualities are winnowed in machines like our fanning-mills. The next step is to sweat the currants, which is simply done by piling them in air-tight rooms. The currants are here put in large piles, which by sweating and pressure become so hard and solid that, when removing the berries, a sharp spade is used for digging. The vintage begins in July in Zante; Cephalonia grapes ripen almost one week earlier.

Cost of Currant Vineyards in Greece.

—In the Grecian Islands and Morea, the best vineyard land varies between $80 and $125 per acre for unimproved land. To prepare the land for the vineyard and irrigation, it will cost, in extreme cases, from $20 to $50 more. The first year’s cultivation and care of the young vines is, of course, different according to locality, but the average is seldom less than $50 per acre. The value of already planted property or a vineyard in good bearing is seldom less than $320 per acre, and often as high as $650 per acre,—four stremmas. Strange enough, in calculating the cost of a vineyard in Greece, no one ever takes into consideration the price of the plantation or the capital invested. The interest on the same is never considered by the natives. In this respect they resemble our own farmers, who, in calculating the expenses of their farms, never take into consideration the labor of themselves and family. Of course, it is almost impossible to obtain exact calculations of profit. The following will serve as a sample: An acre of vineyard planted to currants yields 3,200 pounds. The price obtained for the same is two cents per pound, or $64. The labor for the year on one acre is estimated at $45, leaving a yearly profit of $19 per acre. In reality, however, this is not a true statement, as it does not consider the interest on the capital. If the same should be added, it is evident that there would be but little or no profit in the growing of currants. The industry simply enables the peasant who pursues the work to live and support his family, and possibly to pay his taxes. Only the very best land and the best vineyards can pay enough to enable its owner to save up a capital, generally a difficult thing in Greece for any one but a merchant or government officer.

As a rule, the cost of producing one hundred pounds of currant raisins is not less than $1.35. Whatever the merchant pays above this to the producer will be for the benefit of the producer. But, as a rule, this way of buying direct is not in use. The merchant sells on commission, and what this means we who have had experience in the raisin business in this State all know. We will see how a calculation of an acre of currants will look, when all the expenses are taken into consideration:

In this instance the poor currant raiser has had no other profit than the five per cent interest on his capital invested; he has, in other words, come out even. But figures, sometimes, are apt to lie. The profit, no doubt, is small to the producer, but it must still be some. He makes, no doubt, fair wages according to his own ideas, and as he has paid for his capital in labor, and probably never handled a dollar of the same, he considers himself comparatively well-to-do. But, as currant vineyards sometimes sell, and sell high, too, it is simply unaccountable that the interest is never taken into consideration in estimating the profits of the grower. The currant industry is, I believe, the only one in the world in which this is not done. I have thus extensively dwelt upon the profits and expenses of this industry in its native country, on account of the many attempts to introduce the growing of currants here in California. The question with us is, will it pay. Our advantage is that our currants would be protected; but still it is very doubtful if currant plantations would ever pay enough to warrant us to engage in the same. The price paid at present is too low, and, as long as Muscatels bring a higher price, it will probably be the favorite grape with us.

Consumption and Production.

—The importation of currants to England was, at the end of the last century, about 3,600 tons. In 1832 this had risen to 7,135 tons, in 1864 to 37,151 tons, and in 1876 to 48,595 tons. As regards the production of currants in Greece, the average yield from 1816 to 1826 was, for Cephalonia, 2,000 tons, for Zante 3,000 tons, and for Morea 4,000 tons or over. From that time on the exportations from Zante and Cephalonia increased, while the export of Morea decreased. Thus, in 1833, Zante and Cephalonia exported about 11,000 tons, and Morea only 2,000 tons, this principally on account of the Greek revolution. In 1840, the three places exported 14,206 tons, which again in 1849 had risen to 30,850 tons, in 1858 to 32,950 tons, in 1868 to 55,283 tons, and in 1876 to 86,104 tons. This large crop was exported as follows: England, 60,263 tons; Germany, 1,475 tons; Holland, 4,847 tons; Trieste, 3,241 tons; America, 11,225 tons; Belgium, 4,105 tons; Various, 948 tons.

Since that time the production of currants has increased greatly in Greece, especially on the mainland, and now it reaches yearly from 126,000 to 130,000 tons. During the last four years the production has been about as follows (according to L. C. Crowe in the California Fruit-grower): 1884, 130,000 tons; 1885, 114,000 tons; 1886, 126,000 tons; 1887, 127,000 tons.

In 1886 this crop was produced in the following places:

Of this crop the United States imported as follows (the freight to New York in 1886 ranging from 17s. 6d. to 20s. per ton, gross): 1883, 13,895 tons; 1884, 10,175 tons; 1885, 8,283 tons; 1886, 8,755 tons.

In the United States, the consumption of currants has increased largely during the last twenty-five years. In 1874, we imported 14,141,797 pounds of currants; but in 1888 the importations had increased to 30,636,424 pounds, valued at $1,176,532. The duty is now one cent per pound in this country; while in England it is seven shillings per hundred pounds.

The currants exported to the United States are known as Provincial currants or American staple, and are not considered the best quality; they are grown principally in Trifylla and Pylia and are shipped from the ports Zante and Patras. Some come also from Vostizza, Catacolo, Kalamata, Nauplia and Cephalonia. The Kalamata currants are inferior and are mostly exported to France for brandy and wine making. The choicest currants are those grown in Zante, and there known as “Cascalina.” They go mostly to England, while the other products of the islands go to Belgium, Holland and Northern Germany.

Currants in California.

