ORGANIZATION

ORGANIZATION
HOW ARMIES ARE FORMED FOR WAR

BY
COLONEL HUBERT FOSTER
ROYAL ENGINEERS

LONDON
HUGH REES, Ltd.
119 PALL MALL, S.W.
1911
(ALL RIGHTS RESERVED)

PRINTED AND BOUND BY
HAZELL, WATSON AND VINEY, LD.,
LONDON AND AYLESBURY.

PREFACE

The Author was led to compile this account of Army Organization owing to his inability to discover any book dealing systematically with that subject. Military writers do, of course, make frequent allusions to Organization, but a previous acquaintance with the subject is generally assumed. One looks in vain for an explicit account, either of the principles underlying organization, or of the development of its forms and methods.

It is true that the word Organization figures in the title of more than one Military treatise, but the subject is handled unsystematically and empirically, so that the ordinary reader is unable to realize the significance of the facts. In some cases the term Organization is interpreted in so wide a sense as to include not only Tactics, Staff Duties, and Administration, but any matters of moment to an army. Thus, in the volume of essays recently published, an author of weight states that “Organization for War means thorough and sound preparation for war in all its branches,” and goes on to say, “the raising of men, their physical and moral improvement ... their education and training ... are the fruits of a sound organization.”

In the present work, Organization is taken in a more literal and limited sense. The book would otherwise have tended to become a discussion of every question affecting the efficiency of armies. The intention of the Author is to give in broad outline a general account of Organization for War, and of the psychological principles underlying the exercise of Command, which it is the main purpose of Organization to facilitate.

At the same time the organization discussed is not restricted to that of the British Army, but is that of modern armies in general, as well as of individual armies in particular, that of the British Army being described in greater detail, in Part II.

In Part IV. will be found a sketch of the History of Organization, which should interest any one who, like the Author, is not content with knowing things as they happen to be at present, unless he can trace the steps by which they came to be so.

The subject is intentionally not treated with minuteness of detail. To have made the book a cyclopædia of detailed information about organization would have obscured its purpose. It is hoped that the work may prove useful to the increasing numbers of those who have taken up Military work throughout the Empire, and not uninteresting to general readers, and students of history.

Hubert Foster.

Sydney, June 1910.

CONTENTS

ERRATA

Page 34, line 2, for “Mounted” read “Mountain.”
” 104, line 6, for “lb.” read “oz.” in two places.”
” 141, line 6, for “270” read “240.”
” 183, line 10, for “100” read “1000.”

ABBREVIATIONS

A few abbreviations of familiar military terms have been used. These are:

INTRODUCTION

The Organization which it is the purport of this work to describe is that of Armies in War. The vast subject of Organization in Peace opens out too wide a field. It is necessarily different in every country, being based on national idiosyncrasies, complicated by political, economic, and topographical conditions. These factors, however dominating in peace, have less influence on organization for war. The general features of War Organization are identical in all modern armies, as they represent the consensus of expert opinion, based on the practice of great leaders, and on the lessons learnt from success and failure in recent wars.

There are, of course, many differences in detail, due to the varying historical development of each army. These really indicate the degree to which the conservative sentiments retarding improvement have been bent to the changes necessitated by progress. The strength of tradition and inertia in armies is enormous. No human institutions—not the Law, not even the Church—so cherish ceremonial and reverence tradition and custom, or remain so long blind to changed conditions. In military arrangements the very object of their existence often seems obscured by a haze of unessential conventions. Military methods, once suitable, soon pass into mere forms, which it is considered sacrilegious to modify, however useless or even harmful they have become.

Among scores of examples of the extraordinary conservatism of military organization we may remember that England had no transport organized in the army she landed in the Crimea. We find in Germany Army Corps of two Divisions, Divisions of two Brigades, and Brigades of two Regiments, although two is the worst possible number of parts in a unit, according to Clausewitz and common sense. The twentieth century saw Cuirassiers in France, Rifles in most armies, and the “parade step” in Germany. The protean follies of uniform are only now partially disappearing.

The historical portion of this work shows the curious way in which a new form of organization, designed for a definite end, often loses sight of its purpose and reverts to a mere variety of the old type, which then has to put out a new development for the original end. This is the history of the numerous attempts to provide for Light Infantry duties at the front.

The above considerations account for a number of odd survivals in modern armies, and explain many differences in their organization. These, however, are always tending to diminish under the pressure of the hard facts of war, which have little respect for national prejudices and traditions.

A study of the present British war organization, described in some detail in Part II., will show that it embodies a large number of the changes suggested by recent wars, and demanded by the trend of modern military thought. The British Army is the latest to be reorganized, and the opportunity has been taken, with no less courage than wisdom, to adopt in every Branch all changes tending to fit it better for the fighting of the immediate future, as far as this can be forecast. When the reorganization is completed it is not too sanguine to believe that the British will be the best organized army of the day.

PART I
WAR ORGANIZATION OF THE PRESENT DAY

CHAPTER I
THE OBJECT OF ORGANIZATION

Command

In the British Field Service Regulations of 1909, Part ii., chap. ii., par. 1, it is stated that the main object of War Organization is to provide the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces in the Field with the means of exerting the required influence over the work and action of every individual. This, it is pointed out, will ensure the “combination and unity of effort directed towards a definite object,” on which mainly depends the successful issue of military operations. In other words, the primary object of War Organization is to facilitate Command—that is, to ensure that every man in the force acts promptly in response to the will of the Commander.

A secondary object of War Organization is to facilitate Administration, or the supply of each individual in the Force with all that he requires to make it possible for him not only to live, but to move and fight. If a Force be ill-organized the process of supply will be slow, uncertain, and incomplete, the spirit and health of the men cannot fail to suffer, and the efficiency of the Force as a fighting body to be reduced.

Both these objects of Organization—Command and Administration—are, however, really inseparable. The channels through which they act are identical, and the Authority which commands is necessarily responsible for the Administration which enables his Orders to be carried out. Solicitude for the well-being of the soldier is one of the most certain means for obtaining influence over him, and may be called the main lever for exercising Command. Some further consideration of the psychological factors of Command, which are essentially germane to the study of Organization, will be found in Part V. of this work.

Definition of Organization

The word “Organization”—literally, providing a body with organs—has been more elaborately defined, by Herbert Spencer, as “the bringing of independent bodies into independent relations with each other, so as to form a single organic whole in which they all work together.” He goes on to explain this as follows: “In considering the evolution of living forms we find simple, homogeneous, and non-coherent elements developing into a complex, heterogeneous, and coherent whole, an organism controlled by unity of purpose, and comprising a number of functional parts, which work together in mutual dependence for the common good.” This definition applies closely to the organization of military bodies. The elements are represented by the individual soldiers, the functional parts by the units, while in the Army we see the living organism.

Just as in nature no mere assemblage of cells, or even of functional parts, can form a living organism, so no collection of individuals, however efficient—or of small units, however perfect—can in any true sense be called an Army. It might have the appearance of a real military force, but it would only be suited to peace. The means by which it can be made fit for war is Organization, without which it would be little better than an armed mob—inert, or at best irregular and spasmodic in its movements. An ill-organized army is not capable of co-ordinated or of sustained action, owing to the difficulty of either directing its movements or supplying its wants.

The Chain of Command

It is obvious that a Commander of a Military Force cannot deal personally and directly with all those under his command, but only with a limited number of subordinate commanders. Each of the latter in his turn conveys his will to his own subordinates, and this gradually broadening system, called the Chain of Command, is carried on, till every individual of the Force receives his Orders. These Orders are founded on the original directions of the Commander-in-Chief, with modifications and details added by each lower authority in the chain, so as to suit the special circumstances of his own Command.

This principle combines unity of control with decentralization of command and devolution of responsibility. In no other way can ready and effective co-operation of all fractions of the force to a common end be ensured.

Units or Formations of Troops

The method, generally speaking, of War Organization is to provide the links in the chain of Command by a systematic arrangement, in suitable groups, of the various troops composing the Army. The smallest groups, or Units, are combined in larger ones, and these again are built up into more complex bodies, and so on, until the whole Army is formed in a small number of large bodies, whose Commanders receive direct orders from the Supreme Commander.

For want of a general name for these bodies it is usual to speak of them all as Formations. The term Units, which is often used, properly applies only to the elementary groups. The largest Formations are conveniently styled the Subordinate Commands of the Army.

Each category of Formations forms a step in the pyramid of organization, in which the lowest layer is formed by the Units, the top layer by the Subordinate Commands, and the apex by the Supreme Commander. The Commanders of each Formation, from the largest to the smallest, form the successive links in the chain of Command.

All Formations should have such a strength and composition as to be in the best relation and proportion to each other, and to the larger groups which they help to build up. Every Formation should be formed of at least three subordinate Units. This gives the Commander of the whole due importance over his Subordinate Commanders, and ensures his retaining an adequate Command whenever he wishes to detach one of his Units. This would not be the case were there only two Units in the whole, for, if one were detached, the Commander of the whole would be left exercising Command only over the other Unit, already adequately commanded. The Superior Commander would then be superfluous, and harmfully interfering with his subordinate. A Formation with three or more Units can be readily broken up when desired, without affecting the principles of Command, and is therefore more flexible and efficient than one with only two Units. Emphasis is laid on this point by Clausewitz in his classic work “On War.”

It is the purpose of the next few chapters to describe the Units and Formations constituted in modern armies. But, in order to explain the reasons which have dictated their strength and composition, it is necessary first to describe the various kinds of Troops which go to make up an Army, and their respective methods of fighting, and functions in war. Organization exists to facilitate fighting, and cannot be explained without some discussion of Tactics.

CHAPTER II
THE FIGHTING TROOPS

Military Forces are of two distinct categories: Fighting Troops, which carry out the actual operations; Administrative Services, whose function is to provide the Fighting Troops with all that they require to keep up their strength and efficiency.

The Arms of the Service

The Fighting Troops consist mainly, as they have for centuries, of what are known as “The Three Arms of the Service”—Cavalry, Artillery, and Infantry. Besides these, however, the introduction of warlike inventions and the increased complexity of modern war have brought into being a fourth Arm—Engineers—as well as varieties of fighting troops for special purposes, which are virtually new Arms, such as Mountain Artillery, Machine Guns, Cyclists, and Mounted Infantry.

Characteristics of the Arms

The continued existence of the Arms of the Service for centuries is due to a gradual differentiation of their mode of fighting, owing to changes in weapons, and progress in the Art of War. Each Arm has its peculiar fighting characteristics and its own sphere of action in war, which will be discussed in this chapter. In the next will be described the organization which each Arm has evolved in order to enable it to carry out its functions in war.

1. CAVALRY

ITS SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

Cavalry has been termed “The Arm of Surprise,” owing to the rapidity with which it can move. This gives it the power to act with little warning, and from an unexpected direction, against the enemy, and thus to take advantage of the fleeting opportunities which occur in war for sudden attack and surprise. It is par excellence the mobile Arm, and the one best adapted for taking the offensive.

Its power of making long and rapid marches enables it also to be thrown far to the front, so as to give to the Army protection from surprise, and to gain the information as to the movements and dispositions of the enemy, without which the Commander will be at a loss in forming his plans.

Cavalry is required too for the effective pursuit of a beaten foe who would elude the slow-moving Infantry. It is also the best Arm to cover a retreat, as it can check the pursuit and then effect a rapid withdrawal before being completely over-powered.

ITS WEAK POINTS

The disadvantage of Cavalry is that it is very dependent on the nature of the country for its action. It is useless in steep, rocky, or marshy ground, or among enclosures, and in woods. Cavalry is also costly to raise, and requires long training for efficiency. It suffers too from great wastage of horses in war, due to unavoidable fatigue, short rations, and bad weather, from which causes horses suffer even more than men.

ITS MODE OF FIGHTING

In the combat, Cavalry acts both by shock and by fire, the latter action being now more developed than of old. Indeed the main difference between the horse-soldiers of the different armies of to-day is whether their training is directed rather to mounted shock-action, or to fire-action dismounted; in the latter case, their rapidity of movement is mainly helpful in getting them to the right place at the right time to use their fire. The ideal Cavalry would be equally capable of shock and fire action, and could be employed either mounted or dismounted, as circumstances and the judgment of the leader might dictate. The British is perhaps the only Cavalry (as General Négrier, Chief of the French General Staff, once said) which is trained to this ideal. The Cavalry of Russia, Japan, and the United States tends rather to action by fire on foot; that of most Continental armies to shock action mounted.

EMPLOYMENT OF CAVALRY IN WAR

The use of Cavalry in modern war lies less in its action on the battlefield than in the all-important work of reconnoitring the enemy, and protecting its own army—that is, of providing Information and Security. The tendency of the employment of Cavalry in modern war is towards an entire separation of these two duties.

For the first duty, Reconnaissance, Cavalry must try to find out the strength and situation of the enemy’s forces, and the direction in which they are moving. For the second duty, Protection, Cavalry must form a screen along the front of the Army, so as to shelter it from being observed by the enemy’s Cavalry, and to give early notice of the direction of any attack.

These two duties of Cavalry cannot be performed by the same body. To get information Cavalry must be able to break through the enemy’s screen, which can only be effected by beating his Cavalry, and requires concentration of force. Reconnoitring Cavalry will often also have to work round the flanks of the enemy. Both these modes of action must necessarily leave a large portion of the front of its own army uncovered.

On the other hand, protection demands a dispersion of the Cavalry along the whole front of the Army, which is exactly opposed to the concentration generally required for effective reconnaissance.

Again, reconnoitring Cavalry is only concerned with keeping in touch with the enemy, while protective Cavalry must remain in touch with its own army.

The distinction between these functions of Reconnaissance and Protection has become recognized of late years, owing to the increased importance of the Strategical direction of the large masses of troops now in the field, which are not easily diverted when once set in motion, and are more than ever dependent on their Lines of Communication. Their Commander needs constant and recent information about the enemy, by which to direct his movements and secure his flanks from attack. Hence has arisen the practice of providing two distinct bodies of Cavalry—the Independent Cavalry, for reconnaissance by independent action at a distance in front of the Army; and the Protective Cavalry, spread over a wide area along the front of the Army so as to form a screen.

In both cases the Cavalry effect the object by sending out squadrons, which furnish patrolling parties. The duty of these is not only to discover the enemy’s movements, but to make such arrangements for transmitting the information gained that it shall reach Head-Quarters with rapidity and certainty.

2. ARTILLERY

Artillery is the most powerful and far-reaching of the Arms in its fire effect, but cannot act by shock. It is the only Arm that can strike the others at such a distance that they cannot retaliate, and can injure material objects. Its morale is less liable than that of the other Arms to fail in battle, as Artillery is more dependent on the mechanical than the human element for its action. The guns, too—to which the personnel is attached by sentiment and duty—give a definite point to hold to when other troops are falling back. It is on all these grounds a valuable auxiliary to the other Arms.

DISADVANTAGES OF ARTILLERY

Artillery, however, is incapable of independent action—it must always be associated with the other Arms, as it is easily avoided or turned, and, when moving, is helpless against attack. It takes up a great deal of space in the column of march, as well as on the battlefield, where it requires advantageous positions to fire from, and cover for its horses and ammunition, both often difficult to find. Artillery is also very dependent on the weather and the nature of the country for its action, as it requires clear air and good light, and an absence of hills and woods, to allow the object and the effect of its fire to be observed. It also needs good roads, and is more obstructed by mud, ice, or snow on the march than are the other Arms.

3. ENGINEERS

Engineers, as a body of officers with men, were only introduced towards the end of the eighteenth century, but officers of that name had been employed for centuries on the Staff of Armies, especially at Sieges.

The Engineers are now sometimes styled “The Fourth Arm of the Service,” not so much because they are Combatant Troops, armed and trained like Infantry, as because their work on the battlefield is of interesting tactical importance.

The work with which Engineers with an Army in the Field are charged presents great scope and variety. It may be catalogued under the following headings:

(a) WORK WITH THE FIGHTING TROOPS

Pioneer Work on the march—i.e. making roads and removing obstacles; water supply; bridging of every sort; collecting, making, and using boats and rafts for ferrying.

Field Work on the battlefield—i.e. clearing the communications and field of fire; marking ranges; demolitions; obstacles; special earth-work (ordinary trench-work and gun-pits being made by the troops who use them).

Searchlights in the field.

Inter-communication Work—i.e. use of telegraphs, telephones, wireless, visual signalling, kites, captive balloons.

Aviation by balloon or airship.

Printing and lithography for Orders and Maps.

