SEVEN LECTURES
ON THE
UNITED KINGDOM
FOR USE IN
INDIA.

Reissued for use in the United Kingdom.

BY

H. J. MACKINDER,

Lately Director of the London School of Economics and Political
Science: Author of “Britain and the British Seas.”

With Lantern Illustrations.

ONE SHILLING NET.

PUBLISHED FOR THE VISUAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE
OF THE COLONIAL OFFICE,

BY
WATERLOW & SONS LIMITED, PRINTERS, LONDON WALL.

1909.

The Slides to accompany these Lectures are sold on behalf of the Committee by Messrs. Newton & Co., of 3, Fleet Street, London, E.C., from whom the books of lectures can also be obtained. The complete set of 377 Slides, many of them coloured, may be had for £35. 0s. 0d. The Slides to accompany the several Lectures will be sold at the following prices: First Lecture, £6. 0s. 0d.; Second Lecture, £5. 15s. 0d.; Third Lecture, £4. 15s. 0d.; Fourth Lecture, £2. 15s. 0d.; Fifth Lecture, £10. 15s. 0d.; Sixth Lecture, £3. 0s. 0d.; Seventh Lecture, £4. 0s. 0d. Single Slides will not be sold.

Many of the slides in this series are copyright.

ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL.

THE VISUAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE,

APPOINTED BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR
THE COLONIES.

The Right Honourable The Earl of Meath, K.P., Chairman.

The Right Honourable Sir Cecil Clementi Smith, G.C.M.G.

Sir Philip Hutchins, K.C.S.I., late Member of the Council of the Secretary of State for India.

Sir Charles Lucas, K.C.M.G., C.B., of the Colonial Office.

Sir Charles Holroyd, Director of the National Gallery.

H. F. Heath, Ph.D., Director of Special Enquiries at the Board of Education.

H. J. Mackinder, M.A., late Director of the London School of Economics and Political Science.

R. D. Roberts, D.Sc., Secretary of the Gilchrist Educational Trust.

Professor Michael E. Sadler, LL.D., Professor of the History and Administration of Education in the University of Manchester.

John Struthers, C.B., LL.D., Secretary to the Scotch Education Department.

PREFACE.

THE component parts of the British Empire are so remote and so different from one another, that it is evident that the Empire can only be held together by sympathy and understanding, based on widely diffused knowledge of its geography, history, resources, climates, and races. It is obvious that if this knowledge is to be effective it must be imparted to the coming generation. In other words it must be taught in the Schools of the Empire.

In the Autumn of 1902, a Committee was appointed by the Secretary of State for the Colonies to consider on what system such teaching might best be developed. The Committee came to the conclusion that children in any part of the Empire would never understand what the other parts were like unless by some adequate means of visual instruction; and, further, that as far as possible the teaching should be on the same lines in all parts of the Empire. It was decided to make a beginning by an experiment on a small scale, and for this purpose to invite the three Eastern Colonies of Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and Hong Kong to bear the expense of a small book of Lantern Lectures on the United Kingdom for use in the Schools in those Colonies. Other parts of the Empire were afterwards invited to have editions which would be suited to their own special requirements prepared at their own expense, and up to the present date editions have been issued for the Eastern Colonies, for the West Indies, for West Africa, for Mauritius, and for India. Editions are now in preparation for Canada and for South Africa.

The lectures contained in this little volume are identical with those prepared under the foregoing scheme for use in India. It has been represented to the Committee that it would be stimulating to children in the United Kingdom to have presented to them an account of their own land as seen from the point of view of children in another part of the Empire. The effort on the part of English children to imagine themselves in the position of Indian children should tend to arouse and impress a valuable feeling of political sympathy.

The Committee, however, have always had in mind the preparation of illustrative lectures on the Colonies and India as well as on the United Kingdom. The experience which they have now gained has convinced them that if this part of the work is to be done as well as it can be done, it is advisable to have the illustrations prepared on a uniform system by a highly skilled artist or artists specially commissioned for the purpose. They were so fortunate as to interest Her Royal Highness the Princess of Wales in their work, and through her powerful and gracious support, and that of Lady Dudley and a Committee of ladies who were good enough to collect a sum of £4,000 for the purpose, they have been able to make a beginning of a work which will take some years to complete. The Committee desire me to record their warm gratitude to Her Royal Highness, to Lady Dudley, and to the Committee of ladies for making this part of the undertaking possible.

During the past year an artist, Mr. A. Hugh Fisher, has been travelling through India collecting material for the Committee, and it is hoped that before another twelve months have elapsed a course of lectures on that country, well illustrated by means of the lantern, may be published. Ceylon, Somaliland, and Cyprus have also been visited, and Mr. Fisher is now in Canada, and will presently go to the Far Eastern Colonies. Other parts of the Empire will be dealt with successively, and in the course of three or four years, the Committee intend to have available for purchase by public educational authorities and others a complete survey of the Empire, uniform in method. Their hope is that with the aid of the various Governments and the kindness of many official and private friends, they may put together a series of illustrations rich in colour, suggestive of life and incident, and artistic in composition. I shall be responsible for the letterpress, and in that work hope to have the assistance of the Directors of Education in the several Dominions and Colonies. The Committee trust that in this way they may succeed in presenting in their relative importance and proportion all the chief facts essential to the popular understanding of the Empire.

H. J. MACKINDER.

London,

December, 1908.

PREFACE TO THE INDIAN EDITION.

THE object of these Lectures, and of the lantern slides which accompany them, is to give to the school children of India, through their eyes as well as their ears, a true and simple impression of what the United Kingdom and its people are like. If this intention has in any degree been realised, it is probable that with some modification of the form of the lectures the interest of adults may also be aroused. The changes necessary to suit particular circumstances may be introduced in the process of translation into the vernacular. In regard to children, each lecture may well supply several hours’ lessons, being meant as the text for teaching, and a guide as to the method of teaching, and not simply to be repeated word for word in a single hour.

My thanks are due to many who have given me help, especially to the Colonial Office Committee who debated at length the preliminary scheme, and to the Principal, Staff, and Students of the Stockwell Training College, before whom the lectures were experimentally delivered. I am also under obligation to those who have supplied me with material for some of the slides, particularly to Sir William Abney (V. 49, 50), Sir Benjamin Baker (I. 40, 41), Mr. G. J. S. Broomhall (VI. 39, 40), the Geological Photographs Committee of the British Association (VI. 8), the Great Western Railway Company (VI. 42), Messrs. Huntley & Palmers (VI. 41), Sir Walter Egerton (VII. 28), General Kemball (VII. 29, 30), the London & North Western Railway Company (VI. 43), the London & South Western Railway Company (III. 19, 20, 21), Sir William Matthews, K.C.M.G., of Messrs. Coode, Son & Matthews (I. 23, 24, 25, 26), Sir Andrew Noble, of Sir William Armstrong, Whitworth & Company (VI. 26, 30), the Peninsular and Oriental Steamship Company (I. 56, 57, 58, 59), Messrs. R. & J. H. Rea (VII. 7), Mr. William Taylor (I. 9, 11, 47), Mr. Graham Wallas (VI. 36), Dr. Lynden Macassey and the late Mr. Yerkes (VI. 46, 47).