—California has so far not cut any figure as a currant-producing country, not because the currants will not grow here, but because no one has ever seriously engaged in their culture. Currant grapevines are scattered all over the State; but, to our knowledge, no plantations are larger than an acre or two. In Fresno, a few acres of currants are found in the Mirabelle Vineyard east of town, and a few hundred vines are also grown on the Raisina Vineyard in the Central Colony. Outside of these we know of only scattered vines. These currants are all of the white variety, which is considered inferior to the black currant of Zante and the mainland of Greece. When dried, they produce a most beautiful semi-transparent raisin, entirely seedless, with a very thin skin and of very fine flavor. The yield, however, has from some cause or other not been equal to expectations, and, the price of currants being lower than that of other raisins, the former has not been considered as profitable as the Muscatels. Until we import the true black currant from Zante and find the most suitable locality to grow them, it is not likely that currant culture will make much headway in this country. We have, however, no doubt that, with our various climates, many places will be found in California where the currant will yield enough to pay, provided our raisinmen will be satisfied with a reasonable profit.

SMYRNA RAISINS.

Districts in Smyrna: Their Extent and Climate.

—The port of Smyrna, so famous for its dried figs, is hardly less renowned for the immense quantity of raisins and dried grapes of different kinds which are shipped from there to all parts of the world. While Smyrna figs are better known than Smyrna raisins, the latter are by far the most important industry. Thus from 1880 to 1881 the raisin crop exported from Smyrna was valued at $4,602,388; while the value of the fig crop did not exceed $1,646,998, or about three million dollars less than the former. Since that time the raisin trade has yet further increased, until it to-day reaches one hundred thousand tons of raisins and dried grapes. Unlike the figs, which are only grown in the interior valleys some thirty to sixty miles from Smyrna, the grapes which produce the raisins are grown in the immediate vicinity of the town. The large territory which exports the Smyrna raisins can, however, be divided into several sub-districts, each one having some characteristics of its own, both as regards quality of raisins, time of ripening, etc. These districts are: Chesme, Vourla, Yerly and Carabourna. The principal variety of grape grown in these districts is the Sultana, a seedless grape with enormous bunches. Many other varieties are found there also, such as “black” and “red,” the latter said to be identical with the Spanish Muscat of Alexandria, which I doubt.

The Chesme district is situated to the west on the peninsula near Smyrna, its principal port for exportation of the crop being the town of Chesme. The Chesme raisins are considered inferior to those of the other districts. Three-fourths of the raisins from the district are exported to Hamburg, Bremen, Stettin, Amsterdam, and to Trieste in Austria. The latter town is the main distributing point for most of the raisins grown in the eastern Mediterranean raisin districts.

The Carabourna or Karabournou district produces the best raisins,—both of the Sultanas, the red and the black. The district is situated to the east and north on the same peninsula as Chesme. The district is rough and hilly, but the whole is cultivated to vines. The Carabourna “Elemês” go about one-half to Russia, the balance to England and Trieste.

The Vourla district consists of a fertile plain lying on the isthmus between the Bay of Smyrna and Scala Nova or Ephesus. The export place is the port of Vourla, one of the finest harbors on the coast of Asia Minor, and often the meeting place for fleets of the Western nations of Europe during their remonstrances in Turkish waters.

The Yerly district immediately surrounds the town of Smyrna, and extends from Nymphio in the east to Tourbali in the south and Sivri-Hissar in the west, thus bordering the Vourla district. Yerly Sultanas are the earliest in the market, sometimes being ready in the first weeks of August.

Small quantities of raisins also come from Tyra, Bairdir, Aidin and other places in the fig districts in the interior. The Island of Samos, off the coast of Asia Minor, produces raisins of several kinds, such as Sultanas, black raisins, principally for distilling abroad, and Muscatel raisins, the latter reaching three thousand tons in favorable seasons. The Island of Cos or Stanchio is also famous for its Sultana raisins, said to be the finest of any produced in Turkey.

The climate of the Smyrna raisin districts is very mild, allowing farm labor to be performed the year round. The temperature seldom falls below the freezing point, while from the middle of May to the middle of September it ranges from 70 to 90 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. During the summer, the Imbat or seabreeze tempers the heat and makes the climate pleasant to live in. The grapes begin to ripen about July first, the Sultana grapes being the earliest. The rainfall is abundant during the rainy months of the year, September to April, and averages twenty-five inches, varying from fifteen inches in dry seasons to thirty-three inches in very wet years. The following table of the rainfall is taken from the consular reports published in 1884:

Table showing the monthly rainfall in the city of Smyrna, in inches and hundredths of inches, during the nineteen years ending with 1882.

Compiled by W. E. Stevens, Consul at Smyrna.

As will be seen, most of the vineyards are situated within the reach of the seabreezes, some even being almost on the edge of the waters of the Mediterranean. The best vineyards are those which are situated inland from seven to twenty miles from the coast. The vineyard districts are all rough and hilly, except those in the Vourla district, which are on comparatively level ground. While some vineyards stretch from the seashore, others reach an elevation of four hundred feet or over. The soil varies with the districts. The best soil for the Sultanas is considered to be hippurite limestone soil, common in some districts. This white, marly soil is in places mixed with a yellow-ocher-colored loam, with sand and gravel. The abundance of the rainfall makes irrigation unnecessary, and no vines are grown with irrigation.

Care of the Vines.

—While no general irrigation is needed, the young vines are watered by hand in years of exceptionally light rainfall. The vines are generally grown from rooted cuttings, which have been planted in trenches the year before. Previous to the planting of a vineyard, the soil is dug to the depth of three or four feet. If this can be done the year before planting, it is considered better, as resulting in a quicker and stronger growth of the vines.