(b) WORK IN REAR OF THE FIGHTING TROOPS

Engineers are also charged with the following important work on the Lines of Communication:

Construction, repair, maintenance, and working of railways and telegraphs; provisional fortification of posts; camping grounds; formation of workshops and depôts of Engineer Stores; hutting and housing troops; providing hospitals, offices, and storehouses; water supply; roads. At sea bases, piers, wharves, and tramways will have to be provided, and perhaps dredging undertaken, and buoys, beacons, and lighthouses kept up. Engineers will also have to run any plant needed, such as that for providing ice for hospitals, cold storage, electric light and power, gas for balloons and lighting.

Engineers are employed in surveying, or mapping the country passed through by the Army, when this is required in the wilder theatres of operations, like the Indian Frontier.

Besides their duties with the Field Army, Engineers are as necessary as ever for the conduct of Sieges, and the defence of Fortresses, in which services they have constantly been employed for centuries.

4. INFANTRY

Infantry, now the principal Arm, has in modern times recovered the place which it held in the armies of the Ancient World, but lost in the Middle Ages when Horsemen were the Men-at-Arms, or the only fighting men worth considering.

Infantry has for three centuries formed the bulk of every army, being the easiest to raise and train, and the cheapest to equip and keep up, as well as the most useful, of all the Arms. On Infantry falls the brunt of the fighting, and the greatest toil in marching, while it endures the hardships of a campaign better than the mounted Arms. It can be used for attack or defence, in close or extended order, on any ground, and in any weather. Infantry can fight with its fire, at a distance from the enemy, like Artillery, as well as by shock, at close quarters, like Cavalry.

But Infantry is slow in movement, and without Cavalry cannot ascertain the operations of the enemy, and will therefore be ill-directed in its own; it is helpless in pursuit, and unable either to complete a victory or cover a retreat. The action, too, of Infantry fire is limited to the range of the rifle and the effect of the bullet, so that it finds in Artillery a useful auxiliary, owing to the greater effect of fire from guns, and the distance at which they can act. Hence Infantry is greatly assisted in its fighting by associating it with Cavalry and Artillery, just as Cavalry is aided by association with Artillery. It is essential, therefore, that not only every Army, but every Body of Troops which may have to fight independently, should have a due proportion of all Arms. This is the reason for organizing Armies in the higher Formations, provided with more than one Arm, as contrasted with the Units composed of one Arm only. The latter, however, are the basis of the higher Formations, and their composition and strength must be considered before describing how they are grouped into larger bodies. Therefore the Organization of the Units of each Arm will form the subject of the next chapter.

CHAPTER III
ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITS OF EACH ARM

The formations in which each Arm is independently organized constitute the tactical units of an Army. Their strength and organization are intimately connected with the way in which they are used in fighting, and have varied little since armies first became regularly organized.

The general composition of these Units of each Arm in modern armies will now be described, beginning with Infantry, the principal Arm.

1. INFANTRY

Infantry, as will be seen in the historical portion of this work, used to be of various natures, such as Guards, Grenadiers, Fusiliers, Rifles, and Light Infantry, which still survive, but as names only. Napoleon said he wanted but one sort of Infantry, and that good Infantry. This aspiration may now be realized. All Infantry, however designated, is of one kind only, and works in the same manner in war.

The formations of Infantry are the Company, the Battalion, the Regiment, and the Brigade.

THE COMPANY

The Company, with its three officers—Captain, Lieutenant, and Ensign—and its Sergeants and Corporals, has been for centuries the foundation stone of the organization of Infantry. Its Chief, the Captain, is the officer with whom the men are most intimately associated, as he is responsible not only for their drill, discipline, and training, but also for their food, clothing, pay, and lodging. The men’s confidence in their Captain is grounded on this responsibility. It is to him that they learn to look for their well-being, comfort, and redress of grievances, as well as for praise or blame. The Captain is thus in daily contact with the men, and learns to know them, and be known by them. His influence with his men, owing to these personal relations, is the keystone of command and discipline, and makes him their natural leader in action.

To avoid repetition, it may be here mentioned that the same remarks apply to the Squadron and Battery Commanders, who, in the Cavalry and Artillery, hold the same position with regard to their men as the Captain does in the Infantry.

The Company is usually divided into Half-Companies, commanded by a Lieutenant, and into four Sections, each under a Sergeant; but the German Company has three Sections under a Lieutenant. The tactical movements of a Company in action are usually carried out by Sections.

THE BATTALION

The Battalion of 1,000 men is universally recognized as the Tactical Unit of Infantry. Operations are ordered, carried out, and recorded by Battalions. The Battalion is in modern armies provided with transport to carry its ammunition and entrenching tools, as well as its baggage and immediate supply of food, so as to render it independent.

The Battalion is commanded in foreign armies by a Major or his equivalent, but in the British and Russian Services by a Lieutenant-Colonel. The Battalion Commander is assisted by a Staff Officer, styled his Adjutant, and by a small Administrative Staff.

The number of Companies in a Battalion is, in the British Service, eight, with 3 officers and 120 men each, but in other armies four, with 4 or 5 officers and 240 men.

The system of dividing the Battalion into a few large companies was adopted in Prussia during the eighteenth century so as to economize in officers, partly to save expense, partly because of the dearth of men fit for commissions, in the increasing army of that small country. In the huge armies of to-day this system commends itself for the same reasons; while England and the United States have kept to small companies, with their original strength of about 100 men. Owing to the increasing difficulty of exercising control in battle, small companies give advantages as to Command. They also provide any necessary detachments, such as outposts and advanced guards, better than large companies, which may have to be broken up for these purposes. The fact, too, cannot be overlooked, that in an army of small companies there are four Captains more per thousand men, which gives a useful reserve of officers.

THE INFANTRY REGIMENT

Two, three, or four Battalions form a Regiment, designated by a number or by a permanent name, territorial or personal. In the Regiment are embodied the honourable traditions which have accrued in history, and the esprit de corps engendered by them. The officers are on one Regimental List for promotion, and so serve continuously in the Regiment. They thereby acquire a camaraderie, professional feeling, and personal intimacy with each other and with their men, of the greatest value in war. In foreign armies, with short service of two years, it is hardly too much to say that the Regimental Officers really constitute the permanent army, through which there flows continuously a stream of recruits, receiving a professional impress from their officers.

The Regiment is in foreign armies commanded by a Colonel (with sometimes a Lieutenant-Colonel), assisted by an Adjutant and a small Administrative Staff. The British Regiment is merely a peace organization never found as a whole in war, and the Battalion, with its Colonel and his Staff, its Colours and band, its traditions, history, and esprit de corps, represents what in foreign armies we find in the Regiment. The battalions of the foreign Regiment are merely its tactical units, just as the companies are to the Battalion.

THE INFANTRY BRIGADE

The Brigade is the largest body formed of Infantry only. In the British Service, where there is no Regimental organization in war, the Brigade comprises four battalions. In foreign armies it is composed of two Regiments (comprising six to eight battalions), a faulty organization for Command purposes, as shown in [Chapter I.]

Brigades are commanded by a Brigadier-General, with a Staff Officer, who is styled in England the Brigade Major.

2. CAVALRY

Cavalry, like Infantry, was once of many different natures—“Light,” “Heavy,” Hussars, Dragoons, Lancers, etc. These names still survive in the armies of Europe, but the regiments so designated now form practically only one sort of Cavalry, and are all trained for identical action in war, although they still bear their historic names and uniforms, and keep up the old rivalry of their corps traditions.

The formations of Cavalry are the Troop, the Squadron, the Regiment, and the Brigade.

THE SQUADRON

The Tactical Unit of Cavalry has since the seventeenth century been the Squadron of about 150 men. Its strength in different armies now varies between 130 and 180 men.

The Squadron is divided into four Troops, each of which is commanded by a Lieutenant. The Squadron leader is a Major or a Captain. The British Squadron has both these officers, and four Lieutenants.

THE CAVALRY REGIMENT

The Regiment is the permanent and administrative Cavalry Unit, and like the regiment of Infantry, has its special title or number, its own history and esprit de corps, and its band.

The number of Squadrons in a Regiment varies in different armies, there being generally four, but five in the Italian and Japanese, and six in the Austrian and Russian Services. There are three in the British Cavalry at home, but four in the Yeomanry and also in India. The Regiment thus forms a body of from 500 to 900 men, and is commanded by a Colonel, or a Lieutenant-Colonel, with an Adjutant as Staff Officer, besides a small Administrative Staff.

THE CAVALRY BRIGADE

The Brigade is formed in most armies of two Regiments, but in the British, American, and Swiss armies of three—a superior form of organization for Command, as shown in [Chapter I.], and one probably better suited for the tactics of Cavalry.

The Brigade is commanded by a Brigadier-General, with a Staff Officer (or Brigade Major).

3. ARTILLERY

Artillery is of many descriptions, differing in the guns they use, and their functions in war. Only that brought into the field with an army, as distinguished from Siege, Fortress, and Coast Artillery, will be here described. It may be divided into Field Artillery, Heavy Artillery, and Mountain Artillery.

FIELD ARTILLERY

Field Artillery in the most general sense means the Mounted Branch of the Arm, which possesses mobility, so as to accompany the other Arms. Its personnel does not march on foot, so that the guns can move at a pace beyond the walk, when desired. It comprises Field Artillery proper, or that armed with the Field Gun (or Field Howitzer) and Horse Artillery.

Field Guns form the larger portion of all Artillery in the field. They fire mainly shrapnel, or shell containing small round bullets which are very effective against the enemy’s men and horses, but useless against material objects. In foreign armies they have therefore a small amount of shell filled with high explosive, in addition to the shrapnel.

Field Howitzers use high-angle fire, giving a large angle of descent, so that they can search out the enemy’s trenches. They are provided with high-explosive shell in addition to shrapnel, so as to destroy masonry and field works, which the shrapnel of field guns cannot injure.

Both these varieties of Field Artillery have their Officers and Sergeants mounted, and carry their men seated on the gun limbers, or on the wagons, so that they can move at a trot.

Horse Artillery is provided for supporting Cavalry in action. It is armed with a lighter nature of field gun, and has its personnel mounted, so as to be very mobile. It can keep up with Cavalry both on the march and in action, and can move at the gallop when required.

HEAVY ARTILLERY

This comprises the heaviest guns and howitzers having sufficient mobility to accompany an army in the field. It uses shell filled with a high explosive, as well as a large shrapnel, and is therefore effective against field works and masonry as well as against men and horses. It differs from Field Artillery in having less mobility, but longer range and much greater effect. It generally comes into action at long ranges, and changes its position as little as possible in action. It will be very effective against the enemy’s artillery and field works, and its great range will allow it to bring oblique fire on the vital portions of his line.

Heavy Artillery is manned by the non-mounted Branch, called Garrison Artillery in England, and Foot Artillery abroad. It requires eight-horse teams, and moves only at a walk, the men marching on foot.

MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY

Artillery carried on pack animals is used in hilly, enclosed, or rough country, where wheels cannot pass. It is the weakest form of Artillery in shell-power, as it is armed with a light gun, which can be carried on a pack mule. A heavier gun can be carried, if formed of two parts, each about 200 lb. weight, or a load for one mule, which can be jointed together for action. The gun carriages, ammunition, and stores are also carried on mules, and the personnel marches on foot, and is provided from the “Foot” (or “Garrison”) Artillery. The slowness of Mountain compared to Field Artillery is compensated in broken country by its ability to take cover, and to come into action in places inaccessible to Field Guns, so that it can support Infantry more closely.

THE BATTERY

The Tactical Unit of Artillery is the Battery, of 4, 6, or 8 guns, with 1 to 3 Ammunition Wagons to each gun. Field guns and wagons have six-horse teams; Heavy Artillery has eight-horse teams.

In France, Switzerland, Turkey and the United States all Batteries are of 4 guns.

In other armies all Field and Horse Artillery Batteries are of 6 guns, except in Austria, where Horse Artillery has 4-gun Batteries, and in Russia, where Field Batteries have 8 guns.

Heavy Batteries have generally 4 guns, owing to the number of wagons required to carry a sufficient amount of their heavy ammunition.

Mountain Batteries have 4 guns, except in Russia, where they have 8.

The Battery in all armies has a strength of from 130 to 200 men and horses. It is divided into Sections of 2 guns with their wagons, commanded by a Lieutenant, and these into Sub-Sections under a Sergeant. The Battery Commander is a Captain, except in the Russian Service, where he is a Lieutenant-Colonel, and in the British Service, where he is a Major, with a Captain as Second-in-Command to take charge of the Ammunition Supply in action. To assist the Battery Commander in action, he has a Staff comprising trumpeters, rangetakers, observers, signallers, mounted orderlies, scouts, and horse-holders. There is also a small Administrative Staff, including artificers for repair of harness and carriages.

THE ARTILLERY BRIGADE

Batteries are grouped into larger Units, called in the British Service Brigades. They are commanded by a Lieutenant-Colonel, with an Adjutant, and a Staff for purposes of observation and command, including telephone and signalling detachments, rangetakers, and orderlies. This Unit is called an Abteilung in Germany, a Groupe in France, a Division in Russia and Austria, and a Battalion in Japan and the United States. It comprises as a rule three batteries of Field Guns, or of Howitzers (or two batteries of Horse Artillery), with an Ammunition Column. Heavy Batteries in the British Service are not brigaded, but one, with its own Ammunition Column, forms part of the Artillery of each Division. In foreign armies they are grouped by twos or fours into Battalions.

HIGHER UNITS OF ARTILLERY

In foreign armies the above Units of three batteries are grouped by pairs into Artillery Regiments, commanded by a Colonel with a Staff. The Divisional Artillery and the Corps Artillery are respectively formed of one or more Regiments.

Two Artillery Regiments are in some armies grouped into an Artillery Brigade, which forms the Divisional or Corps Artillery, and is commanded by a General with a Staff.

AMMUNITION COLUMNS

Ammunition Columns form an integral part of the Artillery, but they carry ammunition for Infantry as well as for the guns. They are Fighting Units, because the replenishment of ammunition is a function of the Fighting Troops, and the movements of Ammunition Columns are tactical operations. The Ammunition Columns belonging to Units of Artillery provide the first reserve of ammunition. The second reserve of ammunition is provided by Divisional Ammunition Columns, which in foreign armies form the Divisional Ammunition Park. There is in large armies also an Army Corps Ammunition Park comprising several Columns, and an Army Ammunition Park, behind which are the Ammunition Depôts on the L. of C.

The Ammunition Columns constitute also a reserve to draw on for officers, men, teams, and matériel, to replace the losses of the Batteries. In Manchuria, the men of the Ammunition Columns were, within twelve months, all absorbed by the Batteries.

An Ammunition Column comprises about 150 to 200 men and as many horses, with from 20 to 30 ammunition wagons.

BRITISH AMMUNITION SUPPLY

In the British Service the organization of the Ammunition Supply is as follows:

The Field Battery and Horse Artillery ammunition wagons carry 176 rounds per gun, those of a Howitzer Battery 88, and of a Heavy Battery 76 rounds per gun.

The Ammunition Column of each Field Artillery Brigade carries 200 rounds per gun for its Brigade. It carries also rifle ammunition (100 rounds per rifle) for one Infantry Brigade. The Horse Artillery Ammunition Column carries a supply of rifle ammunition (100 rounds per rifle) for the Mounted Troops, in addition to gun ammunition at the rate of 220 rounds per gun.

The Ammunition Column of a Howitzer Brigade, and that of a Heavy Battery, which have to carry heavier gun-ammunition, at the rate of 70 and 98 rounds per gun respectively, carry no rifle ammunition.

The Divisional Ammunition Column is divided into 4 Sections, giving three for the three Field Artillery Brigades (carrying 120 rounds per gun), and one Section with ammunition for the Howitzer Brigade (92 rounds per gun) and for the Heavy Battery (80 rounds per gun), and also for a proportion of the guns with the Mounted Troops. Each of the first three Sections carries a reserve of 100 rounds per rifle for one Infantry Brigade. The fourth Section, having heavier gun-ammunition to carry, is not burdened with any rifle ammunition.

* * * * *

The number of rounds of ammunition with the Force in the field is as follows:

GUN AMMUNITION

Total with troops, about 500 rounds per Field Gun, and rather more per Horse Artillery Gun. Per Howitzer, or Heavy Gun, about half that per Field Gun. About an equal amount is in Ordnance Store charge on the L. of C. ready to replace what is expended.

SMALL-ARM AMMUNITION

ROUNDS PER RIFLE

ROUNDS PER MACHINE GUN

Ammunition for Machine Guns with Infantry is allotted as follows: With each gun, 3,500 rounds; in Regimental Reserve, 8,000; in Brigade Ammunition Column, 10,000; in Divisional Ammunition Column, 10,000. Guns with Cavalry have the same, except twice as much in Regimental Reserve.