The scheme which is here realised was carried through in the first instance owing to the enterprise of the three Colonies, Hong Kong, the Straits Settlements, and Ceylon. This is one of several Editions adapted to the special points of view of other parts of the Empire.

I desire to thank for their kind suggestions Sir William Lee-Warner, K.C.S.I., Sir Philip Hutchins, K.C.S.I., Sir Thomas Holdich, K.C.M.G., Sir W. Curzon-Wyllie, K.C.I.E., and Mr. Theodore Morison.

H. J. MACKINDER.

London,

March, 1907.

The following editions of these Lectures have been issued—

1. Eastern Colonies Edition, Sept., 1905.

In use in Ceylon, the Straits Settlements, and Hong Kong.

2. Mauritius Edition, June, 1906.

In use in Mauritius.

3. West African Edition, Sept., 1906.

In use in Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, and Southern Nigeria.

4. West India Edition, Sept., 1906.

In use in Trinidad, British Guiana, and Jamaica.

5. Indian Edition, March, 1907.

In use in the following Provinces:—Madras, Bombay, Bengal, the United Provinces, the Punjab, Burma, Eastern Bengal and Assam, the Central Provinces, and the North West Frontier Province.

6. Indian Edition for use in the United Kingdom, Jan., 1909.

Canadian and South African Editions are being prepared by direction of the Governments of the Dominion of Canada and of the South African Colonies.

CONTENTS.

SEVEN LECTURES on the UNITED KINGDOM.

LECTURE I.

THE VOYAGE FROM INDIA TO LONDON.

1.
Map of the Indian Ocean.

The British Empire consists of a number of lands scattered over the whole world. Some of the most important of these lands are round the Indian Ocean. In this map we see to the east Australia, to the west South Africa, and to the north India, which are three out of the six or seven great lands belonging to the Empire. Then there are smaller lands; some of them so small that on the general map of the Indian Ocean they hardly appear. We can only show their names and a dot for their positions. Such, notwithstanding their importance in the world’s trade, are Singapore, Mauritius, and Aden. There are other lands of intermediate size, and notable of these is the Island of Ceylon. Among the smallest of all the British Territories are the Seychelles, a coaling station for the Fleet, placed nearly midway between Mauritius, Zanzibar, and Colombo. On the mainland of Africa in the neighbourhood of Zanzibar is also the considerable territory of British East Africa, through which runs the Uganda Railway from Mombasa to the great lake of Victoria Nyanza and the sources of the River Nile.

2.
Map of India.

Of all these countries the most important is our own land of India. As you know, it has three hundred million people. Here we have a map of India and of the allied states, Afghanistan and Nepal. You see upon it in the darker tint of red the territories which are immediately under the British Government, and you see also in the lighter tint the Native States, ruled by their own chiefs, although protected by the British Raj. In no other part of the world do we find peace secure from end to end of a vast territory, and yet within it great states ruled by their own chiefs, as in Kashmir, Rajputana, Central India, Haidarabad, and Mysore. Some of the principal countries of Europe are little larger than some of the Native States of India, yet the continent of Europe is full of armaments, and there is always danger of war there. India owes to the British Raj peace for a fifth of the human race, and yet the different laws, languages, and religions have been preserved, so that the people of each part and of each race are able to live according to their own historic customs.

3.
The Himalayas.

India lies between the mountains and the ocean. Along one-half of her land frontier the highest range of mountains in the world makes a great rampart, defending her from invasion. The railways which now extend through the whole land not only help to prevent death from starvation when the harvests fail, but also enable the Indian Government to concentrate the army quickly for the defence of the only portions of the frontier of India by which invasion is possible. In 1738, Nadir, Shah of Persia, invaded India, took Delhi and slew one hundred thousand of the people. In 1761, Ahmed, Shah of Afghanistan, invaded India and defeated the Mahrathas in the great battle of Panipat, almost at the gates of Delhi. After that time the British Raj grew up, and no foreign enemy has since been able to disturb the peace of India. Who can measure the value of peace for the millions of our people? There are nearly 730,000 villages in India: without peace they could not reap their harvests. There are over 2,000 towns in India: without peace their trade would be ruined.

4.
The Ocean: The Surf at Madras.

But we must not forget that more than one-half of the boundary of India is washed by the waves of the great sea. Why is it that we need not maintain great armies along the coast of India? The water of the ocean spreads round all the lands of the world, and enemies from many lands might come in ships to attack us. The reason why we need give little thought to the defence of our shores is that the British Fleet is strong, and is ready in distant parts of the ocean to fight with any hostile fleet that might set out to invade India. No rule in India has ever before had the advantage of peace on the ocean. The Emperors at Delhi in former centuries were obliged to pay for an Abyssinian Fleet to give some protection to their shores.

In three ways therefore India draws great profit from her share in the British Empire. In the first place she is saved the cost of defending her sea border from foreign invasion. In the second place the sea road lies peacefully open for a vast commerce with the rest of the world. And in the third place, by means of the railways from her ports to her land frontiers she is able to defend those frontiers not only by the Indian Army, but, if necessary, by all the strength of the other parts of the Empire brought over the seas and carried quickly to the threatened point. Never before has the peace of India been so secure at so small a cost. This is the strength which comes from standing not alone, but as one of the league of nations which is known as the British Empire. It is a splendid thought to think of the many separate races, each living their own lives according to their own traditions, which are now held peacefully together within the British Empire. In Britain itself you must remember that there are the English, the Scotch, the Irish, and the Welsh, just as in India there are the Rajputs, the Sikhs, the Mahrathas, the Bengalis, and many other races. Once the English and the Scotch used to fight one another; but now there is peace in Britain as there is in India. Yet throughout the British Empire all men are free to think and say what they like.

5.
Map of the Railways of India.

6.
Sutlej Bridge.

7.
Bhor Ghat Reversing Station.

The Empire is held together to-day chiefly by means of railways on the land and steamships on the sea. The railways of India end at the foot of the mountains. In the plains they cross the broad rivers by long bridges. In the Deccan they descend to the sea by ways that are cut into the mountain face. Here we have a bridge over the Sutlej, on the Delhi railway, and here the curious Reversing Station on the Bhor Ghat above Bombay, where the steepness of the ground does not allow space for the railway to bend on its way down the mountain side.

The modern capitals of India are naturally on the coast, for it is there that the life of India comes into contact with the life of the world over the sea. In these capitals, protected by the Fleet, the commerce borne by the railways connects with the ocean-borne commerce.

8.
Map showing the Unity of the Ocean.

Let us spend a moment considering why it is that trade over the ocean is of such vast importance to India, and why, therefore, the sea-ports are the greatest of her cities. In this map you see at a glance that all the lands of the world are in truth islands, for even the largest continent is surrounded by the ocean. Therefore a ship can go from any coast you will to any other coast. But by road or by railway it is possible to travel only from one part to another of the same island or continent. Hence it is that ocean-borne commerce is the most general, for land-borne commerce is limited by the coast and can go no further. It would be impossible for us to trade over the land with England. At some point or other we must cross the sea, and traffic over the sea is much cheaper than on the land. Therefore, in some cases it even pays to carry goods from point to point along the coast of India, instead of carrying them by land. This map also tells you why the one British fleet can defend all the coasts of the British Empire. It is because the ocean is one, and the fleet can sail from any part of it to any other part.