In older vineyards, the vines are set in rows six or seven feet apart, and with three or four feet between the rows. The vines are not grown to standards, but from branching stalks from one to two and a half feet high, with an average height of one and a half feet from the ground. No stakes are used, and only occasionally is there seen a prop under heavier loaded branches.

The pruning is done in the winter, when the vines are comparatively dormant. The superfluous branches are then cut away, and the remaining ones are cut to two or three eyes each. The cultivation was, until lately, performed in the simplest way with pick and spade. The first digging is done in January, at which time also the ground is manured. This is done by digging pits and trenches in the vineyard, which are filled with goat and camel dung. These trenches remain open for a month or more, and are after that time filled in. The first digging in the soil is done in November, the second one in January and February, when, in leveling the ground, it is at the same time dug over again one foot or more. The third or last digging is performed in March, when simply the weeds are spaded under. Of late years, vineyardists from other Mediterranean districts have settled in Smyrna and brought with them better methods. Greek farmers have especially done much to improve the old ways of cultivation used by the slovenly or ignorant natives.

In May, the young shoots are pinched back after the grapes have set well and began to develop. The pinching of the ends produces a second crop, which, besides being later, also consists of smaller grapes than the first. All sterile and inferior shoots are then cut off, and this is repeated during the summer in order that the vines may not be weakened unnecessarily. The vines come into bearing in the third year, begin to pay expenses in the fourth year, and leave a profit in the fifth year after being set out. In the seventh and eighth years the vines are considered in full bearing.

The Sultana grapes begin to ripen in July. The vintage begins towards the end of July, and lasts until the middle of August. Other varieties of grapes are later, lasting from the middle of August to the end of September, their vintage seldom lasting as late as the first week of October. The first raisins are ready about August 1st, and the last Sultanas are all in by September 1st, the other varieties of raisins coming in later.

Dipping, Drying and Curing.

—The curing of the grapes into raisins requires great care, and nowhere is any more skill shown than in Smyrna. Its raisins are the most beautiful of any, their splendid appearance and transparency being due to the process employed. The drying is done on drying-floors, which sometimes consist of the bare ground only, at other times of elevated beds of earth a foot or so high. When the soil is not naturally hard and suitable for drying-floors, it is first prepared by cutting off the weeds, and is then watered and packed until a smooth and hard surface is produced. This hard bed is sometimes left bare, and at other times covered with matting. In other places the grapes are dried on canvas, or on trays made of the Italian reed, or of grasses. These trays are raised on props three or four inches above the ground, and are loose so that they may be put on top of each other to exclude the sun, rain or fog, according to locality and season. Great stress is laid upon having the grapes fully ripe. Before thus exposed, the grapes are dipped in a solution of lye and oil, and upon the skill in this performance depends the beauty and value of the raisins. A potash is made from the ashes of the vine cuttings of the previous year. About one gallon of this potash solution is mixed with from twenty to twenty-five gallons of water, making a weak lye solution of a strength of from five to six degrees in Beaume’s “Lyeometer.” A similar strength would be obtained by dissolving one pound of pearl ash in ten gallons of water. Tubs of wood or zinc of the size of two and a half by two feet are used for dipping. To every such tub of twenty-five gallons is added from one-fourth to two gallons of olive oil. The latter quantity is used in the Karabournou district, where the finest raisins are made. When of proper strength as regards both oil and lye, the wash runs off from the bunches smoothly; when, again, the wash runs off in small globules, there is a deficiency of either oil or potash. The grapes are loaded in small baskets of twenty-five pounds each, and immersed in the wash for half a minute. They are then taken out and spread either on the ground or on trays or canvas. In the interior, where the sun is hot, the reed mats are placed on top of each other to exclude the sun. The same is also done if rain or fog is feared. After a few days of exposure, and when partially dried, the raisins are sprinkled every morning with the same lye solution, but without oil. The Sultanas are dried in from five to eight days. This dipping process is also used for the larger Muscatels, but the lye is made stronger, probably reaching the proportion of about one and a half pounds of pearl ash to five gallons of water. The carefully dipped raisins have a pure greenish amber color, and a peculiar flavor. They are worth twenty per cent more than undipped fruit.

The Sultanas of the better grades are now sold off-stalk or loose. The finest brands are the Chesme elemê, or Chesme select. Elemê means choice or select, and is used both for raisins and figs. The yield of an acre of Sultana vines varies in different vineyards, according to the quality of the soil. A good yield is considered about seven tons of fresh grapes, or about two and a third tons of raisins.

The price of the Smyrna Sultanas fluctuates considerably; but it may be said that the best grades are always from twenty-five to thirty per cent higher than the dipped raisins of Valencia. Thus, in 1843, dipped Valencias brought six and a quarter cents, while the Smyrna Sultanas brought ten cents. In 1844, the Valencias were quoted at ten cents, while the Sultanas brought twenty cents per pound. Of late years, the Smyrna Sultanas have fluctuated between four and a half and twelve and a half cents per pound.

Production and Export.