4. ENGINEERS

Engineers are allotted to the larger formations of all Arms in the field, to carry out the varied work required with the troops at the front, as described in [Chapter II.]

In foreign armies they are organized in Companies belonging to the Engineer Battalion of the Army Corps, and one Company is allotted to each Division, and one to the Corps Troops. Its strength is that of the Infantry Company (250 men), under a Captain, with three or four officers. In order that its tools and stores shall accompany it and be at hand for work, each Company has transport allotted to it from the “Train Battalion” of the Army Corps. The Cavalry Division has generally some Engineers, who are mounted or carried on wagons, so as to keep up with the Division.

A reserve of tools and equipment for the Companies is carried by a column of wagons called the Army Corps Engineer Park.

In the British Service there are with each Division two Field Companies of Engineers, each having 156 working sappers, and with the Cavalry Division four Field Troops, each with 40 working sappers, half of whom are mounted, half carried on the tool carts. Thus, if a Cavalry Brigade is detached, it can take with it a Field Troop of Engineers. The drivers and transport are integral portions of the Engineer Troops and Companies.

Telegraph Companies of Engineers are in all armies allotted to each Command for inter-communication purposes. Those of the British Service are described later among the Administrative Services, in [Chapter IX.]

Another Unit of Engineers is the Bridging Train, which supplements the small bridge equipment carried by the Engineer Field Companies. In foreign armies these Trains are manned by Engineers, but horsed by the “Train,” and one is allotted to each Division and Army Corps. In the British Service the Bridging Trains are “Army Troops,” and are not allotted to Divisions.

CHAPTER IV
NEW VARIETIES OF FIGHTING TROOPS

It was mentioned in [Chapter II.] that of late years there have been added to modern armies a number of new varieties of troops, which it is not possible to group under the old heads of the Three Arms.

These varieties may be described under the following heads:

1. Mounted Infantry.
2. Mountain Infantry.
3. Mountain Artillery.
4. Machine Guns.
5. Cavalry Pioneers.
6. Cyclists and Motor Cars.
7. Scouts.
8. Field Orderlies.
9. Military Police.

A short description of the functions and organization of these troops will now be given.

1. Mounted Infantry

Mounted Infantry is to-day what Dragoons were when first introduced—that is, Infantry mounted only so as to be quickly moved to a point where it is to fight on foot. Mounted Infantry is armed only with the rifle, and is neither trained nor armed for shock action on horseback.

The introduction of Mounted Infantry was advocated long ago by Jomini in his “Art of War” (Vol. ii., chap. viii., sect. 45), but up to now this Arm only exists in the British Service, and there it is only organized in war, when Mounted Infantry Battalions are formed of men from Infantry Battalions trained for the purpose in peace.

British Mounted Infantry is organized in Battalions of 3 Companies with a Machine-Gun Section, Units of identical strength with the Cavalry Regiment, Squadron, and Machine-Gun Section.

Mounted Infantry is employed in two capacities in the British Service:

(a) In the Mounted Brigades, in which it acts with Cavalry, whose shock action it supports by its fire.

(b) As Divisional Mounted Troops, which are used as Advanced Guards and Outposts for protection; as Patrols for reconnaissance; as Escorts for Head-Quarters, Batteries, and Trains; for keeping connection, both with the Cavalry in front and with adjoining Divisions; for internal communication in their own Division.

2. Mountain Infantry

Infantry Battalions specially trained and equipped for mountain fighting, like the “Alpine Troops” of France and Italy, are kept up in foreign countries, where warfare may, as often in the past, be carried on in difficult mountain regions. Switzerland and Austria have Mounted Infantry Battalions formed into Brigades, to which Mountain Batteries are attached. Austria has organized Mountain Transport Squadrons for these Brigades.

3. Mountain Artillery

The Arm is described under the head of Artillery, in [Chapter III.] It is provided for mountain fighting in India, France, Austria, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States, and in the “Highlands” Division of the British Territorial Army. In Austria there are Mountain howitzers as well as guns.

4. Machine Guns

Every nation has now introduced Machine Guns as a valuable auxiliary to Cavalry and Infantry. The intention, not as yet fully carried out, is to form a Unit of two Machine Guns in every Cavalry Regiment and in every Battalion (or at least in every Regiment) of Infantry. In the German and some other armies these guns will be taken away from their Units and grouped by sixes into “sections,” which will be virtually independent batteries of machine guns.

In the British Service a Section of two Machine Guns is provided by every Cavalry Regiment and Infantry Battalion. These guns, which fire from tripods, are carried in wagons with four horses in Cavalry Sections, for rapidity of movement, and with two horses in Infantry Sections. The Section is commanded by one of the Lieutenants, with a Sergeant, a Corporal, and the necessary drivers. To each gun there are six men, who are of course mounted in the Cavalry Section.

The Germans have adopted the Battery formation. The Mounted Section, for use with the Cavalry Division, consists of 6 guns on four-horsed carriages, with 3 ammunition wagons. The strength is 1 Lieutenant, 130 men, 90 horses. The officer and sergeant are mounted, and the men are carried on the gun carriage. The Foot Section forms an extra Company, the 13th, of each Infantry Regiment. It has 6 guns on two-horsed carriages, with 3 ammunition wagons. The strength is 1 Lieutenant, 83 men, 28 draught horses. The officer and 3 N.C.O.’s are mounted; the men march on foot, and are armed with pistols.

In Japan, there is to be a 6-gun Section to each Infantry Regiment, with a strength of 1 Officer, 1 W.O., 6 N.C.O.’s, 36 men. Guns and ammunition are carried on 30 pack horses. There will be an 8-gun Section to each Cavalry Brigade, with a strength of 3 Officers, 87 men.

In Switzerland a Machine-Gun Battery takes the place of Horse Artillery with Cavalry. It consists of 8 guns, and is carried on pack mules, with its personnel mounted.

5. Cavalry Pioneers

In the Austrian Service a few men from each Cavalry Squadron have long been trained to perform Engineers’ duties, such as demolitions and repair of bridges, railways, and telegraphs, and hasty field works. This plan has been adopted to a limited extent in the British Cavalry, where a corporal and four men of each Squadron are trained in Pioneer duties. The German Cavalry Regiment has a Bridging equipment of 4 Pontoons, to form small bridges, or rafts, and a Demolition equipment carried in the Pontoon wagons, with men of the Regiment trained to use both.

6. Cyclists and Motor Cars

Cyclist Infantry have been introduced into some armies, to carry Orders and messages. They will relieve Cavalry of part of their orderly, scouting, and patrolling work, as they can move as rapidly as mounted men, as long as the roads are good. Besides these duties it is claimed that Cyclists can also be used for fighting. Being armed as Infantry, but more rapid in movement, they could be used like mounted Infantry, to surprise the enemy with rifle fire from distant and unexpected places, or to seize and hold important tactical points, such as bridges, defiles, and hills, before the Infantry can reach them. As yet, however, it cannot be said that any decision has been arrived at as to the organization, equipment, and sphere of utility of Cyclists, or their employment as fighting troops.

In the British Service it is expected that each Unit will furnish a few Cyclists, and there are bicycles allotted to each Head-Quarters, to every Unit of fighting troops, and to telegraph companies, for inter-communication purposes. The Territorial Army has, besides 12 Cyclists per battalion, ten Cyclist Battalions.

The French, who were the first to form Military Cyclists, have a few companies, each of 4 Officers and 175 men.

The Germans provide 19 Cyclists from each Infantry Regiment, 9 from each Artillery Regiment, and 6 from each Cavalry Regiment. The latter will probably be massed as one body in the Cavalry Division, for transmitting intelligence.

Austria has a Volunteer Cyclist Corps for each Army Corps, and two Companies of Cyclists are to be attached to each Cavalry Division for use as fighting troops.

Italy has 24 Cyclists per Infantry Regiment, and two Battalions of Bersaglieri (or Rifles) are organized as Cyclists.

MOTOR CAR SERVICE IN WAR

Motor Cars will be much used in war for conveyance of Generals and Staff Officers on the march and in action, as the power of covering the ground rapidly is of great advantage to Command of Troops, enabling what is passing at a distance to be seen, and decisions to be made and communicated without delay.

There will be great scope for Motors in carrying supplies to the troops from railhead, thus rendering the daily supply far more certain, and obviating blocking the roads with long trains of wagons. This system is being organized on the Continent.

7. Scouts

Scouts are men whose function is to reconnoitre the ground, or the enemy, without fighting. They are soldiers selected for intelligence, activity, self-reliance, and powers of observation. (“Infantry Training,” 1905, p. 73.)

Scouts are taken from Infantry Battalions, Cavalry Regiments, or Batteries, and work in the neighbourhood of their own Corps and for its immediate benefit. They move out generally in pairs, so that one man may take back information, if signalling is not possible.

In the British Service the numbers of Scouts are:

Infantry: 1 N.C.O. and 6 men per Company, of whom 1 Sergeant and 16 men per Battalion are First-Class Scouts.

Cavalry: 1 Officer, as Scout Leader, 1 Sergeant, 24 men, per Regiment.

Artillery: One or two “Ground Scouts” in front of the Battery when it is manœuvring. Two “Look-out Men” close to the Battery in action.

German Cavalry has 1 N.C.O. and 2 men per Squadron as Ground Scouts, and 1 Officer per Regiment in charge of them.

In France 12 mounted Ground Scouts, “Eclaireurs de terrain montés d’infanterie,” are to be attached to each Infantry Regiment.

The Russians in Manchuria used volunteers from Infantry Regiments as mounted Scouts, with good results.

Corps of Scouts and Guides have been formed from time to time, as in the American Civil War, and lately in Canada. They cannot, however, be said to have any actual existence in organized armies, but will probably be extemporized in war.

8. Field Orderlies

Wellington organized in the Peninsula a Corps of Guides and a Mounted Staff Corps, who acted as despatch riders and police. Napoleon had similar corps, and their usefulness is obvious. But it may be doubted if the multiplication of small special corps is not objectionable and wasteful of men and horses. Modern practice tends to allot the carrying of messages and Orders to orderlies furnished at Head-Quarters of Commands, either by Cyclists, by the men of the Cavalry escort, or by the Mounted Police.

The Germans have always had at Head-Quarters a small corps of Feldjägers, or mounted orderlies, for carrying despatches, and have now formed a body of motor-cycle volunteers for this purpose.

In the British Cavalry Division, four men from every squadron are trained as despatch riders, and Officers of the “Motor Reserve,” with their cars, are attached to every Head-Quarters, for carrying Orders and messages.

There is a Courier Corps in the Russian Service, which provides one section of 4 Officers and 6 N.C.O.’s for each Army Corps Head-Quarters. Two sections are allotted to Army Commands.

9. Military Police

A body of Police is now a necessity for an Army. They comprise Mounted, as well as Foot Police. Their duties are to enforce sanitary regulations, to preserve order, especially in rear of the Army, and to carry out sentences of Courts-Martial. They ensure regularity in allotting billets and enforcing requisitions. They control sutlers and civilians with the Army, protect civil property, prevent marauding, and arrest stragglers, deserters, and spies. During action they will be useful in clearing roads, and maintaining order in rear of the fighting, and later will keep off the ghouls who infest the battlefield to plunder the dead and kill the wounded.

Small detachments of Military Police are in the British Service attached to all Head-Quarters, under the orders of the Assistant-Provost-Marshal. Foot Police will be attached to General Head-Quarters and those of the L. of C.; Mounted Police to all other Head-Quarters; while at Base Head-Quarters there will be both.

CHAPTER V
FORMATIONS OF ALL ARMS

The Larger Formations are formed by combining in one body a number of the Smaller Formations composed of Units of each Arm, together with the Administrative Units required for their service. The body thus formed is then provided with Head-Quarters, comprising the Commander and his Staff, and other necessary personnel. The numbers of Units and of Lesser Formations grouped together, and their proportion to each other, are dictated by past experience and a forecast of future fighting requirements.

The bodies thus formed constitute what are called the Subordinate Commands of the Army. They are self-contained, and capable of independent existence and action—existence, because they have the necessary Administrative Services to supply their wants; action, because, having considerable strength, and a proper proportion of all Arms, they can fight for a certain time without support from other bodies of troops.

In this chapter will be discussed these Subordinate Commands and the Administrative Services allotted to them. The succeeding chapter will describe their Staff and the composition of their Head-Quarters.

1. The Division

The Division is the basis of the higher organization of Armies in the Field. It may be mainly composed of Infantry or of Cavalry. In the former case it is generally termed simply a Division, in the latter a Cavalry Division. Its Commander is generally a Major-General, and is provided with a Staff, to which the Heads of the Divisional Administrative Services are attached.

Divisions are organized on the following general lines in various armies:

THE INFANTRY DIVISION

The Infantry Division is formed of two or three Infantry Brigades—that is, of 12, 16, or 18 Battalions. The “two-Brigade” organization, the most common abroad, is inferior to that of the British Army in three Brigades, for the reasons already discussed in the first chapter. The Division is furnished with other Arms to assist the action of the Infantry, and has generally the following:

Cavalry: 1 Regiment, or sometimes only 2 Squadrons.

Artillery: 4 to 12 Batteries, organized in Brigades, and with the Brigades sometimes grouped in Regiments. One or other of these formations has an ammunition column. The larger number of guns is allotted when, as in Germany and England, no Army Corps Artillery exists.

Engineers: A Field Company.

Administrative Services: Ammunition Columns; Supply Columns; Field Ambulances; a Field Post Office.

In some armies the Division has also a light Bridging Train; a Field Hospital; a mobile Remount Depôt; a Finance Office; Chaplains.

The Divisional Head-Quarters comprise, besides the Commander and his Staff, a number of Heads of Administrative Services, a Telegraph Company, or “Communication Unit,” Military Police, and the necessary Transport.

THE CAVALRY DIVISION

The Cavalry Division is formed of two or three Cavalry Brigades—that is, of 16 to 24 Squadrons, in foreign armies. It has also one Brigade of Horse Artillery of 12 guns, with its ammunition column, and generally some Mounted Engineers and a Telegraph Detachment.

The British Cavalry Division has 4 Brigades or 36 Squadrons; 2 Brigades of Horse Artillery—that is, 4 Batteries, or 24 guns; 4 Field Troops of Engineers; and a Wireless Telegraph Company in four sections. It is obvious that by this organization a Brigade can be furnished with all Units it requires for independent action when detached.

Cavalry Divisions are furnished with the following Administrative Units: A Supply Column; Field Ambulances; Field Post Office.

2. The Army Corps

MEANING OF THE TERM

This word is a somewhat misleading translation of the original French term Corps d’Armée, which means one of the bodies of troops forming an army, whereas the English term (which came through the German Armee Korps) might be supposed to mean a Corps which is an army in itself. It is now generally shortened to Corps.

REASON FOR ORGANIZATION BY ARMY CORPS

If the Army is very large, there must be an intermediate link in the chain of Command between its Commander and the Divisions, or there would be too many Subordinate Commanders for the Army Commander to direct effectively. This link is provided in the larger armies of the Continent by the Army Corps, formed of two or more Infantry Divisions. A similar grouping of some of the Cavalry Divisions into Cavalry Corps may be occasionally found in war.

Jomini pointed out (“Art de la Guerre,” Vol. ii., chap, vii.), and Clausewitz (“On War,” Book V., chap, v.) endorsed his view, that, for armies up to 100,000 strong, a Divisional organization was best. This strength represents five or six Divisions, and one or two Cavalry Divisions, which may therefore be considered as the maximum number which an army should comprise, if organized in Divisions only.

The advantages of the Army Corps organization of armies are that the Supreme Command is facilitated by there being fewer Units to direct, and that a few important Commanders can be better selected than a number. This organization also provides a large independent force, under a Senior Commander, available for any special mission. There were periods in the South African War when the temporary employment of several Divisions for a special purpose would have been more effective had they formed a permanent organization like an Army Corps, with its own Commander and Staff. At the same time it is undoubtedly true that, except when unavoidable, the addition of another step in the gradation of Command is undesirable for many reasons. It is wasteful in Staff; it tends to delay the transmission of Orders; and the large strength of the Army Corps gives their Commanders so much importance as to lead to considerable independence in their action, which may weaken the Supreme Command.

In large armies, however, organization by Army Corps is unavoidable. We therefore naturally find the forces of the great military powers of Europe—Germany, France, Russia, Austria, Italy—organized by Army Corps, while the forces of Turkey, Japan, Great Britain, and the smaller nations of Europe are organized by Divisions only. Switzerland is about to comply with this principle by transforming her present Army Corps into Divisions.