9.
Ships of the time of Vasco da Gama.

10.
Sailing Ship.

The voyage to Britain used to be a long one, and not without danger. True that the same ship could go all the way from Calcutta to London, carrying passengers, mails, and cargo; but in former times the passage took many months, for ships, as you know, could then only be moved by the wind, and at some seasons the wind blew in a direction contrary to the course of the ship. Moreover, even the East India ships were small, and we must remember the rough seas which they had to traverse when rounding the Cape of Good Hope. Here, for example, are the kind of ships in which Europeans first came round the Cape to the Indies in the time of Vasco da Gama. And here is a sailing ship of later times, much improved both in hull and sails, but still liable to be delayed by contrary winds and by calms.

11.
P. & O. s.s. “Caledonia.”

In the present day, however, the British Empire is knit together by means of large vessels, moved by steam, in which men come and go with certainty over thousands of miles of trackless ocean. This is one of the steamers of the great Peninsular and Oriental Company, which, together with other companies, trades through the Suez Canal between Britain and India. You will see, then, that by using steam instead of the wind, by substituting large ships for small, and by cutting the Suez Canal, so that the voyage may be through shorter and generally calmer seas, men have brought London, the capital of the Empire, within less than a month of India, whereas it used to be five months away.

12.
Dalhousie Square, Calcutta.

13.
The Hugli.

14.
Madras from the Sea.

15.
Arrival of the Viceroy at Madras.

16.
Bombay Rampart.

We have seen that the modern capitals of India are the sea-ports. In no age before this dared men place their great cities on the open coast, for they were exposed to attack there by pirates as well as foreign enemies. The present capitals of India are therefore new towns. Calcutta is on a strip of low ground beside the bank of the River Hugli. Only 200 years ago it was a small village. Yet here to-day is a stately city, and in the river are ships from all parts of the world. Madras was a stretch of open surf-beaten coast 270 years ago, but to-day it has half-a-million people, and a harbour of stone piers built far out into the sea to break the force of the waves, so that great ships may land their passengers and cargoes in calm water. Bombay, also, some 240 years ago was an unimportant islet with only some 10,000 inhabitants, and to-day, as you know, it is a city which rivals Calcutta in its wealth and grandeur. Karachi has grown similarly from a much later beginning on an utterly sterile desert coast.

17.
Queen’s Memorial, Bombay.

18.
Bombay Harbour.

In these Lectures we are going to make a visit to the British Isles, the land in all the world which, after our own land of India, should be of the greatest interest to us, for it is the centre of the Empire to which we owe so much. We may start on our voyage from any one of the five great ports of India: Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, Karachi, or Rangoon, and we shall naturally leave by that port which is most conveniently placed with reference to the particular part of India in which we live. If we sail from Bombay we will visit before we start the monument of the great Queen Victoria, who for more than 60 years ruled both India and England.

19.
Out at Sea, Deck scene.

20.
Saloon of P. and O. Steamer.

21.
Engines of P. and O. Steamer.

22.
P. and O. Steamer—a State Room.

A mail steamer upon the ocean is now like a great moving hotel, which goes from port to port with wonderful punctuality. Here you have a scene on deck when out at sea. And here is the saloon with the tables set for the dinner of several hundred people. Nor must we forget to look at the engines, which turn the heat of burning coal into power equal to that of ten thousand horses. And, lastly, we will glance into a private cabin and see the comfortable berth. All this is very different from the rough voyage of only fifty years ago.

Of steamers altogether—some of them fast mail boats, some slow cargo boats—the British Empire possesses for ocean-going purposes 9,000. These are parts of the Empire just as much as the land. Therefore you must think of the British Empire as consisting of many countries, which, together, make one-fifth of all the land in the world; and you must think of it as consisting also of these 9,000 steamers upon the ocean, which, as you know, measures three-fourths of the surface of the globe. The whole Empire—lands, ships, and people—is protected by the British Navy upon the ocean, and by the Army distributed through the British lands.

23.
Colombo Harbour and Breakwater.

24.
Colombo Harbour, North-West Breakwater in progress.

25.
Colombo Harbour, Diver at work.

26.
Colombo Harbour, Blockyard.

But it is not enough to have swift, comfortable ships. Deep, calm harbours are needed, where the great ships may lie close to the land and discharge their burden. Here for instance we have a monument of which British engineers may be proud. This is a view of Colombo Harbour in the Island of Ceylon where the ships gather from Calcutta, and Madras, and Rangoon before they leave the Indian seas. The slide shows the main breakwater, built upon the bed of the sea, which protects shipping from the rough waves of the south-west monsoon. And here we have another view, showing a new part of the breakwater in process of building. Observe the huge block which is being lowered by the crane into the sea. Do you note that the crane itself is movable upon wheels, which run upon two pairs of rails? Next we have the diver descending to his work, with his head in a helmet, into which air is pumped from above. He has to prepare the bed on which the great blocks of concrete are laid. Lastly, we have the blocks shown in the blockyard stored ready for use.

Before we start on our voyage, we will cable to our friends in London, telling them to expect us. The electric cables are a very important part of the British Empire, although they lie two and three miles deep on the ocean bottom. Indian students and others who happen to have no friends in London are welcomed and introduced by the Northbrook Society or by the National Indian Association. The address of the first is 185, Piccadilly, London, and of the second Caxton Hall, Westminster.

27.
Forest Scene in Ceylon.

28.
Aden from the Sea.

29.
Aden, the Tanks.

Now let us go on our journey. We are traversing the ocean in a mail steamer; we leave Colombo or Bombay or Karachi and steam westward into the Gulf of Aden. Here we have one of the most remarkable contrasts of climate to be found in the world. In Ceylon or at Bombay rain and heat combine to produce a luxuriant tropical vegetation capable of supporting much human and animal life. There are other countries—and we are going to traverse some of them—which although hot enough, have little rain. Let us realise this contrast; for in taking a voyage from Colombo or Bombay to Aden we go from a well watered country to one which lacks water. Here is a scene in Ceylon, showing the rank vegetation which results from tropical heat and monsoon rains. Here, on the other hand, is the British fortress of Aden. It rains on an average in Aden only once in several years, but when it does rain it rains very hard, and these great tanks were constructed to gather the water from the naked rocky slopes around, and to store it for use in the next few years. You see that two or three shrubs are grown as curiosities beside the tank. But as Aden grew into a populous settlement the tanks were not sufficient for the wants of the people. The British distil fresh water from the sea.

30.
Bumboats at Aden.

Aden is a British fortress. It is not an island, but it is the next thing to an island—it is a peninsula. It is therefore easily defended by warships on the sea. The narrow isthmus connecting it to the mainland has been fortified.