—The production of Smyrna raisins and dried grapes has enormously increased during the last few years. In 1844, the average crop was only from six to eight thousand tons. In 1868, this had increased to nineteen thousand tons, and in 1871 we find the export from Smyrna to be forty-eight thousand tons. In 1881, this had grown to seventy-five thousand tons (according to the consular report of Consul-General G. H. Heap of Constantinople). Of the districts already mentioned, Chesme and Vourla produce about three times as much as Yerly and Carabourna. A somewhat varied estimate of the Smyrna raisin crop is given by Consul W. E. Stevens of Smyrna, in his report dated February 28, 1884. According to him, the raisin crop of Smyrna should amount to one million, nine hundred thousand hundred weight or ninety-five thousand tons. These two consular estimates would give Smyrna as follows: 1871, forty-eight thousand tons; 1872, thirty-one thousand tons; 1879, seventy-five thousand tons; 1881, forty-nine thousand tons; 1884, ninety-five thousand tons. This, of course, includes all kinds of raisins. As regards the Sultana raisins, the reports of the two consuls also differ. By Consul Stevens, it is estimated to be thirty-two thousand, five hundred tons, or sixty-five million pounds; while Consul Heap puts the figures at only nineteen million, four hundred thousand pounds, or only nine thousand, seven hundred tons. We have no means to verify the statements, but are inclined to think the higher figure the more correct. If it is true that the raisin yield of Smyrna to-day reaches one hundred thousand tons, it would be absurd to think that only ten per cent should be Sultanas, which is the principal raisin grape of the district. It is more probable that at least one-third of the whole crop consists of Sultanas. About eighty per cent of all the Sultana raisins go to England, ten per cent are consumed by Eastern Europe and Russia, a small part only going to the United States.

Cost of Vineyards in Smyrna.

—The cost of vineyards in the Smyrna district varies just as it does elsewhere. Bearing vineyards change hands at from three hundred to four hundred and fifty dollars per acre. The yearly labor on an acre of vines, including pruning, cultivation and drying, amounts to fifty dollars an acre or more. The average yield per acre averages from about eighty-five to ninety dollars, leaving a profit of from thirty to forty dollars, equal to from about eight to ten per cent on the capital invested. I believe, however, that these figures may be modified, and that the profit on an acre of average vineyard often reaches from fifty to sixty dollars. The fact that an acre of vineyard sells for four hundred and fifty dollars indicates that it must not only give a fair but a good interest on that sum. The raisins from one acre of a Smyrna vineyard are sold for $88. The interest on the par value of an acre ($450) for one year at five per cent is $22.50. The other expenses during the year amount to $50, leaving, as net profit, $6.50. The above is a low estimate copied from English statements.

Other Varieties of Raisins.

—Besides Sultanas, Smyrna produces an enormous quantity of raisins of other kinds. The demand for these has been and is constantly increasing, the most being shipped to manufacturers of wines, distilled liquors of all kinds, jellies, jams, etc. These varieties are known as Large Black and Large Red. These varieties are grown in all the Smyrna districts, and in quantity far exceed the Sultanas. The following will give an idea of how this trade has increased of late. Red and Black Smyrna raisins in tons: 1868, 12,795; 1876, 15,500; 1881, 40,000; 1883, 45,000; 1888, 60,000. The price varies from three to four cents per pound in the local market. Judging from the constantly increased export of these kinds of raisins, it is not likely that the production of the same is likely to soon be overdone.

ITALY AND ITALIAN RAISINS.

Lipari and Belvidere.

—Of the Mediterranean countries, Italy produces the smallest quantity of raisins. We cannot imagine this to be on account of unsuitable soil and climate, but more on account of the tardiness of its people to take kindly to new industries and improve upon their older methods. In former years the raisins from Southern Italy were much exported to Northern Europe; to-day the trade is insignificant. In the sixteenth century, the raisins from Lipari and Belvidere were of considerable repute, but were, however, considered inferior to the Spanish raisins. The Island of Lipari, to-day principally known on account of its volcanoes, produces yet so-called Lipari currants of larger size than those from Morea. They are of much inferior quality, being hard and dry and of oblong shape.

Pantellaria.

—The Island of Pantellaria, between Sicily and Africa, also produces raisins of somewhat better quality, which, if better packed, would favorably compare with the Lexias of Valencia and Denia. The Pantellarias, or Belvideres, as they are known in the market, are principally consumed in Northern Italy and Southern France. They are sweet and good raisins, which, if carefully and intelligently handled, would rapidly improve in quality.

Calabria.

—Since the destruction of the Calabrian raisins through the mildew, the raisin production of this peninsula has largely increased. In 1876, it had reached eight thousand tons, but must now probably be double that amount. The Calabrian raisins produced on the mainland of Italy are of good quality, and are principally exported to France.

CHILE AND HUASCO RAISINS.

Characteristics.

—The Chile or Huasco raisin is one of the finest raisins in the world, and in the opinion of the author superior to both Spanish and California raisins. They excel in sweetness and aroma as well as flavor; their skin is thin, and the seeds are small. The color is entirely different from sun-dried California or Spanish raisins, being yellowish amber with a fine and thin bluish bloom, indicating that they have been dried in the shade or in partial shade without dipping in lye or other solutions.

Location.

—The number of acres devoted to raisin culture in Chile is not known. The grapes for this purpose are grown almost exclusively in the valley of the Huasco, back of the port of Huasco in the province of Atacama. There appear to be two distinct valleys of the same name, one situated only twenty minutes’ ride from the port of Huasco on the Pacific Ocean, the other farther inland about sixty miles from the coast. In the former place, the culture of the raisin grape is very limited, the whole valley and town only containing four hundred people, of which not all are occupied with the raisin industry. The interior valley is more extensive, and the largest quantity of the Huasco raisins come from this place. The port of Huasco is situated in latitude twenty-seven degrees, thirty minutes south, longitude seventy-one degrees, sixteen minutes west.

Muscatel or Gordo Blanco Raisin Grape, Second Crop. Two-thirds Natural Size.