COMPOSITION OF AN ARMY CORPS

An Army Corps is generally composed, after the German model, of two Divisions, in spite of the ruling of Clausewitz that a division of any Unit into two parts is the worst possible. This is admitted by von der Golz in his “Nation in Arms,” and also by von Schellendorf in his “Duties of the General Staff.” Both agree that an Army Corps should have three Divisions, but think that it would be difficult to alter a system so deeply rooted in Germany. This criticism applies also to the bipartite organization of both Cavalry and Infantry Divisions and Brigades, which exists in most Continental armies. The Austrians have therefore adopted a Corps of three Divisions, and the Germans and French think of adding a Reserve Division to the two forming their Army Corps. To have three Divisions would undoubtedly strengthen the Command of the Corps, and, by reducing the number of Corps, facilitate that of the Army.

Besides the Infantry Divisions, there are other troops in an Army Corps—namely, Cavalry, Artillery, Engineers, and Administrative Services.

Corps Cavalry.—The French have a Brigade of Corps Cavalry, the Russians a Division. This is probably a better arrangement for providing “protective Cavalry” than to rely only on the few squadrons of Divisional Cavalry, as in Germany and Austria.

Corps Artillery.—German and Russian Army Corps have no Corps Artillery; other armies have two or more Brigades, organized in Regiments.

Heavy Artillery is likely to be allotted to Army Corps or perhaps to Armies, in foreign armies, as it is in England to the Division.

Corps Engineers.—A Company or two, with an Engineer Park of tools and stores, a Bridging Train, and Telegraph Units, form the Corps Engineers.

The Corps Administrative Services comprise in most armies an Ammunition Park, a Supply Park, a Field Bakery, Field Hospitals, and a Remount and Veterinary Depôt.

3. Cavalry Corps

It has been suggested that the duty of strategic reconnaissance, for which the Cavalry Divisions are organized, might be better performed if these were grouped under one Command; but such a permanent combination of Cavalry Divisions into Corps has only been carried out in Russia, where there is one Cavalry Corps of 2 Divisions (48 squadrons), or 7,000 sabres and 24 guns. The British Cavalry Division, however, of 4 Brigades (36 squadrons and 24 guns) is virtually a Cavalry Corps, except that its internal organization is by Brigades and not by Divisions, and so avoids the evil of bipartite division. An improvised Corps of 2 Divisions has been tried in German manœuvres, and it is expected that in war one or more of them will be formed. They will perhaps be kept in the hands of the Supreme Command for independent action, each Army Commander retaining a Division or two as “Army Cavalry.”

To group 2 or 3 Divisions into a Cavalry Corps under one Command makes it easier and quicker to concentrate them and break through the enemy’s screen, as long as all the Divisions are moving in the same direction, and engaged in the same task. But if they are covering a broad front, and acting on separate objectives, it would be a mistake to group them under one Commander, who must necessarily be acting at some distance. In this case, the independence of the Divisional Commanders will conduce to the quick tactical decisions on which success depends.

It would seem sound not to distribute the whole of a large Cavalry force equally among the Divisions, nor the latter equally among the Armies, but to allot according to the capacity of the Commanders, and the importance of the strategical work they have to accomplish. If this be so, there may be something to be said for the French Divisions of unequal strength, some of 2, some of 3 Brigades. But in the opinion of von Bernhardi, the leading exponent of modern Cavalry views, even the usual Continental Division of 3 Brigades is “much too weak,” seeing that the Brigades are of two Regiments. He strongly advocates a three-Regiment Brigade, which is that of the British Service.

4. The Army as a Unit

The Military Forces of the Great Powers have now grown so large that a further development of organization has become necessary. They are therefore divided in war into separate Armies. Army, in this new sense, does not mean, as it used to, the whole Force, for which, indeed, some other word than “Army” is urgently needed. An Army is simply the highest Unit in the organization of a great host in the field.

This division into separate Armies, each forming a definite Unit, with its own Commander and Staff, and numbered from right to left, was first seen in the two great wars carried on by Prussia in 1866 and 1870. Each Army had its own Lines of Communication, and moved and fought independently under its Commander, in obedience to general instructions issued at intervals by Moltke, as Chief of the General Staff, on the authority of the Commander-in-Chief, the King of Prussia.

This system was followed in Manchuria by the Japanese, who had four, and later five, Armies in the field under one Supreme Command. It is now obligatory on all nations putting several hundred thousand men in the field to organize them in separate Armies. In any future war between France and Germany each Power will probably form five such Armies under one Supreme Commander, or “Generalissimo,” as the French (following Jomini) style him. Each Army will have its own sphere of action and Lines of Communication.

The modern organization by Armies differs from that adopted by Napoleon for the invasion of Russia, and in the German campaign which followed in 1813. It is true that, by forming large detachments to the flanks, he divided his enormous forces into what were practically separate Armies; but the main body in the centre was not only by far the most important, but was under Napoleon’s own command. In fact he commanded one of the Armies himself, while at the same time directing the whole Force. It is now recognized that this arrangement was far from successful, even under Napoleon, and would be impossible for a lesser man. The Supreme Commander must not himself command one of his Armies. If he were to attempt this, the other Armies would become merely large detachments; plans would tend to be based on the movements of the main body; and the operations of the Armies would lose in scope and independence.

The size of Armies must obviously be limited to the number which one man can command. This, according to Clausewitz, should not exceed 120,000 to 150,000. The total strength depends mainly on the number of Subordinate Commands. Napoleon was of opinion that five were enough for one man to command. Clausewitz laid down eight as the maximum.

In the great hosts of modern nations Armies are not organized in peace, and their composition in war is kept secret, but it is certain that they will not consist of less than three, or of more than six Army Corps (or Divisions, where Army Corps are not used), and most probably of four or five, with two or three Cavalry Divisions.

We have thus traced the development of the Higher Commands, or those of all Arms, from the Division to the Army, and will now consider the Administrative Services and Staff allotted to them.

THE ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES

As indicated at the beginning of the second chapter, a number of Administrative Services are required, to provide the Fighting Troops with all they need to keep up their strength and efficiency. An army cannot act without a service of communication for transmission of Orders; it cannot exist without a supply of food and clothing, fight without ammunition, or move without transport to carry these stores. To maintain its discipline there must be Police, and a department of Military Justice. For reasons of morale, the sick and wounded must be collected and tended, and it is also desirable that its letters should pass with regularity to and from home, and that spiritual ministration should be provided.

These points, with the exception of the Medical Services, were as a rule little considered until the close of the eighteenth century, when Carnot devoted much attention to them while organizing the revolutionary armies in France. Napoleon and Wellington improved them considerably, but they were still very inadequate in England till after the Crimean War.

In modern armies a good system of administration is universally felt to be of the greatest importance. Services are therefore organized to meet the administrative requirements of an army in the field, which may be classed under the following heads:

Inter-communication throughout the Force.

Supply of food, ammunition, and other stores.

Transport by rail and road.

Medical and Veterinary aid.

Replacing loss in men or horses.

The above bear directly on the fighting; but there are also certain semi-civil services, which cannot well be dispensed with in war. These deal with the following matters:

Guidance as to Law—military, martial, and international.

Finance, Accounts, the provision and issue of Cash.

Clerical work, in connection with Statistics, Records, invaliding sick and wounded, etc.

Postal Service.

Spiritual ministration.

ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES IN FOREIGN ARMIES

It is not possible to investigate here the various methods adopted in each foreign army to meet these requirements. The system is generally that the Medical Services are managed by their own Heads, the Communication, or Telegraph, Units are provided by the Engineers, and the other Administrative Services are regulated by officials called “Intendants,” who are attached to Divisional and Army Corps Commands, and have entire responsibility for Supply, Remounts, Stores, and Finance. As to Transport, each Army Corps has a “Train Battalion,” a combatant Unit which provides the Infantry, Cavalry, Engineer, and Medical Units (but not those of Artillery) with the wagons, teams, and drivers they require, and furnishes the Transport Columns for carrying supplies.

The personnel of the Medical Services is similarly furnished by the “Army Corps Medical organization,” and the Principal Medical Officers on the Staff of Divisions and Corps administer the Medical Services.

A Director of Medical Services, an Intendant-General, and a Judge-Advocate-General are attached to “General,” as well as to “Army,” Head-Quarters.

As regards the other Services, the Veterinary and Postal Services, and the Chaplains, do not generally form part of any higher Staffs than those of Divisions.

It will be seen that the system is so designed that in the main the business of Administration in detail falls on the Divisional and Army Corps Commands, while the Army Command is left free to concentrate its attention on the enemy.

The principles on which the Administration of an Army in the Field is organized for war as carried on at the present day, can be best understood by a study of the British Administrative Services. The general lines of their organization will be found described in Chapters [IX]. and [X].

CHAPTER VI
THE STAFF

Head-Quarters

Each of the various formations of Troops just described is completed by appointing its Commander and providing him with a Staff—that is, a body of Staff Officers to assist him in the duties of Command. The Commander and his Staff form what is known as the Head-Quarters of every Command. Those of the Commander-in-Chief are termed General Head-Quarters, those of an Army Commander Army Head-Quarters, and so on, down to Brigade Head-Quarters.

COMPOSITION OF HEAD-QUARTERS

Head-Quarters consist essentially of the Commander with his Personal Staff, and of the Staff Officers constituting the Staff proper, which it is the object of this chapter to describe in detail.

The Personal Staff needs little remark. It comprises the officers acting as Aides de Camp to the Commander, and in important Head-Quarters there is also a Military Secretary. These officers act as confidential secretaries to their Chief, carry his Orders, manage his household, and arrange for its movements. Their relations with their Chief are more personal than official, and they are not considered to be Staff Officers.

Besides the Staff, there are generally attached to Head-Quarters a number of other Officers, such as those of Administrative Services, and in some armies Officers of Artillery or Engineers. But these cannot be properly called Staff Officers, as they have only a limited sphere of action in the Command, while they perform definite executive and administrative functions in their own sphere. The action of Staff Officers, on the contrary, ranges over the whole Command, but they have no personal responsibility or executive functions. In fact they are useful appendages to each link of the chain of Command, but not actually links in it themselves.

In addition to Officers, there are always connected with Head-Quarters a number of subordinates, such as interpreters, clerks, police, printers, lithographers, telegraphists, signallers, cyclists, motor-car drivers, orderlies, and postal employees, as well as grooms, servants, cooks, and drivers for the wagons which transport the offices and baggage of the Head-Quarters.

Head-Quarters are therefore so large as to form virtually a Unit in themselves. This Unit requires a Commandant, or Officer responsible for its movement, quartering, and discipline, with perhaps a Quarter-Master-Sergeant to assist him. There would generally be with each Head-Quarters a small body of Military Police to maintain discipline, and Medical and Veterinary Officers to take charge of the health of the officers, men, and horses at Head-Quarters. The safety of Head-Quarters is so important that they must be provided also with Infantry to guard them, and Cavalry to form their escort when in rapid movement.

Varieties of Staff

The number and description of Staff Officers allotted to a Command depend on its importance, and on the duties they have to perform.

The duty of the Staff Officer is defined as follows in British Field Service Regulations: “To assist the Commander in the supervision and control of the operations and requirements of the Troops, to transmit his Orders, and to assist the Troops in carrying them out.” In the British Service these duties are divided among three Branches of the Staff—the General Staff, the Adjutant-General’s Branch, and that of the Quarter-Master-General.

The Staff has in foreign armies become differentiated into two Branches—the Routine Staff, which the Germans style Adjutantur; and the General Staff, which assists the Commander in all matters directly affecting the fighting. The Prussian General Staff is nearly a century old, and forms in general features a model of the General Staff more recently instituted in other armies. Its development from the Quarter-Master-General’s Staff is sketched in the historical part of this work.

A short analysis of the main duties devolving on these different branches of the Staff will now be given.

THE GENERAL STAFF

The purpose of the Commander is to defeat his enemy, and in endeavouring to effect this object he has two main pre-occupations:

1. To watch the movements and forecast the plans of the enemy.

2. To make his own plans, and to decide on the movements and distribution of his forces required to carry them out.

In order that the Commander may devote his whole attention to these vital matters, he should be as far as possible relieved from details, and these fall within the province of his General Staff.

We thus see that the main duties of the General Staff should correspond to those laid down for the General, and may be summed up under the following heads:

1. Intelligence, to enable the Commander to watch the enemy’s movements, and make his plans.

2. Operations, by which his plans are carried out.

Each of these headings comprises an immense amount of detailed work, which cannot be here dwelt on further than to indicate its general scope.

1. Intelligence means collecting information about the enemy and the theatre of war, from every possible source, and arranging for its transmission to Head-Quarters, to be examined and collated, and then laid before the Commander. This subject also includes everything connected with maps and topographical information, as well as Press Censorship, and provision of interpreters and guides.

2. Operations include:

(a) Working out details of dispositions and movements of troops, as to their units and numbers, with especial attention to place and time, and attention to the security of the troops in movement and at rest.

(b) Embodying the Commander’s plans in clear and concise “Operation Orders.”

(c) Transmitting these Orders with certainty and despatch.

(d) Watching, and ensuring, their due execution.

The services of Inter-communication must be carried on under the control of the General Staff, so as to ensure the rapid transmission of Information to, and Orders from, Head-Quarters.

But in addition to the above responsibilities which fall on the General Staff, there are also Staff duties involved in assisting the Commander to keep his Command in a state of efficiency, which depends on the following requirements:

First, that its organization, discipline, health, and numbers be kept up.

Secondly, that its material wants be met.

These duties do not bear directly on the fighting, and so do not fall to the General Staff, but to the other branches.

THE ADJUTANT-GENERAL’S BRANCH (A.G.)

Duties under the first heading are undertaken by the Staff of the Adjutant-General, which deals with the following matters affecting the personnel of the Command: discipline, law, and police; pay, interior economy, and routine Orders; casualties and returns; appointments, promotions, and rewards; reinforcements, and organization of improvised units and local levies; the disposal of prisoners; collecting the wounded and burying the dead. All possible office work in connection with these matters should be done at the Base, so as not to burden the Troops in the Field with clerical work carried on under difficulties.

Since the Adjutant-General’s Branch is responsible for the health of the Force, the Medical Services are placed under its control in the British Service. In foreign armies they are administered by their own Heads at Head-Quarters of Divisions and Army Corps, under the control of the General Staff.

THE QUARTER-MASTER-GENERAL’S BRANCH (Q.M.G.)

The second heading (supplying the material wants of the Army) comprises, besides the duties of the Medical Services mentioned above, those of the Supply, Store, Transport, and other Administrative Services. The work of the latter is carried out in detail by the Heads of those Services, who are under the control of the Quarter-Master-General’s Staff in the British Service. In foreign armies, where there is no Q.M.G.’s Staff, they are under a Civilian Official called the Intendant, who works under the control of the General Staff in each Command.

The British Staff Organization, which concentrates these Administrative Services under the Q.M.G., is no doubt a better arrangement. It relieves the General Staff of pre-occupation regarding their working, and minimizes any failure of adjustment between the Field Units and the Services on the Lines of Communication, by charging a special Branch of the Staff with their co-ordination.

STAFF OF SUBORDINATE COMMANDS

The above description of Staff work refers in its entirety only to General, or Army, Head-Quarters, but a similar organization of Staff is applicable on a smaller scale to Head-Quarters of Subordinate Commands. In small Head-Quarters the same Staff Officer may have to undertake more than one set of duties.

Importance of the Staff

The importance to the Army of a competent Staff can be judged from the above account of their duties. The Staff forms the nervous system of the Command. The better trained the Staff, the more free will the General be to concentrate his attention on the situation, and his Subordinate Commanders to carry out his plans with co-operating intelligence. Good Staff Officers, it has been well said, are eyes, ears, and hands to their Chief.

Number of Officers Allotted to the Staff

In organizing the Staff of any Command it is desirable to keep the number of Officers at a minimum, as not only does every appointment to the Staff weaken some fighting unit, but a better selection is possible if there are only a few appointments to fill. There will be also less difficulty in finding accommodation in the field for a small Head-Quarters, and less delay or confusion in moving it. It should not be forgotten, too, that there will not always be enough work for a large Staff to do, and that, when men are not fully occupied, mischief and friction are apt to arise.