31.
Routes from India to Suez.

32.
The Suez Canal.

So we pursue our journey until we come to Suez. This map shows you the routes from India across the Western Indian Ocean and up the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea to Suez, at the entrance to the Suez Canal. On the right hand we see Mecca marked in the map. Peace on the ocean, the traffic of steamships, and the British station at Aden have rendered the Haj less expensive than it used to be and less dangerous, so that many more Mohammedans now go to Mecca from India. Next we see our steamer in the Suez Canal. The banks are brown and desert, for a shower of rain is very rare, and the whole isthmus is naked rock and sand. The sea way is now continuous from the Red Sea. But the making of the Canal would have been impossible unless there had been fresh water near at hand in Egypt for the nourishment of the workers. The army of workmen who dug the Canal were supplied with sweet water by means of a small canal from the Nile. So you see that the Suez Canal was possible only because of the great river of Egypt, which brings water through the desert from far off sources.

33.
Map of Lower Egypt.

In this map of Lower Egypt you will see named the Gulf of Suez, which is the end of the Red Sea. Up the Red Sea come ships from Aden and the Indian Ocean. Here, on the other hand, is the Mediterranean, through which we shall pass to the Atlantic Ocean. And here is Suez, and the Isthmus of Suez, with the line of the Suez Canal. All that is shown yellow is barren, waterless desert, but the parts tinted with green are fertile and cultivated. As you see from the map, the isthmus is about 100 miles across. Remember that the voyage from Bombay to Britain is some 7,000 miles long—3,500 miles as far as the Canal and 3,500 miles beyond the Canal. Between the Eastern Ocean and the Western Ocean is only the Isthmus of Suez, but this used to compel men to take their ships far south through rough seas, round the Cape of Good Hope.

34.
The Overland Route through the Desert.

Let us, therefore, cross into Egypt, and ask what it is that has made possible this great change in the route of commerce and empire. Before the Canal was cut, but when already steam had been applied to the moving of ships, there were a few years in which passengers and letters were taken by one ship from Bombay to the Isthmus of Suez, and then on by another ship from the other side of the Isthmus to Britain. They were carried across the desert on the backs of camels. Here we have a picture of the thirsty desert. See the bones of a camel which has fallen by the way; the flesh has been picked off by vultures, and the sun and air have dried what remained to cinders. The camel is often called “The Ship of the Desert,” and this camel must have broken down just as ships are sometimes wrecked.

35.
Cairo—The Citadel.

36.
The Road to the Pyramids.

37.
The Pyramids and the Sphinx.

38.
Climbing the Pyramids.

At the end of their desert journey the travellers overland, before the Canal was made, came to the city of Cairo. We see it here with its citadel in the foreground. Notice within the citadel the great Mohammedan mosque with its towering minarets. Cairo is now occupied by the British, and there is freedom of religion for all races, as in every part of the British Empire. Close to Cairo are famous monuments, the Pyramids and the Sphinx, built some six thousand years ago. We see the Pyramids first in the distance as we drive from Cairo along this road. The trees which you see are watered daily, for rain is very rare in Egypt. Here we have arrived at the Pyramids, which are just on the desert edge, because the land watered by the Nile is too valuable for purposes of cultivation to permit of their being placed on fertile ground. The Pyramids and the Sphinx have hardly changed in this intensely dry climate through the space of 6,000 years, although the Sphinx has been partly buried in the sand. In order that you may appreciate the size of the Pyramids let us show a party of tourists climbing the great Pyramid, and note the huge blocks of stone of which it is built.

39.
The Nile Valley in Flood.

And now let us ask the question for which we are making this excursion from the Suez Canal into Egypt. How comes it that here, in the rainless desert, there is fresh water to make possible the cutting of the Suez Canal? It is because the Nile, the river of Egypt, comes from the South beyond the desert. There every summer the rains fall in Abyssinia, and the Egyptian Nile, far away to the north, rises in flood. Here is a view, taken from the edge of the desert at the brink of the valley, in the time of the annual flood. When the water subsides the crops are sown, and presently the harvest is reaped without so much as a shower of rain to aid the growth.

40.
The Assouan Dam.

41.
Opening of the Assouan Dam.

Now, sometimes it happens, as it happens also in India, that the rains fall short in Abyssinia. In such years the Nile brings down to Egypt a much smaller quantity of water. The fertilising flood is small, and there is danger of famine. As a precaution against these droughts, and also to extend the cultivated area some way into the desert, the British have constructed, near the southern end of Egypt, a great dam right across the valley. Here the dam is shown just when it was finished, and before the water had risen behind it. Do you notice beside the dam the canal with locks, by which the river traffic goes up and down notwithstanding the barrier to the flow of water? Do you see also all the openings in the dam to let the water through when it has risen high enough behind the masonry? Let me show you this same dam on the day when it was opened by the Duke of Connaught, brother of the King of England. This is he, wearing a white helmet and with medals and orders on his breast. Beside him are standing the Duchess of Connaught, the Khedive of Egypt, whom you may distinguish by the fez which he wears, and Lord Cromer, the great Englishman who has helped the Khedive to build the dam. You can distinguish Lord Cromer by his tall white hat. The water in the picture has risen to a high level behind the dam, the sluices have just been opened, and the stream is pouring on once more towards the sea. Every year the water now collects behind the dam during the period of flood, and is then let gradually down during the period of low Nile. Thus Egypt is becoming rich because its people are saved from famine, and new land, formerly desert, is brought under cultivation.

42.
Port Said—Coaling.

Let us return to our ship, which is waiting for us at Port Said, the port at the northern end of the Suez Canal. Here is a great mail steamer taking in coal for the remainder of her voyage from India. Is it not wonderful to think of the thousands upon thousands of tons of coal that are dug out of the ground in the British Islands and sent over the seas to drive most of the 9,000 steamers which do the trade of the British Empire?

43.
Map of the Mediterranean.

44.
Malta.

45.
Gibraltar.

And now we have come into the western seas and to the lands of the white man. On leaving Port Said, we steer westward at first, through the Mediterranean Sea. We call at Malta and Gibraltar, which are British ports, like Aden and Colombo. Malta is an island. Here is a view of its harbour, showing the fortifications. But the fortress of Gibraltar is on a peninsula like Aden, and a low isthmus, to the left of the picture, connects it with the mainland. The front of this tall cliff above the isthmus is pierced with galleries, which every here and there come out to the cliff front and allow place for a cannon. So you see that in Europe, as in Asia, the sea power of Britain has islands and little peninsulas for the calling places of its ships. Close to Gibraltar was fought Trafalgar, the most celebrated of British victories at sea.

46.
Map of Western Europe.

47.
In the Bay of Biscay.

We pass through the Strait of Gibraltar, which is only eight miles across, and has Europe visible on the one hand and Africa on the other. Now we emerge from the Mediterranean and steering northward round the western lands of Europe, we at last approach the British Isles. We cross the Bay of Biscay, a part of the broad Atlantic. Huge billows often roll in from the ocean, and play with our great steamer as a child plays with a toy, yet there is a busy traffic of ships on these wide waters.

But there was a time when Britain had no Colonies, and consisted only of British Islands. There were then fewer people in Britain than there are now, and the English Channel, up which we are to sail, protected the British people from invasion by enemies, so they were able to develop the government and the freedom which have since helped Britain to give peace and to give justice through so large a part of the world.