Varieties.

—The grape used for raisins is a variety of the Muscat, very similar to the Muscat of Alexandria. Grapevines transplanted to California resemble this variety very much, but, according to Professor Hilgard, set their fruit better, and do not suffer so much from colure. It is said that these grapes were imported to Chile long ago by the Spanish conquerors, and it is supposed they grew the vines from seed brought from Spain, and selected the best of the seedlings. In this way the slight difference of the Huasco grape from the Muscat of Alexandria can be accounted for.

Soils.

—The soil in the coast valley consists of a reddish, sandy loam, which changes to a fine yellow sand, of great richness. This sand covers the hills almost everywhere in the vicinity of the Huasco river, the nature of the country being a rolling one.

Climate.

—The climate is notoriously dry, and rain falls only very seldom between June and September, is of short duration and very scant. In the interior valley, rain is said to be seldom known, and the climate there can be called entirely rainless. Dew is abundant in the winter, but the summers are warm and dry.

Irrigation.

—Near the coast no irrigation is required, but in the interior valley the grapes are irrigated three times a year, first when the buds begin to swell, second when they begin to blossom, and lastly when the fruit is well advanced.

The Vineyard.

—The vines are planted six feet one way by eight feet the other, and the intermediate space is often planted to alfalfa, giving three crops of hay each year. The heads are kept low, the vines are pruned heavily, and only two eyes left on each cane. Sometimes whole branches are cut away, especially if they do not bear well. The vines are grown both on hillsides and in the valleys on the bottom lands. Many of the vineyards are surrounded by elevated arbors or trellises, over which the vines are trained, to keep off the heavy spring winds which otherwise would break the branches,—windbreaks, in fact. The cultivation of the Huasco vines is of the most primitive kind. The land is poorly cultivated, and the fact that alfalfa is grown between the rows of the vines indicates that the industry is not highly developed. On the other hand, it is not impossible that the crowding together of various things on the land may help to give the grapes a certain flavor or aroma.

There is said to be a great difference between the various Huasco grapes, some being very superior to others. The inferior kinds are called simply Muscats, while the better kinds are the Huascos. It is not known if these varieties come from different kinds of grapes, but it is likely that this is the case. Vines of the best variety transplanted to other localities than the Huasco valley give invariably indifferent results, and produce raisins inferior to the Huasco.

Drying and Curing.

—The poorer qualities are simply dried on boards or on the roofs of the houses in the sun; but the fine and most valuable raisins are dried in the shade. When ripe, the bunches are carefully picked and taken to open sheds with thatched roofs, and there hung up to dry. The raisins are turned at intervals, and when ready are packed in twenty-five-pound boxes without any great care or skill. The best Huasco raisin sells at fifty cents per pound in the local market, and is decidedly the most high-priced raisin known. The best variety is scarce even in Chile, and in Chilean statistics I could not find any quoted. The following houses in Huasco are dealers in fruits and raisins: Juan Quijada, Ramon F. Martinez, and José Manuel Balmaceda. The export from the port of Huasco in 1885 amounted only to $685,853. How large a portion of this was raisins is not known.

CALIFORNIA RAISIN DISTRICTS.

A GENERAL REVIEW.

Early History.

—While the planting of raisin grapes and the production of raisins in California dates back some thirty odd years, the raisin industry cannot be said to be as yet twenty years old. Already, in 1851, Col. Agoston Haraszthy grew Muscatel vines from seeds of Malaga raisins. On the 25th of March, 1852, he imported the Muscat of Alexandria from Malaga, and ten years later, during a visit to that place on September 27, 1861, he selected cuttings of the Gordo Blanco which afterwards were grown and propagated on his San Diego county vineyard. The same year he imported Sultana vines from Malaga, and white and red Corinth from Crimea. Col. Haraszthy was thus the first one to introduce the raisin-vines in this State. Another importation of the ovoid Muscat of Alexandria was made in 1855 by A. Delmas and planted at San José, according to a statement made by his son D. M. Delmas,[3] the prominent San Francisco lawyer. G. G. Briggs of Davisville also imported Muscatel grapes from Malaga in Spain; while R. B. Blowers of Woodland, Yolo county, started his raisin vineyard in 1863 from Gordo Blanco cuttings received from Col. Haraszthy. In 1876, W. S. Chapman, imported the best Muscatels from Spain for his colonists in the Central California Colony in Fresno, which proved in no way different from those already growing there. Who produced the first raisins in California will probably never be satisfactorily known. According to page 88 of the Report of the State Agricultural Society of California, 1863, cured raisins were exhibited by Dr. J. Strentzel at the State Fair in 1863.[4] The first successful raisin vineyards in the State were those planted by G. G. Briggs at Davisville in Solano county, and by R. B. Blowers at Woodland in Yolo county. Both these gentlemen grew the raisin grapes on a large scale, and shipped raisins extensively. The Briggs vineyard consisted mainly of Muscats of Alexandria, while the Blowers vineyard contained the Gordo Blanco. Both these vineyards produced raisins as early as 1867; but it was not until 1873 that their raisins cut any conspicuous figure in the market. That year six thousand boxes were produced in the State, the majority by far coming from these two vineyards.

[3] See also Wickson’s “California Fruits,” page 357.

[4] Same, page 79.

Later Planting.