CHAPTER VII
WAR ESTABLISHMENTS

Their Object and Utility

The previous chapters, describing the Units of the various Arms, and their grouping into the larger Formations, give only the broad lines of the organization of the Army. The detailed composition or Establishment of each Unit is shown in a table giving the numbers of Officers and Non-Commissioned Officers by their ranks, of men according to their various functions, and of horses—riding, draught, and pack. These numbers make up what is termed the Strength of the Unit. Similarly, there are laid down Establishments for the larger Formations, which are given in tables showing the Head-Quarters, the numbers of Units of fighting troops and the Administrative Services, and the total numbers of personnel and animals, according to their various categories.

It is convenient to add to these Establishments a statement of the Transport of each Unit or Formation, showing the guns, wagons, and carts, of all descriptions, with the drivers and animals required.

The Strength given in Establishments represents the total numbers of men and animals drawing rations daily in the field, and may be termed the Ration Strength. It is often summed up as so many “officers” and “other ranks” (or so many of “all ranks”) and horses. The Fighting Strength means the number of men actually available for fighting, and the number of guns horsed and manned. The Fighting Strength is generally reckoned as so many rifles, or men fighting on foot, so many sabres, or mounted fighting men, and so many guns. The number of men with the guns is not included in the fighting strength, nor are officers, Staff Sergeants, or Drivers. But all Cavalry officers, even the Commanders and Staff, might strictly be counted as “sabres,” as they actually fight with the same arm as the men, which Infantry officers do not.

It will be observed that in the larger Formations there is a great discrepancy between the Total Strength and the Fighting Strength. This is due to the numbers of men employed for non-combatant functions, or in the auxiliary services, and of horses required for transport. Thus, in a German Army Corps the total strength is 41,000 men, 14,000 horses, and 2,400 vehicles; while the fighting strength is 25,000 rifles, 1,200 sabres, and 126 guns. In the British Cavalry Division the total strength is nearly 10,000 men and horses, and 550 vehicles; while the fighting strength is under 6,000 sabres, with 24 machine guns and 24 guns.

Tables of War Establishments furnish a complete statement of the Organization for war. On them are founded the necessary calculations for mobilizing the peace army, for its transport by sea or rail to the theatre of war, and for its supply with food, ammunition, clothing, and stores.

The mobilization of a Unit for war may be defined as providing it with the men and animals required to complete its War Establishment, and with its War Outfit, or the matériel of all kinds with which it has to be furnished for War. This War Outfit is in the British Service considered under the following heads:

(a) The Personal Kit of each soldier—that is, his clothing and small necessaries.

(b) War Equipment, which is personal or regimental.

Personal Equipment comprises the Arms and Ammunition carried, and the Accoutrements worn, by each soldier.

Regimental Equipment comprises guns, reserve of ammunition, vehicles, harness, saddlery, stationery, butchery and cooking utensils.

(c) Regimental Supplies of food and forage.

(d) The Medical and Veterinary Equipment allotted to the Unit.

These Establishments are laid down for the most important, or the most likely, wars which the nation may have to wage. They represent the normal requirements, which are those of a campaign in a civilized country, and in a temperate climate. The tables would be altered in the case of war under other conditions, such as in hot or cold climates or seasons, in mountain warfare, in fighting savages, in quelling civil insurrection, or when a force is designed for special and limited operations, such as a raid, or the capture of an oversea fortress.

Instances of such improvised organization may be found in most British campaigns of the past two centuries, and of late years in the Expeditionary Forces sent by France to Madagascar, by the United States to Cuba, and by Germany to South-West Africa.

States and Returns

War Establishments by no means represent the real strength during a war. It may happen that the Army engages in the war without its war establishment being completed. But even if each unit were at its correct war establishment when entering on the campaign, this will not long represent its actual strength. Sick and stragglers waste the ranks daily. After fighting, the missing, wounded, and dead have to be deducted. From time to time reinforcements are added in irregular numbers.

Besides the wastage of units, the whole force at the front is apt to become reduced by detachments being taken to guard communications, to escort prisoners or convoys, to garrison fortresses, or to undertake sieges. Napoleon considered that out of every 8 men in an army, only 5 could be counted on as available for the decisive battle of the war.

It is, however, essential for every Commander to be kept informed of the state of his Command for fighting purposes, which the Establishments do not show. This information is supplied by every Commanding Officer of a Unit in a document called a State, rendered, as a rule, daily. The State shows the fighting condition of the unit, its strength in officers, men, horses, and guns, the amount of ammunition in hand, as well as any other points affecting its fighting efficiency. A State may be rendered by telegraph, or even verbally, to ensure its prompt arrival.

Returns of strength are also made by every Commanding Officer. These differ from States in being rendered at longer intervals, so that they can be more deliberately and accurately made out. They are used for purposes of record and accounting.

Reinforcements

The importance of keeping up the effective strength of the Army cannot be exaggerated. Drafts of reinforcements should be prepared at the outset, and the supply continuously maintained. There is no principle of organization more clear than the necessity of keeping the existing units up to strength, and not reinforcing with new units, even if the numbers added to the Army be the same in both cases. New units are not so efficient as the weak old ones reinforced by fresh men. They will soon become mere skeletons like the old units, after which the Army will consist of a great number of very weak units—a state of things very detrimental to Command and force of action.

The wastage of war falls mainly on the Infantry, whose losses in battle and sufferings on the march exceed those of other Arms. Far more losses are incurred on the march than in the fighting. Marching is the rule of the soldier’s life in war, fighting the exception. Infantry wastes away like snow in the sun, as it marches; footsore men fall out, and fatigue and privations cause illness. The statistics of the diminution of the two finest of the Prussian Corps in 1870 are most striking. The Third Corps, which fought so well at Spicheren on the 6th August, and magnificently at Vionville on the 16th, losing in these battles 350 men per battalion, dropped 200 per battalion on the road. The Guards, who entered France with 30,000 Infantry, had only 13,000 rifles after Sedan, a month later, and 8,000 when they reached Paris, their loss in battle being only 8,350. The battalions therefore had lost 300 men on the road, apart from fighting, during the first six weeks of the war.

In a hard campaign it seems likely, therefore, that a loss of at least 100 men per battalion per month must be expected during hard marches, besides losses in fighting which may amount to more. Some Prussian Regiments lost from 300 to 500 men per battalion during one day’s fighting in 1870.

The strength of Head-Quarters of Commands, and of Administrative Services, remains fairly constant during a campaign, as does the number of guns. Mounted men waste less than Infantry, as they do not become footsore, and do not carry the weight of their equipment, which rests on the horse.

To remedy the wastage of war, the British organization provides for each Unit proceeding to the theatre of operations a Reserve, extra to its Establishment, amounting to 10 per cent. of its number of rank and file. These men are at first retained at the Base, so as to be readily available, and are called the “First Reinforcements.” It is calculated that subsequent reinforcements, amounting to some 60 per cent. of the total strength of the Force, but mainly required for the Infantry, are likely to be sufficient to replace the wastage of the first year of a war. For the British Expeditionary Force of 153,000 in the Field the strength of First Reinforcements is 14,000 and that of subsequent Reinforcements will probably be about 2,700 officers and 75,000 men.

Evils of Improvised Organizations

It might be considered that the larger formations of all Arms need not be permanently organized, but might be improvised for War. This was formerly the system in all armies, and persisted in the British Service until a few years ago; while in the United States there is even now no higher unit than the Regiment. But improvised bodies of troops are not so efficient as permanent formations. This could be shown by many examples from history. The force defeated at Majuba was formed of Companies of several Regiments, and in 1870 the working of the German Cavalry Divisions, which were formed only on mobilization, left much to be desired.

There are several advantages in assembling troops, in permanent Commands. In the first place, the training together of all Arms, and of their various units, creates confidence throughout the force. It can be easily seen how they will learn to know each other’s methods of action, and to rely on their mutual co-operation. For instance, it has been found how much better Artillery supports the other troops of its own Division, whom it has been accustomed to work with.

In the second place, where Staff Officers work constantly together, and understand each other, their work will be better and more rapidly done. Also, when troops are accustomed to work with the same Staff, Orders can be short and concise, and therefore more quickly drafted, and better understood. All this saves time, and much increases the mobility on which depends success in manœuvring.

In the third place, it is most desirable that the Chief should know his Staff and still more his Subordinate Commanders. He will thus be able to apportion to each officer a task suited to his qualifications. This tends to efficiency in Command.

The Administration, too, of improvised units always leaves much to be desired. The Administrative Services of each portion may be permanent and adequate, but additional ones will be required for the new Unit, as well as improvised Head-Quarters. MacMahon’s failure at Wörth was partly due to his having to command a detached Army with only the Staff of his own Army Corps.

Importance of Preserving Original Organization

The organization of a force regulates the conditions of its command and administration, and should be altered during the war only if it be absolutely necessary to do so. Any alteration interrupts the accustomed channel for Orders, necessitates changes in Commanders and Staff, and disorganizes the system of Supply. An improvised unit, it has already been shown, is never so efficient as a permanent one, and to form one will rob some existing units to provide the new Commander and Staff. Change in organization, therefore, makes control less effective, and tends to confusion in administration, and to general diminution of efficiency in the Force.

At the same time, the original organization must not be regarded as immutable, if the Commander-in-Chief considers it necessary to alter it. This is definitely laid down in Field Service Regulations, Part ii., sect. 8, pars. 6 to 10. A redistribution may become imperative for reasons of Strategy or Command, but fewer occasions for this necessity will arise if the original organization has been well thought out, so as to meet all requirements which can be foreseen. In the South African War the organization by Army Corps was given up at the beginning, and has never been revived. But in this connection it may be submitted that the frequent formation of improvised sub-commands for special purposes was responsible for loss of force in their leading, which sometimes entailed failure, as in the case of De Wet’s escape.

It is a rule that units should, if possible, be kept intact when forming detachments like Advanced Guards, or those for special operations, which should not be formed out of fragments of several units, like the force defeated at Majuba Hill in 1881.

The Ordre de Bataille

In planning the movements of a force it is desirable to keep the Sub-Commands in the same relative position throughout. Thus, a corps originally on the right of another should not get to the left of it, nor one in rear pass another in front of it. This will avoid useless marching and delays, and confusion in the trains in rear.

This may be summed up as the principle of maintaining the original Ordre de Bataille. This expression, which originally meant the “battle array,” or order in which the Army was drawn up for battle, is sometimes used to denote the strategical array, or the composition and distribution of the various formations which make up the Army. The Ordre de Bataille has no longer any reference to their relative positions on the battle ground, which necessarily change with the circumstances of each engagement. But this document is still indispensable for an army. No Orders can be drafted except by referring to it, and without it the direction and control of an army would be impossible. A knowledge of the Ordre de Bataille of the enemy—that is, of the composition and distribution of the Subordinate Commands of his army—is obviously of the first importance in planning movements and combinations against him. It can generally be arrived at from a study of his peace organization and his railway facilities for concentration, corrected by any information procurable as to the position of his troops. This information may come from various sources, such as newspaper reports of the progress of his concentration, captured documents and letters, deserters, and spies. After an action, the insignia on the uniforms of dead, wounded, and prisoners, the lettering of captured guns, wagons, and baggage, give valuable hints as to the units engaged. It is open to question whether such information might not be withheld from the enemy.

In the Manchurian War the Japanese carefully avoided helping the enemy by indicating units on uniforms, and instructed their men, when wounded or captured, to refrain from stating their Corps. They increased the strength of their Divisions, altered the number of Divisions composing each Army, and even formed an additional Army out of time-expired reserves, without the facts leaking out. This greatly hindered the Russians from estimating the Japanese strength in the different sections of the great battles.

Napoleon made a practice of allotting larger numbers to the Army Corps and Divisions commanded by his best Generals, and this irregularity was increased by his constantly raising additional battalions and squadrons to meet special exigencies, and by incorporating foreign contingents in his armies. The result was, the French Ordre de Bataille was so irregular as to make any a priori calculation of strength on the part of his enemies of doubtful value.

The difficulty consequently found by the historian in calculating the strengths, and following the movements, of the French Armies in the Napoleonic Wars is a measure of that which his enemy’s Staff must have met in arriving at a definite idea of the strength and disposition of the French Forces at any given moment.

It is plain that the modern aim of making organization so logical and methodical that the Staff can more easily plan operations, and write correct Orders, had little weight with Napoleon. He was himself his own Chief of the General Staff, and had a memory which no complexity could confuse. It may be a question whether modern symmetry of organization may not be really injurious to success, because highly informing to the enemy. Simplicity and symmetry are obviously useful in saving difficulties to the Staff; but this advantage may be bought too dearly, and a complicated and illogical organization might be the best for war, so as to prevent the enemy acquiring information.

PART II
BRITISH WAR ORGANIZATION

CHAPTER VIII
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE
FIGHTING TROOPS

The British Troops organized for service in the field consist of the Expeditionary Force, formed by the Regular Army and its Reserves, and the Territorial Force, composed of troops which are virtually Militia, undergoing only a slight annual training, and engaged in their civil avocations during the rest of the year. To these may be added the regular troops in the Mediterranean (Gibraltar, Malta, and Egypt), and in South Africa, from which a Division may be formed to add to the Expeditionary Force. The forces of the self-governing Dominions need not be considered. They are hardly as yet organized as Field Armies, and are kept up for Local Defence. There is also the Indian Army, composed of regular troops, British and Indian.

The Expeditionary Force corresponds to what in foreign countries is termed the Army of First Line, and the Territorial Force to the Army of Second Line; the former being intended for action against our enemies abroad, and the latter for Home Defence.

The Expeditionary Force

The Expeditionary Force comprises essentially the following bodies of Troops:

One Cavalry Division, as Independent Cavalry.

Two Mounted Brigades, as Army Protective Cavalry.

Six Infantry Divisions, to which may eventually be added a seventh from the Mediterranean and South Africa.

The Force will be provided with a General Head-Quarters, and with an Army Head-Quarters if it is proposed to divide it into two Armies.

There will also be allotted to the Force certain Units under the immediate command of the Commander-in-Chief, termed “Army Troops.” Some of these Units will also be allotted to any separate Armies which may be formed.

Units of Troops will also be provided for duties on the Lines of Communication. These will consist of the “L. of C. Defence Troops,” and of the Head-Quarters and Administrative Services on the Lines of Communication.

The composition of the various Head-Quarters, and the number and nature of the Units of Army Troops, and of the Units on the L. of C., will depend on the conditions of the campaign, which will vary according to the enemy to be encountered, the climate and nature of the theatre of war, and the character of the Lines of Operations and Communications.

It was explained in the previous chapter that in order to allow of normal Establishments to be drawn up, the assumption is made that the war will take place in a civilized country and in a temperate climate. A normal Line of Communications is also assumed, consisting of a Seaport or a Base, a railway from it 100 miles long, and two lines of road 30 miles long from Railhead to the Advanced Bases.

The following pages show the composition of the whole Force and of the various Subordinate Commands forming it, as well as that of the various Head-Quarters, the “Army Troops,” and the Troops on the Lines of Communication. The Establishments of the various Fighting Units are also given, followed by a table of their strength in round numbers of officers, men, and horses actually belonging to the Unit.

Some notes on the general principles on which the Establishments have been drawn up will first be given.

A Medical Officer is attached to each unit, and a Veterinary Officer to each mounted unit.

Two to five men of the Medical Corps are attached to each unit, according to its strength.

A Bâtman—that is, an officer’s servant or groom—is provided for each Officer, and a second one if he has more than one horse. Bâtmen are armed and trained soldiers, taken from the unit, and available for duty in its ranks.

Draught Horses are allotted as follows: six to each gun or ammunition-wagon, four to each wagon, and two to each cart. Spare horses are provided at the rate of 10 per cent. of the total.

One Driver is provided for each pair, and 10 per cent. of spare drivers are added, but this number is 5 per cent. in the case of Divisional Ammunition Columns, and T. and S. Parks.

Two Trumpeters, Drummers, or Buglers, are allotted to each Squadron or Company of Fighting Troops.

The Regimental Sergeant-Major is a Warrant Officer. There is one in each Cavalry Regiment, Infantry Battalion, and Artillery Brigade.

Expeditionary Force
COMPOSITION OF SUBORDINATE COMMANDS

CAVALRY BRIGADE

Head-Quarters.
3 Cavalry Regiments.

CAVALRY DIVISION

Head-Quarters.
4 Cavalry Brigades.
Cavalry Divisional Troops:
Cavalry Divisional Artillery:
Head-Quarters.
2 Horse Artillery Brigades.
Cavalry Divisional Engineers:
Head-Quarters.
4 Field Troops.
1 Wireless Telegraph Company.
1 Transport and Supply Column.
4 Cavalry Field Ambulances.

INFANTRY BRIGADE

Head-Quarters.
4 Infantry Battalions.