48.
Eddystone Lighthouse.

As we steer into the home waters of Britain, the first object we see is a famous lighthouse, built on the dangerous Eddystone rocks, ten miles away from the coast of England. You will notice that there is also the stump of an older lighthouse. The waves of the ocean are sometimes very terrible, and this is the fourth lighthouse which has had to be built on these rocks. Britain is surrounded by several score of lighthouses placed upon all the dangerous points round its shores.

49.
Map of the Straits of Dover and the Thames Estuary.

Passing Eddystone, we may call at Plymouth to land some of our passengers, who will hurry to London by train. But we will proceed up the English Channel. Off Dover we turn north and round the promontory of Kent, with cliffs of white chalk on our left hand. Entering the broad estuary of the Thames we are soon off Gravesend, having passed Chatham, one of the chief stations of the Navy. At Gravesend we shall probably have to anchor for a short time, because the river is tidal and is deep enough for large vessels only at high water.

50.
Channel Boat approaching Dover.

51.
Dover—Admiralty Pier, S.S. “Pas de Calais” unloading.

52.
Dover—Admiralty Pier, S.S. “Queen” loading the Indian Mails.

Dover, seen from our deck quite clearly as we came past it, is a place of much interest to those who live in the East. You know that nowadays the letters from India and the neighbouring lands are not carried to Britain all the way round by sea past Gibraltar, but are landed at a Mediterranean port and brought across Europe by rail. They cannot enter England, however, without once more being placed upon a steamer—this time a small packet, which rapidly crosses the twenty miles of water between Britain and the Continent, known as the Straits of Dover. You can see across the Straits of Dover. There are white cliffs which glisten in the sunshine on both sides. Here is one of the Channel steamers unloading at Dover pier. Do you see the railway train drawn up alongside? It is about to leave for London. Notice the crane lifting baggage from the steamer to the train, so that there may be as little delay as possible. Here is another Channel steamer at Dover. She is just about to leave for the Continent. The railway train has arrived—a whole van, less the wheels, is being raised on the crane and placed on the steamer. It is full of baggage, and is lifted thus to save time—for every minute is worth money. Some hundred bags of mails have to be carried on to the vessel. Think of the many, many thousand letters written every week in Britain which are going to the East—to India and to Ceylon, to the Straits Settlements and Hong Kong and Mauritius.

53.
Gravesend—Shipping waiting for the Tide.

54.
Sunset near Gravesend.

55.
The same ten minutes later.

Let us now go back to our steamer. The tide turns, and we leave Gravesend, passing slowly up the river towards London. The scene is often very animated at Gravesend, as several score of vessels, great and small, get up their anchors and begin to move with the running stream. Sometimes as you look westward up the Thames in the evening, the light in the sky is magnificent, for the clouds are dense with smoke. You must remember that this city of 7,000,000 people has a cold winter, and each room has a place for a fire to keep its inhabitants warm. By good fortune we have been able to photograph such a sunset from the hill above Gravesend. Do you see the river shining on the dark ground below? Here is the same sunset taken ten minutes later. These two slides have not been painted with a brush according to an artist’s imagination, they have been photographed in colour, and they are absolutely true in their effect.

56.
Arrival in Dock.

57.
Welcome on Deck.

58.
Landing.

59.
Steamers in Dock.

At last we enter one of the docks which receive ships from the river at high tide. The dock gates are closed behind us, so that when the tide falls in the river our steamer will remain afloat beside the wharf. We see here the great vessel being pushed slowly into her berth by steam tugs which were waiting for her. And here we have a scene on deck when the gangways have been opened to the shore, and friends have come on board to welcome our British fellow-passengers, many of them returning home after years of absence. Now we set foot on land, and run by train past miles of houses until we come into the centre of the vast city, and reach our hotel. Meantime the captain of the ship and the crew have gone to their homes, and the great ship lies at rest in the dock—silent after her long voyage.

We will unpack our trunks and sleep for a night before we go into the streets of London to see the metropolis of the Empire.

LECTURE II.

LONDON, THE IMPERIAL CITY.

1.
Areas of India and the British Isles compared.

Before we set out through the largest and most populous city of the world, let us consider what it is that we are going to look at. Let us try to understand the size of the United Kingdom and of London by comparing them with India and its chief cities. First we have a map showing the area of the British Isles compared with the area of India. We see that the British Isles are small as compared with India; but they have a far more dense population. There are more than twice as many people to the square mile in the United Kingdom than there are in India. This is due to the fact that the people of India live for the most part in villages, whereas in the United Kingdom the majority of the people live in the cities. In India only about ten per cent. of the whole population live in towns with more than five thousand inhabitants.

2.
Populations of London, Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Delhi, Rangoon, and Karachi compared.

Now let us compare the populations of our chief Indian cities with that of London. We have here circles which represent by their areas the population of London on the one hand, and on the other hand of Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, Delhi, Rangoon, and Karachi. We see at a glance that London has a population greater than the combined population of all these great cities.

We notice the words “Greater London” round the black circle. London may be measured in three ways, for it consists of three zones, one within the other. In the centre there is the oldest part, the City of London, which is now the chief place of business. Round the city there has grown up, in the course of centuries, a great ring of population known as Inner London. Outside this again, there has sprung up of recent years a still wider zone of suburbs, which is called Outer London. These three, the City, Inner London and Outer London, together make Greater London.

3.
Areas of London and Calcutta compared.

4.
Areas of London and Bombay compared.

5.
Areas of London and Madras compared.

We will next consider how much space the seven million people of London take. On this slide we have two little maps, of which the lower shows in pink the ground covered by the houses of London, and above we have Calcutta shown in like manner. In the next slide the map of the houses of London is repeated, but the outline above is that of Bombay, set on its island between the harbour and the ocean. Lastly, we have a comparison of the area of London with that of Madras. In proportion to its population Madras covers a large area, for as you know there are several spaces within it planted with trees and without houses, but even Madras is small as compared with London.

6.
The London Docks.

Now let us start on our way through the town. The chief feature of London is the River Thames. The time was when London was only a small village on the banks of the Thames. To-day the Thames is the harbour of London, the greatest port in the world. Let us go on a little steamer along the river, and let us begin with the docks. An immense quantity of food is needed to feed seven million people. Great quantities of coal are required to keep them warm in their cold winter, and to supply gas and electricity during their long winter nights. Much material is, of course, also required for the construction of their houses and public buildings. Of all these commodities a large part is brought in by sea, and is discharged in the docks. You will remember that at the end of the last Lecture we told how the water is held up in the docks, even when the tide falls in the river. Many of the smaller steamers, however, do not go into the docks. They are able to lie in the river itself and rise and fall with the tide.

7.
The Tower Bridge.

When we leave the docks and proceed up the river, we come presently to a bridge, the nearest to the sea of many bridges which carry roads and railways over the Thames. This is the Tower Bridge. It is a very striking object, visible in any distant view of London, for as you see it is borne on two lofty piers, between which there is an upper and a lower way. The upper way is used by foot passengers when the lower way is lifted, as in the slide, to allow of the passage of ships with masts.