—In 1873, in the fall, the Muscat vines were first brought to the Fresno raisin district, where twenty-five acres of Muscat of Alexandria were planted in the Eisen vineyard. A few years later, or in 1876 and 1877, T. C. White planted the Raisina Vineyard in the Central California Colony near Fresno from Gordo Blanco Muscatels brought from R. B. Blowers’ vineyard at Woodland. The following year, or in 1877-78, Miss M. F. Austin began improving her Hedgerow Vineyard, also in the same colony, with grapes of the same kind as Messrs. White and Blowers. Robert Barton had also planted some twenty-five acres of Muscat grapes, but did not make raisins until later. The year 1879 saw the first planting of the A. B. Butler vineyard, now the largest vineyard in the State. J. T. Goodman had begun improving his place at the same time; while Col. William Forsyth entered upon raisin-grape growing between 1881 and 1882, most of his grapes, however, being planted a year or two later. From that time the raisin vineyards in Fresno multiplied rapidly, and about 1886 and 1887 raisin production became recognized as the principal industry of the district.

The history of the development of the raisin industry in the other districts of the State runs very much the same. Riverside had entered the field in 1873, when the founder of that colony, Judge John Wesley North, planted there the first raisin-vines of the variety Muscat of Alexandria. But raisin-grape growing did not become general until 1875 and 1876, when the largest vineyards in the colony were planted. In El Cajon valley in San Diego county, the first raisin vines of the Muscat of Alexandria variety were planted in 1873 by R. G. Clark; but the raisin industry did not get a good start until some six or seven years ago, while most of the vineyards were planted from 1884 to 1886. In Orange county, raisin grapes were planted at the same time as in Riverside and El Cajon by MacPherson Bros., near Orange, now called MacPherson. The raisin industry developed rapidly, and Robert MacPherson, the largest grower and packer in the district, and at one time in the State, handled yearly over one hundred thousand boxes, while the yearly crop of the district rose to one hundred and seventy thousand boxes.

In Central California, the raisin industry is gradually spreading from the original center around Fresno, the greater freedom from rain and the better facilities for irrigation being great inducements for the settlers to engage in the growing and curing of the raisin grapes. The San Joaquin valley is especially adapted to the production of raisins, the Fresno raisin district being by far the largest, and now producing almost one-half of the raisin crop of the State. In San Bernardino county and district, the raisins are also grown to great profit and with great facility, and are of equal quality with those of the interior of the State. But the raisin industry is here gradually giving way to the culture of oranges and other citrus fruits, and the increase in the raisin acreage has therefore not been so great as in the San Joaquin valley. In El Cajon, irrigation is not used, and the raisins produced there are very similar to the Malaga raisins, but through absence of irrigation the crops are smaller than in any of the other districts in the State. In Los Angeles and Orange county district, the raisin industry has suffered immensely from the ravages of the vine plague, an as yet entirely mysterious disease, and the output of raisins there has dwindled down to almost nothing. But the farmers of the district are ready to replant whenever there are any prospects that the vines will do well again.

In the interior of California, north of Solano and Yolo counties, large quantities of raisin grapes have been planted during the last few years, both in the foothill valleys, out on the plains, and in the bottom lands of the Sacramento, Yuba and Feather rivers, etc. Raisins of very good quality have been produced in that part of the State for years in limited quantities, but it is yet a question to what extent that section can compete with the central and southern parts of the State. In Sutter county around Yuba City the cultivation of a seedless raisin grape is advancing rapidly, the raisins made from it being of excellent quality and finding a ready market.

Acreage and Crops.

—The quantity of raisin-vines planted cannot be estimated correctly; but it is certain that at least sixty-five thousand acres of Muscat vines are now set out in the State, including grapes in bearing, as well as vines lately set out.

California enjoys a climate peculiarly adapted to the culture and curing of the raisin grape. The summers are warm and rainless, the winters again moderately rainy. The interior is free from injurious fogs and heavy dews, while the most southern coast is only visited by warm fogs, which are not greatly harmful to the grapes. Irrigation is practiced almost everywhere, except in El Cajon valley, and in some of the northern districts of the State, but even there it is no doubt that judicious irrigation would be beneficial and greatly increase the crop. The demand for California raisins has kept pace with the improvements in curing and packing, and has steadily increased from year to year. What the future has in store only the future can tell, but it is almost certain that first-class raisins will always be in demand, while inferior grades may from time to time bring lower prices. The ruling price of raisins in sweatboxes, as they may be had from those growers who do not pack themselves, has been from four to five cents per pound. Of late years, the tendency is developing to pay according to quality, and from three to seven cents was the ruling price for unpacked raisins in sweatboxes during last season (1889). This practice will greatly promote the raisin industry and encourage growers to grow large grapes and fine bunches, and to cure their raisins well. It will also benefit the buyers, who will know what they pay for, and who will be able to furnish better grades, and more of the best grades than formerly, when good, bad and indifferent raisins brought five cents per pound.

The raisin crop of 1889 did not exceed one million boxes. Should we venture upon a statement as to the distribution of the same among the various counties or districts of the State, the following figures would be found as near correct as it is possible to get them:

YOLO AND SOLANO.

Location and Acreage.

—The district is situated north of San Francisco Bay, bordering on it as well as on the Sacramento river, and is a part of the Sacramento valley. The number of acres overreaches seven thousand, and is increasing yearly. The principal vineyards are those of the late G. G. Briggs at Davisville, Solano county, with three hundred acres, and at Woodland in Yolo county, four hundred and sixty acres; E. Gould, also at Davisville, two hundred acres; H. M. Larou, at same place, about fifty acres; sundry vineyards around Davisville, fifty acres; around Woodland and Capay valley, some four hundred acres;—or in full bearing more than two thousand acres. The district comprises the southern part of Yolo and the northern part of Solano counties. The grape used for raisins is principally the Muscat of Alexandria, except the vineyard of R. B. Blowers, which is composed exclusively of Gordo Blanco. The Muscat of Alexandria is generally preferred, as it makes a fine raisin and bears well.