DIVISION

Head-Quarters.
3 Infantry Brigades.
Divisional Troops:
Divisional Mounted Troops:
2 Mounted-Infantry Companies.
Divisional Artillery:
Head-Quarters.
3 Field Artillery Brigades.
1 Field Artillery (Howitzer) Brigade.
1 Heavy Battery and Ammunition Column.
1 Divisional Ammunition Column.
Divisional Engineers:
Head-Quarters.
2 Field Companies.
1 Divisional Telegraph Company.
Administrative Services:
1 Divisional Transport and Supply Column.
1 Divisional Transport and Supply Park.
3 Field Ambulances.

MOUNTED BRIGADE

Head-Quarters.
2 or 1 Cavalry Regiments.
1 or 2 Mounted-Infantry Battalions.
1 Horse Artillery Battery and Ammunition Column.
1 Transport and Supply Column.
1 Cavalry Field Ambulance.

ARMY TROOPS

2 Mounted Brigades, to act as Army Protective Cavalry.
2 Squadrons, } as Escort for Head-Quarters.
1 Infantry Battalion, }
2 Cable Telegraph Companies, }
2 Air-line Telegraph Companies, } Communication Units.
3 Balloon Companies, }
2 Bridging Trains.
1 Transport and Supply Column.
2 Field Ambulances for the Army Troops.

Strength of Field Force and of its Main Subdivisions

STRENGTH OF SUBORDINATE COMMANDS

The following are, in round numbers, the strengths of the Expeditionary Force and of its component portions:

Total by Arms

TOTAL STRENGTH OF EACH ARM AND SERVICE, IN ROUND NUMBERS

This total includes some 6,000 Officers.

Establishments of Units
INCLUDING THOSE ATTACHED—VIZ. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY OFFICERS, MEN OF MEDICAL CORPS AND ARMY SERVICE CORPS FOR 2ND LINE TRANSPORT

Strength of Units of Fighting Troops

The following figures are in round numbers, and show officers, men, and horses belonging to the unit. They do not include those attached—namely: Medical and Veterinary Officers, Armourer Sergeants, men of the Medical Corps, and the 2nd Line Transport provided by the Army Service Corps.

[A] With Ammunition Column.

Composition of Head-Quarters

The following tables give the number of officers in the several Head-Quarters comprised in the Force.

GENERAL HEAD-QUARTERS

Commander-in-Chief and Personal Staff	6
General Staff	11
A.G. and Q.M.G.’s Staffs	8
Heads of Administrative Services	15
Other officers	15
Other ranks	nearly 200

ARMY HEAD-QUARTERS

Similarly composed, but with fewer officers.

HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION

General and A.D.C.	2
General Staff	2
Other Staff	7
Other officers (Administrative Services)	26
Other ranks	about 100

HEAD-QUARTERS OF THE BASE

Commandant and Staff	5
Other officers (Administrative Services)	18
Other ranks	about 40

HEAD-QUARTERS OF A DIVISION (INFANTRY OR CAVALRY)

Major-General and A.D.C.’s	3
General Staff	3
A.G. and Q.M.G.’s Staffs	2
Other officers	7
Other ranks	about 70

HEAD-QUARTERS OF A BRIGADE OF CAVALRY OR INFANTRY, OF MOUNTED BRIGADES, AND OF DIVISIONAL ARTILLERY

Brigadier-General and A.D.C.	2
Brigade Major	1
Staff Captain (none in Infantry Brigades)	1
Brigade Signalling Officer	1
(none in Divisional Artillery)
Other ranks	30 to 40
” ” in Divisional Artillery	20

The above does not include officers of the “Army Motor Reserve,” who are attached to all these Head-Quarters, except those of Cavalry and Infantry Brigades and Divisional Artillery.

CHAPTER IX
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (continued) ADMINISTRATIVE SERVICES

A description will now be given of the organization of the British Administrative Services designed for the Expeditionary Force of six Divisions with a Cavalry Division and two Mounted Brigades.

At the head of each Administrative Service is a Director, who is the adviser of the C.-in-C. on technical matters connected with the Service he administers. He is responsible for providing for the requirements which his Service is designed to meet, subject to the instructions of that branch of the Staff to which the C.-in-C. has delegated his authority in this respect.

A representative of each Director is allotted to the Staff of the L. of C. and of the Subordinate Commands, to whom he holds the same position as his Director does to the Staff of the C.-in-C. The Services are thus kept in close touch with the Staff, so as to conform readily to the movements and requirements of the Troops.

The following is a list of the Directors, and shows the nature of the duty of the Administrative Service which each directs.

Director of Army Signals: Service of inter-communication.

Director of Army Medical Services: Care of the sick and wounded; sanitation.

Director of Army Transport: Provision of transport.

Director of Army Supplies: Provision of food, forage, fuel, and light.

Director of Army Ordnance Services: Provision of ammunition, equipment, clothing, and stores.

Director of Army Veterinary Service: Care of animals.

Director of Army Remounts: Providing fresh horses.

Director of Army Railways: Working of railways.

Director of Army Works: Engineer works on the L. of C.

Director of Army Postal Services.

The Service of Army Signals is controlled by the General Staff, and the Medical Services by the Adjutant-General’s Branch, for the reasons previously explained, in describing the organization of the Staff, in [Chapter VI.] All the other Directors, and their representatives with Subordinate Commands, work under the supervision of the Quarter-Master-General’s Branch of the Staff.

Besides the above Directors, and the Administrative Services they control, the following Officials and Departments form part of the General Head-Quarters of the Army in the Field.

A Deputy Judge-Advocate-General, for legal advice, and a Principal Chaplain are attached to Head-Quarters of the C.-in-C., and are placed under the Adjutant-General.

An Accounts Department, under the Financial Adviser attached to Head-Quarters, and a Record Office, to deal with correspondence, will be established at the Base.

Of the officers enumerated above, the first four Directors, those of Army Signals, Medical Services, Transport, and Supplies, accompany General Head-Quarters in the field. The remainder are usually attached to the Head-Quarters of the Lines of Communication, where the Services they administer are mainly employed.

Organization of the Lines Of Communication

It is desirable, therefore, that a sketch of the organization of the Administrative Services should be prefaced by one of that of the Lines of Communication (L. of C.), on which they mainly act. The normal L. of C. for which these Services are calculated is a Railway 100 miles long reaching from a Sea Base to Railhead, and thence by two roads 30 miles long to two Advanced Bases.

The defence of the L. of C. is now entirely separated from its administration, and is entrusted to an Officer styled the Commander of L. of C. Defences, who is also responsible for its military government when in hostile territory. To this officer are allotted certain “L. of C. Defence Troops” (two battalions for the normal L. of C. laid down). The L. of C. is divided into sections for defence, each under a subordinate “L. of C. Defence Commander.”

The administration of the L. of C. is vested in an Officer styled the Inspector-General of Communications, who has command over all the Administrative Services on the L. of C., controls their working, and regulates the traffic on the L. of C. He has a Staff, to which are attached the Heads of the Administrative Services, or their representatives. The L. of C. consists essentially of one or more Advanced Bases close in rear of the Army, a Railhead (beyond which railway service is not organized), various intermediate Sections, or Posts, as required, and, most important of all, the Base, at the end farthest from the front, and nearest home. The sections may be conterminous with the sections of defence. For each of these portions of the L. of C. there is an Administrative Commandant in charge of its interior economy, and responsible for forwarding the traffic on the L. of C. through his section.

Each of the Administrative Services will now be discussed in detail; those which are in part with the Fighting Troops at the front being described in this chapter, those which are entirely on the L. of C. in the next.

1. Service of Inter-communication

It is only in the armies of England and the United States that a complete system of inter-communication between all parts of the Army has been organized. Such a system has not been fully developed in foreign armies, but its necessity is more than ever pressing, owing to the wide dispersion of forces in war, and the need for rapid transmission of Information as to the enemy’s movements from the Front to Head-Quarters, and of Orders from the several Head-Quarters to the Troops.

The means of communication in war are:

Electric: i.e. Telegraph, telephone, wireless.

Visual: i.e. Flag, lamp, or heliograph.

Manual: i.e. Orderlies (mounted, bicycle, or foot); a system of relay posts served by despatch riders; motor cars or motor cycles.

Balloons, aeroplanes, and kites.

Balloons were first used by the French at the Battle of Fleurus in 1794, and are being experimented on by many nations at present. There will be six balloons, of which three can be worked at one time, with the British Army of six Divisions, and probably two balloons to each German Army Corps.

The whole system of inter-communication in the British Expeditionary Force is under the Director of Army Signals, who is at General Head-Quarters, in close connection with the General Staff.

Communication Units are provided for General Head-Quarters and Divisions, and also on the L. of C., as follows:

Cavalry Division: 1 Wireless Telegraph Company.

Infantry Division: 1 Telegraph Company.

General Head-Quarters: 2 Cable Telegraph Companies; 2 Air-line Companies; 3 Balloon Companies.

Lines of Communication: 2 Telegraph Companies.

The following are the details of the communication provided by these units, and of their composition:

WIRELESS TELEGRAPH COMPANY

The Wireless Telegraph Company provides communication between General Head-Quarters and the Cavalry Division, up to 80 miles, and also inter-communication in the Cavalry Division, between Head-Quarters and the Brigades, up to 20 miles.

The Company is composed as follows: A Head-Quarters Section, for communication with General Head-Quarters, and with detached Brigades; three Sections for three detached Brigades (the fourth Brigade being with Divisional Head-Quarters). Each of these Sections carries its wireless equipment in a wagon, but is also provided with 3 pack horses to carry it. The Head-Quarters Section has equipment for 5 large stations—one for communication with the three Sections, two detached to General Head-Quarters, and two for communicating with the latter. These duplicate stations allow of one pair being ready for work while the other pair are moving into new positions as the Head-Quarters advance.

The strength of the Company is 136, with 114 horses—namely: 5 Officers, 6 Sergeants, 4 Artificers, 1 Trumpeter, 120 rank and file, of whom 60 are available for the telegraph work.

There are 16 wagons, 46 riding horses, and 4 bicycles.

DIVISIONAL TELEGRAPH COMPANY

The Divisional Telegraph Company provides for internal communication in the Division. It comprises 3 Detachments, each providing a line of cable 10 miles long, with 3 telegraph offices for communication with the 3 Brigades.

The strength of the Company is 61, with 41 horses—namely: 2 Officers, 3 Sergeants, 1 Artificer, 55 rank and file, of whom 35 are available for the telegraph work.

There are 6 wagons, 21 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.

ARMY TROOPS TELEGRAPH COMPANIES

There are 2 “Cable Companies” and 2 “Air-line Companies” at General Head-Quarters. The former provide temporary communication between General Head-Quarters and Divisions or Army Detachments; the latter, communication of a more permanent character between General Head-Quarters and the Advanced Base.

The “Cable Company” comprises a Head-Quarters, and four Sections, or 9 detachments, each providing 10 miles of cable line, and 3 telegraph offices.

The strength of the Company is 176, with 125 horses—namely: 6 Officers, 7 Sergeants, 4 Artificers, 2 Trumpeters, 157 rank and file, of whom 100 are available for the telegraph work.

There are 19 wagons, 61 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.

The “Air-line Company” comprises a Head-Quarters and three Sections, each of 2 detachments, providing 20 miles of air-line, 8 miles of cable, and 6 offices.

The strength of the Company is 225, with 158 horses—namely: 6 Officers, 12 Sergeants, 5 Artificers, 2 Trumpeters, 200 rank and file, of whom 120 are available for the telegraph work.

There are 22 wagons, 52 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.

BALLOON COMPANIES, FOR RECONNAISSANCE

Three Balloon Companies are allotted as Army Troops, each to work one balloon and one set of kites, with telephones to connect the observer up in the captive balloon or kite with the ground.

The strength of a Company is 67, with 52 horses—namely: 3 Officers, 3 Sergeants, 1 Artificer, 1 Bugler, 59 rank and file, of whom 30 are available for the ballooning work.

There are 3 wagons for equipment, 6 reservoir wagons for gas, 8 riding horses, and 1 bicycle.

Note.—In the strength of all the above Engineer Units are included 2 men of the Medical Corps attached.

The above network of telegraphic inter-communication, extending between all Head-Quarters, is supplemented within the Units of the Field Force by a system of Signalling.

Each Division has a Divisional Signalling Officer, with a small detachment of Signallers—4 men in the Cavalry Division, and a Sergeant and 6 men in the Infantry Division.

Each Brigade has a Brigade Signalling Officer and 4 Signallers.

Each Cavalry Regiment and Mounted Infantry Battalion has a Signalling Sergeant, with 27 Signallers (9 per squadron).

Each Infantry Regiment has a Signalling Officer and Sergeant, with 32 Signallers (4 per company).

Each Divisional Artillery Head-Quarters has 4 Signallers.

Every Artillery Brigade has 2 Signallers.

Every Battery has 5 Signallers.

A system of Telephones is, in addition, provided for each Infantry Brigade. There is a Telephone Detachment to work under the Brigade Signalling Officer. It consists of a N.C.O. and 5 privates, with a cart and a pack mule to carry the equipment, for which 2 drivers are allotted.

2. Transport

Road Transport alone will be here considered. This is the most important of the Administrative Services, as on it depend the mobility of the Force, and the working of the Supply, Medical, and Stores Services. Transport is required with the Units at the front, to carry the baggage and stores of the troops, and their ammunition and food for daily consumption, and to enable field ambulances to accompany the army. Transport is also required on the Lines of Communication, to bring up ammunition and food from the base to the front, and to remove the wounded to the base.

It is agreed that Transport must be organized on a military basis when accompanying troops at the front, where civil transport is hardly dependable; but to provide the vast amount required in rear of the army on the L. of C. would demand more military Transport than could be kept up in peace, and Auxiliary Transport has to be collected from civil services for this purpose.

It is obvious that without a carefully worked out system of organization for its Transport, an army in the field will be helpless from want of ammunition and food, and slow and uncertain in its movements; the sick and wounded will lack attention; and the troops cannot fail to undergo hardships and privations, which will have a bad effect on their morale and fighting power.

Owing to the enormous amount of food required for an army, the main function of the Transport is to carry supplies, so that the connection between Transport and Supply is a very intimate one. It has been found desirable, therefore, to amalgamate the administrative units which effect these two services. Those who are responsible for providing food should also be responsible for moving it. The administrative units of the combined services of Transport and Supply are provided by the Army Service Corps, as shown in detail in the next section of this chapter. The Officers of this Corps are trained both for Transport and Supply duties. Their identical training and their organization together in one unit tends to produce co-operation in both services of Transport and Supply, and should minimize any chance of failure in war. The fact that all officers are interchangeable between these services also gives an elasticity to the system which is wanting when they are separate.

REGIMENTAL TRANSPORT

The Transport with the Units in the field is called Regimental Transport, in distinction from the Transport on the Lines of Communication, and consists of two categories:

(a) Transport of Fighting Units, including all Head-Quarters. This Transport is divided into First Line, and Second Line, Transport.

(b) Transport of Administrative Units—i.e. Ambulances, Supply Columns, and Supply Parks.

(a) First Line Transport forms an integral part of each fighting unit; the unit provides its own drivers and superintendence for its transport, which accompanies it at all times. The First Line Transport carries on wheels (or by pack) all that the unit requires for fighting—namely: guns, ammunition, entrenching tools—besides signalling, medical, veterinary, and other technical equipment.

Second Line Transport for all units is provided by the A.S.C., to carry the baggage, supplies, stores, and water which the unit requires to have with it when at rest. This transport is not required for fighting, and, when near the enemy, does not accompany its unit, but is all massed in rear of the fighting troops, but able to rejoin its various units in a few hours. The water carts alone may at times accompany the troops.

The stores carried include cooking utensils and butchers’ implements, artificers’ tools and material, office books and stationery; also, when specially required, blankets, tents, and fuel.

The supplies carried are indicated later in the description of the Supply Service which follows.

Transport for each Head-Quarters is all furnished by the Army Service Corps (A.S.C.).

(b) Transport of Administrative Units.—This is provided also by the A.S.C., and is described in the two following sections of this chapter, under the heading of the Supply Services and Medical Services.

TRANSPORT ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION

The Transport on the Lines of Communication is controlled by the representative of the Director of Transport at Head-Quarters of the L. of C. It is carried on by Auxiliary Transport Companies, composed generally of non-military wagons, teams, and drivers, under the control of a small personnel of Army Service Corps. Mechanical Road Transport is likely in the future to be very largely employed on the L. of C. to work from railhead to the Units of field troops at the front.