8.
London Bridge.

But, though the Tower Bridge is so remarkable a structure you must remember that it is only new. The most celebrated bridge in London, perhaps in the world, is called London Bridge. It stands next above the Tower Bridge. Two thousand years ago there was no London; where the houses are now were then forests and marshes. Some seventeen hundred years ago the first London Bridge was built; it was rebuilt afterwards more than once; but no second bridge was put over the River Thames to connect the north and the south of London until a century and a half ago. For all those centuries there was one London Bridge. By means of this Bridge the traffic of the south of England crossed the Thames to the north. But London Bridge stopped the ships coming up from the sea and prevented them from going further into the land, because in early days men could only build small arches for a bridge, and these were neither broad enough nor high enough for sea-going ships. So it was that London grew round London Bridge, for here was not only the lowest bridge on the river but also the most inland point to which sea-going ships could ascend. It was an important place, therefore, both for land traffic and for water traffic.

9.
The Tower of London.

On the north bank of the river, a little below London Bridge, the Kings of England in old time built a fortress to defend the town, and also to keep its population in order. This fortress is still standing, although against modern weapons it would now be useless. It is known as the Tower of London, and is a very interesting old place, quiet and silent amid the noisy metropolis around. The King’s Crown and Coronation jewels are kept here.

10.
The River below London Bridge.

The Tower Bridge is so called because it crosses the river beside the Tower of London. Here we have a view taken from London Bridge, looking down the busy river to the Tower Bridge. You can just see the Tower of London on the left hand.

11.
Plan of Greater London.

On this slide we have shown again the map of the space covered by the houses of Greater London. The red indicates the area of the houses and streets. The green marks the pieces of tree-covered ground known as parks, which have been retained for the pleasure and health of the people of London. Note the River Thames, like a very broad street, winding through the midst of the town. Note also the docks branching from the river, and the bridges across it. Here, marked with their names, are the two lowest of the bridges—the Tower Bridge and London Bridge. You observe that there are no bridges lower than these, and that all the docks open below bridge. Do you see that London Bridge is still almost exactly in the centre of London? At first the river curved through forests and marshes; then there grew up a little town beside the bridge; that town went on growing larger and larger until it is now as large as a small country. But the head of the sea navigation is still at London Bridge, and the vast metropolis extends in all directions round its harbour. Each day there enter some 700 ships from all parts of the world, many of them from the coasts of England itself, but some from the most distant lands—from America, Africa, the East, and Australia.

12.
Greater London with Central London marked off.

13.
Central London with the City boundaries.

You see this rectangular space marked off on the map of Greater London? I am next going to give you a map, on a larger scale, of the central and most important part of London; it is contained within the rectangle. Here it is, with the boundary of the City of London shown in red upon it. We see the chief streets, and we are able to mark out the route which we are going to take. We start from the Tower and the Tower Bridge; we pass beneath London Bridge, with the City, the chief business centre, on our right hand; we go under several more bridges and arrive at Westminster, where Parliament sits and the King-Emperor is crowned; then we land, drive past Buckingham Palace, where the King lives, and so to the chief parks. Turning eastward again we return through Trafalgar Square to St. Paul’s Cathedral, which is the Cathedral of London; finally we reach the Bank of England, in the centre of the City, and come back to London Bridge, from whose neighbourhood we started. The whole round measures about eight miles, and yet, as you will remember, the map upon which we have traced it is but the central and smaller part of London.

14.
Waterloo Bridge and Somerset House.

It would tire you were I to attempt to show all the bridges under which we pass, but there is one which we must not omit. This is Waterloo Bridge, architecturally the finest bridge in London, perhaps the finest of all the buildings in London. The road, as you see, is quite level, and it is carried upon a series of great stone arches. The bridge is called Waterloo Bridge because it was completed soon after the Battle of Waterloo. As we go through London you will find that there are two famous battles—the Battle of Waterloo on the land, and the Battle of Trafalgar on the sea—which are constantly remembered by Englishmen. They were fought ninety and a hundred years ago. Because Britain was victorious in them the British Empire exists to-day. Therefore these battles and the men who fought them are deemed worthy of commemoration in the metropolis of the Empire. Beyond Waterloo Bridge we see on the slide a fine building known as Somerset House, the office into which the taxes of the people of England are paid for the government of the country.

15.
The Embankment at Waterloo Bridge.

16.
Cleopatra’s Needle and Somerset House.

17.
The Thames Embankment.

18.
The Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey.

19.
Westminster Abbey from Dean’s Yard.

Here we have one of the arches of Waterloo Bridge, spanning the riverside road which is known as the Thames Embankment. The traffic from north to south is carried, as you see, over the bridge, while that from east to west passes under it. Here we have yet another view of the Embankment, with Somerset House and Waterloo Bridge in the distance. We can see Somerset House better in this view, because the bridge is not in the way. In the foreground we have Cleopatra’s Needle, a single piece of stone as high as a tower. It was brought from Egypt in a specially built ship, having been presented to the Queen of England by a former Khedive of Egypt. The next slide shows the bend of the river, with the Embankment beside it. You see the trees planted along the road—they are green in the summer, but in winter the leaves fall and they are black. In the distance, showing over the housetops, is the great dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral. At last we reach Westminster, and look across the water to two of the chief buildings of London, the Houses of Parliament and Westminster Abbey. The Houses of Parliament were erected in the beginning of the reign of Queen Victoria, but Westminster Abbey was built more than 600 years ago. We have here a view of the Abbey from the land side.

20.
The King opening Parliament—the State Coach.

21.
The same—the Procession.

22.
The Coronation in Westminster Abbey.

Westminster is the centre of the Empire. Here at the beginning of his reign the King is crowned. Here each year he opens the Session of Parliament. Let us see something of the splendid pageants which take place at Westminster on these occasions. This, for instance, is the King driving in the Coach of State, with the Queen beside him. And here is a photograph of the procession through the streets at the opening of Parliament.

23.
The same, another view.

24.
The King and Queen at the opening of Parliament.

25.
His Majesty the King.

Next we have the Coronation in Westminster Abbey, and in another slide a more general view of the interior of the Abbey on that great day when his present Majesty, the Emperor-King, Edward VII., was crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury, in the presence of the chief men of the Kingdom, and of the Empire, and of visitors from all parts of the world. The picture is taken at the moment when the Crown, the emblem of royal authority, is being placed upon the King’s head. In his hand he holds the Sceptre. In the next slide we have the King and Queen Alexandra seated upon the throne at the opening of Parliament, and then follows a portrait of the King in the Robes of State.

26.
Westminster Abbey—Poets’ Corner.

After the solemn state of these great ceremonies, we will return for a moment when the Abbey is empty, and look, not at living people, but at the monuments which record the famous men who in the past have helped to make the British Empire. This is called the Poets’ Corner. Here in this particular corner of the Abbey are gathered together the monuments of the men who have written. By inspiring the British race with noble ideas they have helped to make the Empire no less than have the victors of Trafalgar and Waterloo. All the Abbey is full of monuments—in other parts of it you will find record of the statesmen who have given counsel to our Kings and Queens, and of the soldiers and sailors who have fought for them. Here, too, are the monuments of Viceroys of India.