Soil and Climate.

—The soil varies somewhat; the best is a deep gray, alluvial bottom-land soil; other soils are not much thought of for Muscatel raisin grapes. The average depth of water is about eighteen feet from the surface. It is not necessary, as a rule, to first level the land, as the ground is very level naturally. The rainfall averages thirteen inches. The most rain falls in January and February; the least falls in August. There is seldom a shower in the summer, but about November 1st rains are almost always certain to interfere with the drying of the grapes. Sometimes the rain comes in October, when it causes considerable damage to the grapes and partially dried raisins. There is very little dew in summer time, but plenty in October and also some in September. The temperature is considerably modified by the nearness of the bay. It reaches in the hottest part of the summer one hundred and fourteen degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, but only for a day or two. The average highest is about ninety degrees Fahrenheit in the shade, while the heat almost every day in July and August shows eighty-five degrees Fahrenheit in the shade. Thus this district is considerably cooler than the San Joaquin valley and San Bernardino county, but warmer than Los Angeles and San Diego districts. There are heavy frosts in winter, when at times even the thermometer falls to eighteen degrees Fahrenheit, although this is the extreme low temperature, six or seven degrees of frost being more common. There is spring frost in April one year in every three or four, and the vineyards are then smoked to prevent injury to the vines. Irrigation is not needed to produce crops, only to produce larger crops, as it increases the yield fifty per cent. Generally two irrigations a year are needed, the first one in early summer, the other later, when the berries have begun to ripen. Water from ditches is used and carried to the vines in furrows only, no flooding being practiced.

The Vineyard.

—In planting, cuttings are used principally, but rooted vines are preferred by some. The distances most common are ten by ten feet each way, one vineyard being set ten feet by sixteen feet. The vines bear the third year. The ground is plowed and cross-plowed, the first plowing being from the vines, and the second to the vines. Harrowing and cultivating both ways are secondary operations, continued to the middle of May, but seldom later. Hoeing the vines finishes the work of the soil in the middle or end of May.

In pruning, the crowns are never raised over six inches above the ground, from seven to eight spurs are left on large vines, and each spur is pruned to two or three eyes each. Formerly more eyes, say from four to five, were left on each cane, but it was found that this was too many, hence the change to two or three eyes. Summer pruning is practiced by some, but not by all; there is yet a controversy in regard to its usefulness. When practiced, the vines are cut six or eight inches from the tops, and this is done not later than June. Sulphuring is in use everywhere; the vines are sulphured two times, once before and once after the bloom. Sulphured vines do not suffer from mildew. Colure, or the dropping of the young berries, is not common, the Muscat of Alexandria even setting well. The leaf-hopper (Erythroneura comes) is more common in some years than in others. They eat the leaves and cause the grapes to sunburn. Grasshoppers have never caused any damage. Grape moths are more or less common, but never troublesome. Black-knot is often seen on neglected vines, but is rare in old vineyards well cared for.

The Crop.

—The grapes ripen in September, generally from the first to the tenth. The drying and curing occupies three weeks. The bunches are placed on trays made of pine two feet by three. Several growers have artificial dryers, which are needed for curing the second crop. The sweatboxes are large enough to contain seventy pounds of raisins, and are eight inches deep. In the Briggs raisin vineyard, the following brands are packed: three crown Layer Muscatels; two crown Layer Muscatels; one and two crown Loose Muscatels; Dehesas and Seedless Muscatels. The raisins are seldom sold in sweatboxes, and no fixed price is known for such raisins. Most growers pack their own raisins. The oldest raisin vineyard is that started by the late G. G. Briggs, and now owned by his widow. The most renowned vineyard was that owned by R. B. Blowers of Woodland, which has of late years been mostly replaced by other crops. Raisin land can be had for from one hundred to one hundred and fifty dollars per acre. This is vacant land of the very best quality. An average profit of fifty dollars per acre is realized, although some have made more money out of their vines. A yield of two or three tons of grapes per acre is common. As regards prices of labor, etc., the following were those most common last season: Man and team, who boards himself and animals, three dollars and twenty-five cents per day, can plow one and a half acres of vineyard well. Pruning, one man, one dollar per day, can prune three hundred vines, or three-fourths of an acre. Laborers generally board themselves. The raisins of this district were the first ones in the State or on this continent to attract attention, and they were the first which successfully competed with Spain. The crop of 1889 reached one hundred and twenty thousand boxes.

NORTHERN CALIFORNIA.

General Remarks.

—The Muscatel and Sultana raisin grapes grow almost everywhere in the State, and it is therefore natural enough that the planting of raisin-vines should have increased considerably of late years, even in localities situated outside of those raisin districts mentioned, which have already made a success of the raisin industry. Below will be found a few notices from various such places which aspire to raisin fame, some of which have yet to make their reputation in this line. These notices are partly taken from the San Francisco Chronicle, which paper went to the trouble and expense of collecting such statistics at the beginning of the year. It must be remembered, however, that these statements are more or less approximate. As will be seen, all these localities here mentioned lie in the interior or the Sacramento valley proper, enjoying an inland climate. The climate in this valley is somewhat like that of the San Joaquin valley, of which it is an extension. Only the heat in summer is less, the rain in winter is more profuse, the showers in the spring of the year are later and those of the fall are earlier.

Placer County.