In the British Army organization the details of the L. of C. Transport are as follows:

Twelve Auxiliary Transport Companies of 50 wagons, and six of 100 wagons, are formed. Each has an A.S.C. personnel of 3 Officers and 54 other ranks, with 10 riding horses. Every 50 wagons require 115 drivers and 210 horses, including 5 per cent. spare.

In case the local transport is formed of carts, the Auxiliary Company has an A.S.C. personnel of 1 Officer and 28 other ranks. Every 50 carts require 58 drivers, and 105 horses, including spare.

There are four units called Transport Depôts, each with a personnel of 3 Officers and 93 other ranks, organized in four Sections; each Section can form a small depôt on the L. of C., providing a reserve of horsed transport to replace wastage, and a repairing section for mechanical transport.

Transport for local work at the Base, and at posts on the L. of C., is improvised from civil sources, as it requires no great degree of mobility, and, working locally, and at a distance from the enemy, can be easily kept under supervision.

3. Supply

Experience teaches that supplies of food can only be furnished to troops during war in three ways:

(a) The men may be fed by the occupants of the houses where they are billeted.

This is only possible in towns, or in the country when the troops are much scattered, and when the Army is moving continuously, and the troops do not remain more than a day or two in one place.

(b) Food may be obtained from the country by purchase, or by requisition, which must always be carried out in a regular manner by responsible officers, or waste, confusion, and individual looting and terrorism will ensue.

(c) Food may be drawn from the L. of C. and issued by the Supply Service.

A combination of all three methods is generally practicable. The food available in the country should be used as far as possible, so as to avoid straining the resources of the Supply Service, and the capacity of the Lines of Communication.

Under the average conditions of country and climate for which the British normal regulations are designed, it may be expected that fuel, water, hay and straw, and cattle, will be obtainable in the country. Thus only bread and groceries, and corn for horses, have normally to be conveyed to the troops by the Supply Service.

Both purchase and requisition demand good organization, and trained supply officers accompanying the troops. The Supply Service is organized in the way about to be described, partly so as to provide officers, men, and wagons to collect supplies in the country and bring them to the troops, partly to transport from the Base what is required to supplement the amount collected.

The Supplies for an Army in the Field may be considered under two heads:

(I.) Mobile Supplies with the Troops.

(II.) Supply Depôts on the Lines of Communication.

(I.) MOBILE SUPPLIES WITH THE TROOPS

The former are divided into three lines of supply:

(a) Regimental Supplies, controlled by the Unit itself.

(b) Column Supplies.

(c) Park Supplies.

The last two are controlled by the Supply Service.

(a) Regimental Supplies are those carried in Regimental wagons, in addition to what is in the personal charge of each man—namely, the remains of the current day’s ration issued overnight, and an emergency ration of preserved food. In the wagon with each unit are one day’s ration of food and of oats for the unit, for issue that evening, besides a second grocery ration and some compressed forage.

(b) Column Supplies are carried in Supply Columns, of which one is allotted to each Division and Mounted Brigade, and to the Army Troops. Each Column carries one day’s ration and forage for its Division, and one emergency ration. One day’s meat on the hoof will usually be driven with the Column.

The Supply Column replenishes the regimental supplies daily, and is kept filled up by collecting local supplies, or by drawing on the L. of C. depôts, or, as a last resource, on the Park Supplies.

(c) Park Supplies are carried in the Transport and Supply Park allotted to each Division, which usually marches a day’s march in rear of the troops. It carries three days’ rations for its Division, and is divided into three sections, i.e. 1 per Brigade. There is in the Field Park also a Bakery Detachment, capable of baking for 22,500 men; this is, as a rule, stationed at the Advanced Base. One to three days’ meat supply on the hoof will generally be driven with the Park. The Parks are kept filled up by a more extended exploitation of local resources than the Supply Columns can effect, and obtain the balance required from the L. of C. depôts.

This organization thus supplies the following rations per man, and corn per horse, with the troops in the field, apart from any Supplies which may be moving up along the L. of C.

COMPOSITION OF FIELD RATION

Meat: 1¼ lb. fresh, or 1 lb. preserved.

Bread: 1¼ lb., or 1 lb. biscuit.

Groceries: Tea, sugar, salt, pepper.

Jam.

Lime-juice and rum, when authorized.

Vegetables: 8 oz. fresh, or 2 oz. dried, or 4 oz. preserved fruit.

The weight of a ration may be taken at 3 lb. net or 4 lb. gross, and that of the emergency ration is 6½ lb. net or 9½ lb. gross.

The preserved meat and biscuit are carried in 80-lb. wood cases, containing 60 rations of meat and 50 of biscuit. The cases furnish kindling for fires.

12 lb. corn per horse, or 15 lb. for heavy draught horses.

DISTRIBUTION OF SUPPLIES

On the man or horse: 1 day’s ration and 1 day’s oats, less amount consumed overnight; 1 emergency ration.

In Regimental Transport: 1 day’s ration, less vegetables, and 1 day’s groceries extra; 1 day’s corn.

In T. and S. Columns: 1 day’s rations and corn.

In T. and S. Park: 3 days’ rations and corn.

Compressed forage: 1 bale (82 lb.) in each wagon in the Force.

Total carried with the Force per man and horse:

6 days’ meat and biscuit and corn, less that consumed overnight;

6 days’ groceries;

5 days’ jam, lime-juice, and rum;

4 days’ vegetables;

2 emergency rations;

or sufficient for from 7 to 8 days, without receiving supplies from the L. of C.

(II.) SUPPLY DEPÔTS ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION

Advanced Supply Depôts, established at the Advanced Base, to replenish the Mobile Supplies with the Troops.

Intermediate Supply Depôts, formed at Railhead, and sometimes at other points on the Lines of Communication, as a reserve.

The Base Depôt.—This is the main source of supply for the Army. In it are accumulated ample reserves of all supplies, procured partly from home, partly by contract from abroad, but as far as possible by direct purchase in the theatre of war.

INTERIOR ORGANIZATION OF TRANSPORT AND SUPPLY UNITS

The Supply Columns and Supply Parks are formed by Companies of the “Army Service Corps,” which comprise both Transport and Supply personnel, with the necessary horses, wagons, and stores.

The Company of Army Service Corps varies in strength according to its functions, but comprises on an average the following:

For Transport duties: 3 Officers, 63 other ranks, 108 horses, 25 wagons.

For Supply duties: 1 Officer, 13 other ranks.

The various Supply Columns are formed of a number of A.S.C. Companies on the following scale: one Company per Brigade, and one per Head-Quarters; so that the Supply Column of a Division comprises 4 A.S.C. Companies, that of the Cavalry Division 5 A.S.C. Companies, and that of a Mounted Brigade 1 A.S.C. Company. The Army Troops Supply Column is formed by 1 A.S.C. Company.

The Divisional Supply Park is formed in 3 sections, or one per Brigade, each being formed by 1 A.S.C. Company.

The Field Bakery Detachment is formed by 1 A.S.C. Company, and is divided into 8 sections, each of which can erect and work 10 ovens.

The Supply Depôts on the Lines of Communication have a personnel provided from 40 Depôt Units of Supply and 8 Bakery Sections; one unit and one section are calculated to suffice for a depôt to feed 4,000 men and 1,000 animals. Their personnel comprises clerks, issuers, butchers, and bakers. Civil labour and transport will be obtained to supplement the military personnel, as required.

4. The Medical Services

The Medical Service is of immense importance to the operations. No General can afford to neglect his sick and wounded. He can hardly fight, if he knows he cannot attend to them on the battlefield, and remove them afterwards to hospitals in rear. There must be at the front sufficient surgeons, as well as medical appliances and stores, to cope with this work. The transport of the sick to the rear must be carried out without delay or confusion, and on the Lines of Communication, and at the Base, there must be properly equipped hospitals to receive the sick and wounded.

The method of dealing with casualties in action is as follows:

In the front, with the fighting men, are the regimental surgeons and the stretcher bearers of the Infantry, for work on the battlefield. Behind the fighting line are stretcher bearers and ambulance wagons of the Field Ambulance, collecting the wounded, and taking them to the dressing stations. In rear are the Clearing Hospitals, into which the sick and wounded are collected, and whence they are despatched in Ambulance Trains along the railway to Stationary Hospitals on the Lines of Communication, or to the Base Hospitals. The invalids are then removed, either to convalescent depôts on the L. of C., or by hospital ship to the home country, where civil organization can be depended on to help the Military Hospitals to deal with them.

The Medical Services are manned and administered by the “Royal Army Medical Corps.” Their transport is provided by the Army Service Corps. The organization comprises the following:

(a) WITH THE TROOPS AT THE FRONT

1. Medical Establishments with Units.

2. Field Ambulances with Subordinate Commands.

(b) ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION

Six Clearing Hospitals, at Advanced Base.

Six Ambulance Railway Trains, each available for 100 patients lying down.

Twelve Stationary Hospitals of 200 beds each, on the Lines of Communication.

Twelve General Hospitals of 520 beds each, at the Base.

Convalescent Depôts, as required.

Six Hospital Ships, each to carry 220 patients.

Three Base Depôts, and three Advanced Base Depôts, containing a reserve of Medical Stores.

It will be observed that for a Division and a Brigade of Mounted Troops there are provided 1 Clearing Hospital, 1 Ambulance Train, 2 Stationary and 2 General Hospitals, and 1 Hospital Ship.

DETAILS OF MEDICAL ORGANIZATION

1. Each Unit has attached to it a Medical Officer, and itself supplies two trained Orderlies, and a cart (or pack horse for mounted troops), to carry medical equipment. There are also two trained stretcher bearers from the ranks of each Infantry Company (or four men from each Squadron), trained in “first-aid” duties.

2. Field Ambulances are allotted to each Division, and Cavalry Field Ambulances to the Cavalry Division, and to the Mounted Brigades. They are provided on the scale of one for each Brigade. There are also two Field Ambulances for the “Army Troops.”

Each description of Ambulance comprises a Bearer Division of stretcher bearers, and a Tent Division, which forms a “Dressing Station”—that is, a small mobile field hospital in which only absolutely necessary dressing is applied.

The Field Ambulance is divided into three equal Sections, and the Cavalry Field Ambulance into two Sections. Each Section has 3 ambulance wagons, a water cart, and 2 wagons and a cart for carrying its stores, baggage, and supplies. Each Section is thus self-contained, and can be sent off without reorganization, whenever required to accompany a detached portion of the Brigade.

The strength of a Field Ambulance is:

10 Officers, 120 stretcher bearers, 60 hospital staff, all belonging to the Royal Army Medical Corps (R.A.M.C.), and 60 men and 90 horses provided by the A.S.C. for its transport, which consists of 10 four-horsed ambulance wagons, 3 water carts, and 9 other wagons for medical supplies, baggage, and stores. Its Bearer Division provides 18 squads of stretcher bearers, each squad being of 6 men; and its Tent Division can accommodate 150 patients.

A Cavalry Field Ambulance comprises:

6 Officers, 38 stretcher bearers, 30 hospital staff, of the R.A.M.C., and 44 men and 70 horses of the A.S.C. It has 4 two-horsed, and 6 four-horsed, ambulance wagons, 2 water carts, 4 other wagons. Its Tent Division can accommodate 50 patients.

The establishment of a Clearing, or a Stationary, Hospital to accommodate 200 patients is 8 Officers and 80 other ranks; that of a General Hospital, 21 Officers and 140 other ranks. Nursing sisters are allotted to the non-mobile Hospitals on the L. of C. at the rate of 17 to 200 patients, but not to the mobile Clearing Hospitals.

Each Ambulance Train is provided with 2 Officers, 18 other ranks, and 2 sisters, and can carry 100 patients.

THE SANITARY SERVICE

The Sanitary Service is one of the Medical Services. Its object is to preserve the health of the troops, by looking after purity of water supply, and sanitation of camps.

The personnel of the Sanitary Service is provided by the R.A.M.C. It comprises a Sanitary Squad with each Unit, and on the Lines of Communication a Sanitary Section at the Base and Railhead, a Squad at each Post or Rest Camp, and 2 Squads at each Advanced Base.

The Section comprises an Officer and 25 men of the R.A.M.C., the Squad a Sergeant and 5 men.

In addition, a N.C.O. of each Cavalry Regiment, or Artillery Brigade, or Battalion, and 1 or 2 men of each Squadron, Battery, or Company, are trained for carrying out Sanitary duties with their Unit.

CHAPTER X
THE EXPEDITIONARY FORCE (continued) SERVICES ON THE LINES OF COMMUNICATION

5. The Veterinary Service

The efficiency of the Veterinary Service is of great importance to prevent waste of horseflesh.

This Service is under its Director, who has a Veterinary Officer to assist him. A Veterinary Officer is allotted to each Division and to the L. of C. Each of the above officers has one clerk. A Veterinary Officer is attached to each mounted unit to treat its horses. He is assisted by the Farriers in his work, and is provided with a pack horse to carry his veterinary equipment.

Hospitals for sick horses unavoidably left behind are formed at the Advanced Bases, and at the Base, where there is also a depôt of Veterinary Stores. The necessary personnel for these hospitals is provided by six Veterinary Sections, each of 2 Officers and 32 other ranks, with 83 horsekeepers. A Section can take charge of 250 sick horses. Horses when cured are transferred to the Remount Depôt.

Veterinary Officers are also allotted for duty at places where horses are landed, and with the Remount Depôts. They are also charged with the duty of inspecting cattle before slaughtering.

THE REMOUNT SERVICE

The total number of horses in the Field Force is nearly 70,000, and it is estimated that twice as many more will be required to keep up this strength for twelve months of war.

The Remount Service is formed to supply the “remounts,” or fresh horses continuously required to replace those expended in war. The Head of this Service is the Deputy Director of Remounts.

Remount Depôts are formed at the Base and the Advanced Bases, where all animals procured for the use of the Army are taken charge of, trained, and distributed to the Units. The Base Remount Depôt can receive 1,000 animals. It is managed by a personnel of 11 Officers and 337 other ranks. The strength of an Advanced Remount Depôt is 4 Officers and 112 other ranks, and each is adapted to receive 300 animals.

6. The Ordnance Services

Stores of all sorts, except medical and veterinary, are supplied to the Army by the Ordnance Services. The supply of ammunition is the most pressing service, but troops require a variety of other stores—tools and explosives, boots, clothing, equipment, and arms. Workshops are required for repairs of all sorts, especially to vehicles and harness.

The Ordnance Services are controlled by the Director of Ordnance Stores and his Deputy, under the Inspector-General of Communications, each with two Ordnance Officers as assistants. The organization consists of Ordnance Depôt units—10 at the Base, 7 at Railhead, and 2 at each Advanced Base—which form Ordnance Depôts at those places. Each unit consists of 2 Officers and 69 clerks, storemen, and artificers, with as much civil labour as may be required.

ARRANGEMENTS FOR AMMUNITION SUPPLY

The main duty of the Ordnance Services is forwarding ammunition to the front, where it is taken over by the Fighting Units, at places called the Refilling Points, which are generally about a day’s march in rear of the fighting line. One Auxiliary Transport Company of 100 wagons is allotted per Division for carrying ammunition to these points. To ensure an adequate supply at the front demands careful organization and good administration of the Ordnance Services, as ammunition is expended at uncertain dates, and in amounts which cannot be forecast.

The amount provided for the Field Force is as follows:

GUN AMMUNITION

1,000 rounds per Field or Horse Artillery gun; 500 per Howitzer and Heavy gun. About half of this is carried by the Fighting Troops; the rest is in Ordnance charge on the L. of C.

SMALL-ARM AMMUNITION

With regard to the amount of ammunition required in the field, it should be noted that the quantity of Gun Ammunition that may be expended with quick-firing guns is very great. In Manchuria, both Russian and Japanese Batteries have been known to fire 500 rounds per gun in one day. The amount of Gun Ammunition carried in the French Army is 2,000 rounds per gun—i.e. 500 rounds with Batteries and Ammunition Columns, and 500 in the Army Ammunition Park, the Army Park, and in depôts on the L. of C., respectively.

As to Rifle Ammunition, the Japanese found that the 270 rounds carried by each man ran out, and they consider that each man should have 350 rounds available with his Regiment, and 150 more in Ammunition Columns. This makes a total of 500 with the Fighting Troops, which the British allowance of 450 nearly approximates.

7. The Railway Services

The efficiency of the service of the railways which generally form the Lines of Communication is of the utmost importance to the Army, as on it depends the issue of supplies and ammunition to the troops at the front, and consequently their ability to move and fight.