27.
The Houses of Parliament from Whitehall.

Let us cross the road to the Houses of Parliament, first glancing at them once more from the outside. We see the two lofty towers, visible, when the weather is clear, from every hill round London. This is the Victoria Tower, named after Queen Victoria, and this is the Clock Tower. When Parliament is sitting by day a flag is flown from the Victoria Tower, and when it sits after dark a powerful electric light shines from the Clock Tower, so that all men may know that laws are being made for the government of the Empire.

28.
Westminster Hall—Interior.

We will enter the building through Westminster Hall, which was part of the Old Westminster Palace of the Kings of England. Set round it are statues of our past Kings and Queens. Formerly the Parliament met to give counsel, and the Judges sat to give justice, in the King’s Palace, but in more recent times the business of the country has become so great that it cannot well be housed in a single building. The Palace of Westminster has, therefore, been given wholly to Parliament, and has been rebuilt, except for this splendid Hall, which has been preserved.

29.
House of Lords—Interior.

30.
House of Commons during Debate.

Let us pass on, and look for a moment into the House of Lords in the morning when it is empty, and the sun is shining through the windows. Here is the throne upon which the King sits when he opens the session of Parliament each year. Parliament consists of two bodies of men, who are known as the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The Lords are the great dignitaries of the realm—the chief landowners, merchants, lawyers, and bishops. The Commons, on the other hand, though many of them are rich and clever men, do not help to make the laws because of their position in the State, but because they are elected by the people of England to tell the King what the people wish for. Here is one of the most celebrated of Englishmen, the late Mr. Gladstone, speaking in the Commons as the King’s Prime Minister. It is the Prime Minister’s duty each evening to tell the King what the Commons have said, and so, though the King is not there, the King and the Commons work together for the government and peace of the Empire.

31.
Cabinet Council.

These two large assemblies, the Lords and the Commons—each of them containing several hundred men—could not conduct the detailed business of the country. A small number of them, therefore, are chosen to be the King’s Ministers, and the Ministers form a Committee or Council, which is called the Cabinet. Here is a picture of a Cabinet Meeting. It meets privately; no one knows what the Cabinet says in its discussions—we only know what it decides to do. Presiding over the particular Cabinet shown in this picture is another great Englishman, now dead, the late Lord Salisbury. Among the other Ministers you will see Lord George Hamilton, who was at the time Secretary of State for India.

32.
The Treasury.

33.
The Admiralty.

34.
The Foreign Office.

35.
The Law Courts.

Near to the Houses of Parliament are the offices of the various Ministers. They are large and handsome buildings, for each Minister has a staff of officials under him. Here, for instance, is the Treasury, where the finances of the country are managed. And here is the Admiralty, whence the British Navy in all parts of the world is controlled by means of telegraphic messages. Here, seen from one of the parks, is the fine building in which are housed both the India Office and the Colonial Office. The part of it to the left hand, with the tower, contains the Foreign Office, where business is transacted between the British Empire and foreign countries. The India Office is at this right-hand corner. The Prime Minister lives in a house opposite to the door of the Foreign Office, in a little street called Downing Street, and the Government is, therefore, often spoken of simply as Downing Street. Finally, we have the Law Courts, which, until lately were in the Palace at Westminster.

36.
St. James’s Palace.

37.
Buckingham Palace.

38.
Her Majesty, Queen Victoria, with her Son, Grandson, and Great-Grandson.

The Palaces of the King are only a short way from the Abbey and the Houses of Parliament. Here is St. James’s Palace, where the Sovereign sometimes holds great receptions of his subjects. Do you see the sentry at the door? He is one of the King’s Guards, a chosen body of soldiers, who remain near the King’s Palaces, except when they are sent out of the country to take part in foreign wars. Here is Buckingham Palace, where the King lives when he is in London. Behind it there is a large garden. Remember, however, that great as he is, the King is a man, just as we are. He is a father and a grandfather, and he had a mother, our beloved Queen and Empress Victoria. In this picture we have four generations of the Royal Family of England; Queen Victoria, who was our Sovereign, King Edward VII., who is our Sovereign, the Prince of Wales, who will be King after his father, and the little Prince Edward of Wales—destined, we hope, some day to ascend the throne of his ancestors. It is the throne of one-fifth of all the world.

39.
The Crowd at the Funeral of Queen Victoria.

40.
Police regulating Traffic.

41.
A Policeman.

From the King let us turn to his people. Here is a crowd of the people of London, gathered in the Park when Queen Victoria was taken to be buried. It was a mighty, silent crowd, never to be forgotten by those who saw it. Of course there are some people in the great crowds of London, as of all other places, who are bad and disorderly, but in general the people of London obey the Law. Here, for instance, we have a busy point where four streets meet. Two policemen control the traffic, now letting this stream of carriages pass, and now that. Often a driver is in haste, but when the policeman raises his hand, the driver silently waits until he has leave to proceed. Only in this way could seven millions of people live together and do their business. The policemen of London are a fine body of strong men, who very rarely lose their tempers or presence of mind, whatever the sudden difficulty with which they may be faced. Here is one of them politely telling the way to an enquiring stranger. You see that he carries no firearms, yet there are only about 20,000 police to manage all these people.

42.
Hyde Park—Rotten Row.

43.
St. James’s Park—Children at Play.

44.
The same—Children Fishing.

Perhaps the most beautiful possessions of London are the parks, in which, in the midst of their province of houses, the people take exercise and find health and amusement. None of the other cities of the world—not Paris, or Berlin, or New York, or Peking, or Calcutta—have anything quite similar to the parks of London, for they are not formal gardens or bare parade grounds, but pieces of rural country; and they are not just outside the town, but contained in its midst. This is a celebrated road in Hyde Park, where only horses and no carriages go. It is called Rotten Row. Here we see it on a summer day, when the sun is shining, with men and women upon horseback taking the air. But the parks are not merely for the amusement of the rich people who can afford to keep horses; they are also for the poor.

45.
The Zoological Gardens.

46.
Flowers in the Park.

47.
The Crystal Palace.

48.
St. Thomas’s Hospital.

Here, for instance, we have a picture of children at play, and here another, taken in St. James’s Park, showing children fishing for the little fish that live in the water of the lake. In Regent’s Park there is a Zoological Garden, in which are kept animals from all parts of the world. Here we see a group of children, who, by way of a holiday treat, are having a few moments on the back of an elephant. These parks of London have much money spent upon them, so that the poor people of London have in parts of them gardens to look upon which are as fine as the gardens of rich men. Here, for example, we have a scene among the flowers in Hyde Park. Nor must we forget the Crystal Palace, an immense house of glass, where the people may find amusement in all weathers. Of course there are still large parts of London which are ugly, and completely covered with small houses. In these parts the life of the people in the dark, chilly, wet winter is not very bright. But men are always at work to better these wretched quarters, and gradually they will disappear. To serve the poor who fall ill, a number of large hospitals have been built, and some of these are fine buildings, and well placed. Here, beside Westminster Bridge, is St. Thomas’s Hospital, which faces the Houses of Parliament.