—At Rocklin J. P. Whitney has two hundred and fifty acres of raisin grapes, and is the largest raisin-maker in the county. There are not over three hundred and fifty acres of Muscats devoted to raisin-making in the county, and the total output this year was about four hundred tons, most of which was shipped directly East. The first carload of Muscat raisins sent East was shipped from the Whitney vineyard about ten years ago. A large area of Muscat and other vineyards will be planted this season, but none for raisin-making.

Yuba County.

—The raisin industry has received but little attention in Yuba county, although it has long been known that raisins of superior quality can be produced here. The area in raisin-vines is about three hundred acres, which will probably be increased by several hundred acres this season. Less than a hundred acres are in bearing. The raisin vineyards planted last season are chiefly at Colmena, midway between Marysville and Wheatland. The Muscatel grape is planted to some extent, but the favorite grape is the Thompson Seedless, a new variety of great promise.

Sutter County.

—The raisin industry of Sutter county dates back to the year 1876, and the venture was first made by the late Dr. S. R. Chandler three miles south of this city. The area now in raisin vineyard is about six hundred acres, three-fourths of which are in bearing. The crops marketed and prices received are about as follows: Three thousand twenty-pound boxes at $1.65 per box; eight hundred sacks of one hundred pounds each, at five cents a pound; five hundred and twenty-five sacks of dried grapes of one hundred pounds each, at three cents a pound. The home consumption is extensive, but is not estimated. The county is well adapted to raisin growing and curing, and received the second prize at the late Oroville State Citrus Exposition. Muscatel and Thompson Seedless are the favorite grapes. The soil of this county is very rich and warm, and no irrigation has been practiced.

Colusa County.

—In the immediate vicinity of Colusa there are about one hundred and fifty acres in bearing, and fully one hundred acres more will be set out the coming season. The crop of raisins in 1888 was very insignificant; but in 1889 the Colusa canneries packed forty tons in boxes. The prices ranged from $1.75 to $2.25 per box, according to quality. These figures refer only to the territory lying within a radius of eight miles of Colusa. Some of the finest raisin grapes in the county are grown near College City, and the entire output was at least eighty tons of raisins. Many of the people around Orland are reported as going into the business on a large scale. The ranchers in and near the foothills are also producing raisins of excellent quality. A single vineyard of fifteen hundred acres is being planted in one place in the foothills.

Butte County.

—While Butte produces a fair quality of raisins, her vineyards are yet young and are just coming into bearing. The older vines are those of General Bidwell, at Chico, covering about one hundred acres, and those of Oroville and Mesilla valley, embracing about the same area. A large number of young vines have been set out during the past two years, and these number 52,200 near Oroville, 77,480 at Palermo, 67,200 at Thermalito, 20,570 at Wyandotte, 25,000 at Central House, 50,500 at Gridley, and something over 50,000 near Chico. These have nearly all been planted within the past two years, but a limited number are three years old. In the foothills are a number of small vineyards, but it is impossible to ascertain the acreage and product, though the total of each is not large. Practically the bearing vines of Butte number between 300 and 400 acres. The one and two year old vineyards embrace about 350 acres, so that a conservative estimate for the total raisin vineyards of the county, young and old, would be 700 acres. The raisins are all boxed and sold directly by the vineyardists, the local demand taking nearly the whole crop. The area to be planted this year will not exceed 250 acres.

Tehama County.

—The area planted to grapes in Tehama county is over ten thousand acres. The greater part of the fruit grown is used for wine, and probably one-third for raisins. All the raisins produced here are packed in boxes, and a large portion is used in home consumption, while the remainder is shipped. Probably about ten thousand boxes in bulk and packed will cover the yield.

Shasta County.

—The raisin industry of Shasta county is only in its infancy. There are 147 acres planted to raisin grapes within a radius of fifteen miles from Redding. The largest acreage of raisin grapes is in Happy valley. There are patches of grapes all through the foothills. Probably not over one thousand boxes of raisins were shipped. The planting of raisin grapes continues every year. Raisins are made by many small growers, and sold here at an average of six cents per pound.

FRESNO AND SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY.

General Remarks.

—The San Joaquin valley is well adapted to raisins along its whole length almost, but especially in its central and southern parts. The farther we go south in the valley, the drier is the climate, and the less is the rainfall in the autumn of the year, both conditions favoring the curing of the grapes. The present raisin center is around Fresno City, where over twenty-five thousand acres are planted to raisin grapes, principally Muscatels; but from this locality the industry has been constantly spreading, until at present the other counties in the valley, viz., Merced, Tulare and Kern, can show a good acreage of young vines. Next after Fresno, Tulare county produces the largest quantity of raisin grapes, and produces raisins of the very highest quality. The principal raisin vineyards in that county are situated in the Mussel Slough district, on the rich bottom lands formed by the former delta of Kings river; of late, the planting of raisin grapes has extended to other parts of the county as well. In Kern county few old raisin vineyards exist, the oldest one being situated on the Livermore ranch, being a part of the Haggin and Carr tract. Several hundred new acres have been planted there this spring, especially in the Rosedale, Lerdo and Virginia Colonies, as well as on the plains near Delano. I need here hardly say that the raisins of Fresno, Tulare, Kern and Merced counties should be all classed together, as the climate in these various localities is one and the same, with only a slight and gradual change as to rainfall as we go south in the valley. If there will, in the course of time, be found some difference as regards quality in the raisins of these various localities in the San Joaquin valley, this difference will not be due to any great difference in the climate, but to the variety of soil on which the grapes are grown. The raisins are only grown on the level lands, situated from three to four hundred feet above the sea.