49.
The Imperial Institute and London University.

Now let us consider another aspect of London. To rule an Empire of 300,000,000 people men require skill, and must be educated. Nearly every man and woman in all the seven millions of London can now read and write. There are hundreds of free schools where these things are taught. But the Ministers of the King, and the judges, and the administrators who go out to the Colonies, require greater skill, and for them, and for the doctors and engineers and other learned people, there are Universities. Here is the fine building occupied in part by the Imperial Institute and in part by the University of London. You know of the University of London, because it holds examinations not only in London but also in other parts of the Empire—for instance, in Ceylon.

50.
British Museum—Interior of the Egyptian Room, with Rosetta Stone.

Here we come to another of the great centres of learning in London. This is the British Museum, in which have been gathered historical treasures and documents from all parts of the world. The library of the museum contains more than a million books. In the room that is here shown, you see on the stand in the centre one of the most celebrated of all documents. It is written on a stone, called the Rosetta Stone, because it was found at Rosetta in Egypt. Men have learnt from it—because it is written in two languages side by side—to understand the ancient language of the Egyptians. It is necessary to gather these treasures together in the centre of the Empire in order that learned men may study them conveniently, and compare them with one another, without having to lose time in long journeys.

51.
Trafalgar Square.

Now let us leave Westminster and the West End of the town, and as we drive through the streets towards the City of London, the place of merchants, let us stop on the way for a moment to see some of the chief monuments which record the history of the British Empire. This is Trafalgar Square, named after the greatest victory at sea. Here is the monument of Admiral Lord Nelson, who won the battle and died in the moment of victory. There in the centre, standing upon a smaller column, is a more recent monument, erected in memory of General Gordon, of whom probably you have heard. He fought for China in the Taiping rebellion, and afterwards died for Britain at Khartoum.

52.
St. Paul’s Cathedral—West Front.

53.
St. Paul’s Cathedral—Interior.

54.
Nelson’s Tomb.

55.
Wellington’s Tomb.

Next we come to St. Paul’s Cathedral, of which this is the West Front and the chief entry. Before it is a statue of Queen Anne, one of the Sovereigns of England, who lived 200 years ago. The Cathedral was rebuilt in her reign. Here is the interior, with the sunbeams striking down from the dome. To the left is the tomb of the Duke of Wellington, who won the battle of Waterloo. In the crypt below is also the tomb of Lord Nelson, who saved the Empire in the battle of Trafalgar. Here we have another and nearer view of the tomb of the Duke of Wellington.

56.
The Royal Exchange and the Bank.

We will now drive on to the middle of the City. Here to the left is the Bank of England, the centre of the finance of the Empire. Beside it is the Royal Exchange, on the upper floor of which the insurance of ships at sea is effected. The statue is of the Duke of Wellington, and was erected by the merchants of London. See the dense traffic of carriages, for this is the very heart of the business quarter of London, and it is the busiest time of the day. If you saw this very spot late on a summer’s evening, or if you saw it on a Sunday, the day of rest, you would find it quiet and nearly empty.

57.
View from the Dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral.

Had we climbed just now to the top of St. Paul’s Cathedral and looked eastward over the City, we should have seen in the background the river and the Tower Bridge, but in the foreground the broad roof of Cannon Street Railway Station. There are many railway stations in the City, and for the following reason. The City of London, which measures one square mile, is occupied at night by only 27,000 people. In the daytime there are probably 360,000 people at work in it. These people go out at night to sleep in Outer London, and are brought back in the morning by trains, by omnibuses, and by cabs.

58.
Day and Night Populations of the City.

This diagram shows you clearly the meaning of these facts. The largest (pink) square represents the population of Greater London. The very small (black) square in the centre is the night population of the City. The square (red) of intermediate size represents the number of the people who crowd into the City in the daytime but at night sleep without. So that the City is like a huge pulsating heart, which sends its blood outward through the streets and along the railways at evening, and receives it back in the morning.

59.
Interior of St. Pancras Station.

Finally, we enter one of the chief stations of London, whence the trains start, not only at morning and evening, in and out between the centre and the suburbs, but also on longer journeys past the green farms and busy factories of Britain to the coasts which everywhere surround it. London is only the heart and the brain of the Empire; it could not stand alone, for there is no food grown in it. London is great only because Britain is a productive country and the British Empire is great. Therefore, when we have rested after our sight-seeing in the metropolis, we will go out to the green fields and the smaller towns, and will see what England and Scotland and Ireland are like, for from them have come the men who have made both London and the Empire.

LECTURE III.

THE SCENERY OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

1.
Physical Map of British Isles.

At the close of the last Lecture we found ourselves in one of the chief railway stations of London, from which the railways go out through the open country—twenty different lines in twenty different directions—to end on the coasts around the island of Great Britain. We might, of course, take a train from one of these stations and travel rapidly through the country; but I prefer that you should go another way, by which you will see more. Here, in this map, we have the English Channel, up which our steamer brought us from India. We see the promontory of Kent round which we came; we note the Straits of Dover across which the Indian mails are carried; and we see the Thames, up which we passed into the midst of the great city—to the Tower Bridge and London Bridge.

I now propose taking you up the River Thames beyond London. We will travel up the river almost to its source here in the Cotswold Hills, and we will look from the brink of the hills westward over the country beyond. This will give us a very good idea of the rolling, fertile plain which occupies all the South of England. Then returning to the east again we will follow the coast round from the Fens to Kent, and to the promontory of Cornwall. The rest of Britain may best be seen in two strips. The first begins here in Cornwall and Devonshire, and extends northward through Wales and the Lake District into the east of Scotland. It is mountainous, and has many beautiful wooded landscapes. The second begins in the South and West of Ireland, and extends up the West of Scotland. This also is mountainous, but it is on the edge of the stormy ocean, and is mostly naked and without trees, but has magnificent cliff scenery.

2.
Thames Steamboat on Bank Holiday.

Now let us start on our trip through Britain. Here is a steamboat on the Thames above London. It is crowded with people, for the photograph was taken on a Bank Holiday. On four week-days, and four only, in the year the Banks are closed, and business ceases, while everyone makes holiday. Those who live in the metropolis naturally spend the day outside, among the green fields and on the river banks.

3.
Richmond Bridge.

4.
Richmond—View down the River.

Here is another scene on the Thames. It is near Richmond Bridge. There are holiday makers who prefer to spend their holiday quietly, fishing in the river. Next is a view from Richmond Bridge itself. See the crowd of little boats ready for those who would take their pleasure in that manner.

5.
Magna Charta Island.

We gradually leave the neighbourhood of London and come to quieter reaches of the Thames, where the water is never disturbed by the tide, and rich green meadows edge the silent stream. This is a little island in the river where, seven hundred years ago, Magna Charta was signed—the famous document by which the then King of England granted to his people ways of justice which have been practised ever since. But the island is now merely a little green spot, surrounded by rippling water, upon which a house has been built for the refreshment of passing boat people.

6.
Clieveden.

7.
Nuneham Bridge.

We glide on to places where the woods cover steep slopes and overhang the water. Here, for example, we have such a wooded bank, crowned with the country house of a rich man. And here another wooded scene, with a timber bridge, and a cottage hidden away among the leaves.