The control of the Railway Services is laid on the Director of Railways, who is responsible to the Inspector-General of Communications, and works under the supervision of the Quarter-Master-General’s Branch of the Staff.

The work of the Railway Services comprises the maintenance and working, as well as the repair (and sometimes the construction), of railways in the theatre of operations. The personnel of the Railway Services consists of two entirely separate bodies. One is termed the Technical Railway Personnel, and the other the Railway Control Establishments.

The Technical Personnel is provided in a friendly country by the civil railway companies, but in a hostile country by the Royal Engineers, when it is organized in a Central Railway Establishment, two Railway Districts, and three Railway Companies of Engineers. There is allotted also, from the two Lines of Communication Telegraph Companies, a Railway Telegraph Section for the exclusive use of the Railway Service.

The “Central Railway Establishment” and the two “Railway Districts” are organized in branches for the following purposes: Management, Traffic, Engineering, Locomotive, Accounts, Stores. The total strength of these Units is 51 Officers and 854 other ranks.

The total strength of three “Railway Companies” is 12 Officers and 732 other ranks.

The Railway Control Establishments are the medium of communication between the troops and the Technical Personnel. Officers of this body are posted at the chief stations to facilitate the traffic, arranging all details with the troops, providing meals at certain stations, and supervising the movement of men, animals, and stores.

The personnel of the “Railway Control Establishment” is 7 Officers and 10 clerks and checkers, distributed to each important station.

The Director of Railways and his personnel have no responsibility for the technical security of the railway; for this the “Commander of the Line of Communication Defences” is responsible.

8. The Works Service

The Director of Works carries out all Engineer services (apart from Railways and Telegraphs) required on the Lines of Communication. One Company of Engineers, without transport, is allotted for these services, and is supplemented by civil artisans and unskilled labourers, who are either brought from home, or hired locally.

The works on the Lines of Communication are described in [Chapter II.] Many are required at the Base in connection with the heavy work involved in landing troops, supplies, and stores, and sending them up to the front. For these purposes existing works may have to be adapted, or new ones constructed. All have to be maintained, and any plant required kept running. Works at the Base have to be of a semi-permanent character, in view of possible lengthy operations.

In addition, the Engineer Company provides workshops, and depôts of stores and material, which are established at the Base, the Advanced Bases, and at Railhead, for the use of the Engineers at the front.

9. The Postal Service

A military organization is needed with an Army in the field, so as to ensure regular postal communication to and from home. This is a modern innovation in war, but one of importance to the comfort and spirits of the troops, and is a service demanded by their friends at home and by the nation in general.

This service is controlled by the Director of Postal Services, who is attached to Head-Quarters of the Inspector-General of Communications.

A chief Post Office is established at the Base, where all incoming or outgoing mail is dealt with. It has a personnel of 85 of all ranks, furnished by the “Army Post Office Corps.”

Smaller Post Offices are established at the Advanced Bases, and others, each of four men, are allotted to posts on the Lines of Communication, and to Head-Quarters of Brigades and Divisions in the field.

10. The Accounts Department

The Accounts Department is responsible for Finance, Accounts, Audit, and the disbursement of cash for the Army in the field. It is under the Financial Adviser at Head-Quarters with three Assistant Advisers.

The personnel of the Department consists of Accountants, Cashiers, and Field Paymasters.

The Accountants are in the Accounts Offices at the Base, which are manned by three Accounts Units, each with a personnel of 43 Accountants and Cashiers, with their servants, and 138 Writers.

Each “Base Accounts Unit” is organized to deal with the accounts of two Divisions, a Cavalry Division, and a Mounted Brigade. It is under a Chief Accountant, whose duties include dealing with Contracts, Store and Supply Accounts, the Accounts of the Troops, and Audit.

The Cashier Staff is usually at the Base, where the bills incurred by the various Services are paid, and any necessary issues of cash on imprest made.

The Field Paymasters are stationed at convenient places nearer the troops; they provide Commanding Officers with cash for paying the men, and pay bills incurred locally, if urgent.

At the Base is the Military Chest, holding the cash reserve of the Army. That it should be ample during the Campaign is of vital moment. Credit notes are a poor substitute for cash in an enemy’s, or even an ally’s, country. As von der Golz says, “a full exchequer may be worth an Army Corps, and a clever financier at the side of the Commander-in-Chief equal to a first-rate General.” Cash is required not mainly for the pay of the troops, but to purchase in the country what the Army needs, and to pay for the large amount of civilian labour which will be required on the L. of C. Cash is also needed to buy information, or reward inhabitants for services. The immense importance of having, without fail, ready money for these purposes—so essential for the operations of the Army—cannot be over-estimated.

11. The Records Branch

The Records Branch supplies, on mobilization, one Section of clerks for each Division, and for each Cavalry or Mounted Brigade, to carry on the clerical work at Head-Quarters of Commands in the field. Artillery and Engineers supply their own clerks for their Head-Quarters.

A Record Office is established at the Base, to carry on all office work in connection with the personnel from which it is desirable the units in the field should be entirely freed, such as the soldiers’ attestations and medical history sheets, and their accounts. From this office, too, are sent to England reports, returns, war diaries, and lists of casualties. It also conducts the clerical work in connection with invaliding.

The Base Record Office consists of six Sections, or one for a Division and a Cavalry or Mounted Brigade. A Section comprises 3 Officers, 4 Staff Sergeants, and the Orderly Room Clerk of each Unit belonging to the Division or Brigade allotted to the Section. There are two divisions in each Section—one for Infantry Battalions, one for all other Units.

12. Depôts for Personnel

Base Depôts are formed to receive the personnel left by each Unit at the Base, which comprises its Band Sergeant, Master Tailor, and Storemen. The latter take charge of such part of the men’s equipment as is kept back at the Base, as not being required in the field, and must yet be available when needed.

The men of each Unit who form its “First Reinforcements” are also placed in the Base Depôt. These are calculated at the rate of 10 per cent. of the rank and file of each Unit in the Field, with an Officer for every party exceeding 40 men.

* * * * *

The above completes the picture of the Organization of the British Field Army for service abroad.

A brief account of the Territorial Force will now be given, followed by one of the Indian Army, as organized for service in the field.

CHAPTER XI
THE TERRITORIAL FORCE—THE INDIAN ARMY

The Territorial Force

A British “Second Line Army” is provided by the Territorial Force. It consists of 14 Divisions, 14 Mounted Brigades, and certain “Army Troops.” These are organized on the same lines as the regular Units, but differ in the following points:

1. The Cavalry and Mounted Infantry Units are both provided by the “Yeomanry,” and consist of Regiments of 4 Squadrons instead of 3 as in the regular Cavalry. The Divisional Cavalry is formed of a Regiment of Yeomanry, instead of 2 Companies of Mounted Infantry as in the regular Division.

2. The Artillery is in Batteries of four guns, instead of six as in the regular Artillery.

3. The Divisional Supply Column is formed of 4 A.S.C. Companies, that is 1 per Brigade and 1 for the Divisional Troops. There are no Divisional Supply Parks.

4. There are no Divisional Ammunition Columns.

5. Cyclist Battalions will form part of the Army Troops.

The Army of India

The Field Force which can be mobilized in India for war consists of 9 Divisions and 8 Cavalry Brigades. It is composed of British and Indian Troops in combination. This fact necessitates an organization somewhat different in detail from that in England, especially as to number of Officers and men and constitution of Administrative Services. But, on the whole, the organization of the Army of India is on the same lines as that of the Home Army.

The main differences are as follows:

The Infantry Brigade, which has 4 Battalions as in the Home Army, is organized for independent action, having its own Administrative Services—namely: two Ambulances, a Supply Column, and a Field Post Office.

The Cavalry Brigade, like that of the Home Army, is of 3 Regiments, but the Regiment has 4 Squadrons. The Brigade is also organized for independent action, having a Horse Artillery Battery and Ammunition Column, and the necessary Administrative Services, like the Infantry Brigade.

The Division is of three Brigades, with two Field Companies of Engineers, like the British Division, but it has an extra Battalion of Pioneers and a whole Cavalry Regiment. It is weaker in Artillery, having only one Brigade of Field Artillery, but it has 2 Mountain Batteries. The Indian Division has the same Administrative Services as a British Division in England, with a Survey Party in addition.

The Staff and the Field and Horse Artillery are British. The Infantry Battalions, Cavalry Regiments, and Mountain Batteries are either British or Indian. The Engineer Companies and Administrative Services are Indian. In all Indian Units the higher ranks are filled by British Officers.

The following gives the Establishment of Brigades and Divisions:

Indian Army Organization

Cavalry Brigade

Battery Horse Artillery.
Cavalry Regiments, 1 British and 2 Indian.
Ammunition Column.
Field Hospital, 1 Section British, 2 Sections Indian.
Field Post Office.
Brigade Supply Column.
Total Strength: British: 70 Officers, 650 men.
” ” Indian: 40 Officers, 1,100 men, 1,950 horses.

Infantry Brigade (British or Indian)

Infantry Battalions, 4.
Field Hospitals, 2.
Field Post Office.
Brigade Supply Column.
Total Strength: British Brigade: 132 Officers, 3,300 men,
122 horses, with 700 Indian followers.
” ” Indian Brigade: 88 Officers, 3,000 men,
600 followers, 122 horses, with 70 British Officers.
Infantry Brigades are sometimes organized with
1 or 2 British and 3 or 2 Indian Battalions.

Infantry Division

Infantry Brigades, 1 British and 2 Indian.
Cavalry Regiment, 1 Indian.
Pioneer Battalion, 1 Indian.
Field Artillery Brigade, 1 British.
Mountain Batteries, 2 British or Indian.
Engineer Field Companies, 2 Indian.
Field Hospitals, 1 Indian and 2 Sections British.
Divisional Ammunition Column.
Field Post Office.
Supply Column for Divisional Troops.
Divisional Supply Column.
Survey Party.
Total Strength: British: 370 Officers, 4,100 men.
” ” Indian: 230 Officers, 8,200 men,
2,600 followers, 1,950 horses.

CHAPTER XII
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BRITISH WAR ORGANIZATION

The most recent developments of Organization are well illustrated in that of the British Army, which has been lately reorganized in accordance with the trend of modern views as to the conduct of War.

Ruskin once wrote that no modern man could ever realize the amount of thought built into a Gothic cathedral, where the size and detail of each part have been designed with reference to the proportion it bears to the whole, as well as to the number and dimensions of its fellow members. It would be equally impossible to sum up in a short chapter the thought built into the organization of the British Army. To appreciate its details demands a thorough knowledge of the working of each Arm and of each Administrative Service. Each is planned to be of such strength and composition as to enable it to perform all that is required of it, and to ensure that all shall work in harmonious co-operation under the strain and friction of War.

Among the points which are especially worth noticing are the following, which bear out the principles of Organization dwelt on in previous chapters.

Organization by Divisions

It was shown in [Chapter V.] that small armies should be formed of Divisions and not of Army Corps. This principle has been adopted.

The strength of the British Expeditionary Force is practically that of three Cavalry Divisions and three Army Corps of the German Army. The former comprises 75 Battalions, the equivalent of nearly 23 Regiments of Mounted Troops, and 492 guns; the latter, 75 Battalions, 24 Cavalry Regiments, and 468 guns. But the British Force is organized so as to be more flexible, and to facilitate and strengthen the Supreme Command. It is more flexible from the greater number of Subordinate Commands. It facilitates Command by having two links fewer in the chain of Command—the Army Corps and the Regiment. It strengthens Command by not having any Subordinate Commander of the importance of the German Army Corps Commander to reckon with—a point emphasized by Clausewitz.

Facility of Subdivision

The British organization is so planned that the Force can be readily divided, when required, into two Armies, each of which can be provided with its proportion of Strategic and Protective Cavalry, and of Army Troops, without disorganizing and rearranging those Formations.

This principle has been carried throughout the Force. Thus, the Cavalry Division can supply any detached Brigade with the Divisional Troops required—namely, a Battery of Horse Artillery, a Field Troop of Engineers, a Section of the Wireless Telegraph Company, a Field Ambulance, and a Company of A.S.C. to form the Brigade T. and S. Column, there being one of each of these Divisional Units for each Brigade to be detached.

Similarly, the Cavalry Brigade can detach one of its Regiments provided with Sections from the Field Troop of Engineers, the Field Ambulance, and the A.S.C. Company, so as to be self-contained.

In exactly the same manner, the Division of Infantry can at any time detach a Brigade provided with its due proportion of all Arms and Administrative Services, without confusion and delay.

The Infantry Brigade, also, can detach Battalions equally self-contained; and the Artillery Brigade can allot a Section of its Ammunition Column to any Battery which it may be desirable to detach.

Staff

The following principles have been adopted:

Separation of the General Staff from the Branches of the Staff charged with Routine and Administrative work, and making the latter Branches subordinate to the General Staff for their general direction, while independent in their working. This matter has been discussed in [Chapter VI.]

Reduction of the numbers attached to General Head-Quarters, by relegating most of the Directors of the Administrative Services to the L. of C. This is very desirable in the case of the Services which work on the L. of C., in order that the Directors may be in intimate touch with their work. As a rule, only the Directors of Army Signals, Supplies, Transport, and Medical Services will accompany General Head-Quarters at the front.

Cavalry Organization

The view has been accepted that the same body of Cavalry cannot perform the two often incompatible duties of obtaining Information, and providing Security for the Army. This subject has been fully discussed in [Chapter II.]

The Force is therefore provided with a large Cavalry Division to form the Independent Cavalry responsible for Strategic Reconnaissance, and a smaller body, the Mounted Brigades, for the duty of Protection.

The Independent Cavalry is no longer hampered by having to cover the front of the Army with a protective screen. Its strength of 4 Brigades, or 12 Regiments, with 4 Batteries of Horse Artillery, makes it equivalent to two Continental Cavalry Divisions, but, being permanently organized under one Command, it will have greater flexibility, and be more prompt and efficient in action, than the two separate Divisions. As to this, von Bernhardi says “one strong Division under a single Command is of far more use than two weak ones.” This endorses the British organization.

The allotment of Mounted Infantry to replace Divisional Cavalry, and to form the bulk of the protective Mounted Brigades, sets free nearly all our Cavalry Regiments for their true offensive function, for which they can be expressly trained. Our Cavalry Regiments run no risk of being broken up to provide Divisional Cavalry or Escorts to Head-Quarters on mobilization, as is unavoidable for many Continental Cavalry Regiments, in which case, not only is their real Cavalry training wasted, but their Head-Quarters are superfluous. Von Bernhardi recommends a Cyclist Battalion being attached to each Army Corps to eke out the Cavalry, a suggestion we have anticipated by the use of Mounted Infantry.

The organization of Cavalry Regiments and Brigades in three units tends to facilitate command and tactical action. Our Yeomanry and Cavalry in India have the 4-Squadron organization, and opinions differ as to the value of the 3-Squadron Regiment, but the 3-Regiment Brigade is undoubtedly a more flexible and efficient instrument for rapid and decided action than the weak foreign Brigade of 2 Regiments which von Bernhardi condemns.

The provision of Mounted Brigades, under the Army Commander, is an innovation. Their functions are in foreign armies carried out by the Divisional Cavalry; but the screen formed by such Squadrons, acting independently under their Divisional Commander, can hardly be as continuous and effective as that provided by the British Mounted Brigades acting directly under the orders of the Army Commander.

The fire action of the Mounted Troops has been developed, as mentioned in [Chapter II.] In this point the British Cavalry, armed with the Infantry rifle, is undoubtedly in advance of any other. The use also of Mounted Infantry, peculiar to the British Service, provides more efficient fire action for both Army and Divisional Protective Cavalry than in any other army. This will increase the power of the protective screen to drive in that of the enemy, and assist the Advanced Guards to push on, or at least to hold their ground till the main body can deploy and come into action.

Machine Guns

Two Machine Guns form an integral part of Battalions and Cavalry Regiments. This provides a greater number of these guns than in Continental armies at present (see page [34]).

Field Artillery

The proportion of guns to Infantry has in all armies been steadily rising during late years. It is now higher in the British than even in the German organization, and far higher than in other armies.

The modern tendency to provide different natures for different purposes has been followed, in allotting a Howitzer Brigade and a Heavy Battery to each Division.

In action a number of assistants are allotted to each Artillery Commander, to enable him to use indirect fire with facility, and to combine the fire of all his guns to the greatest effect.

Ammunition Supply

The organization of the supply of ammunition in action has been systematized in detail. Ammunition Columns are organized so as to be divided readily to accompany detached Batteries, and to facilitate the supply of ammunition to Infantry, Cavalry, and Mounted Brigades.

Engineers

Modern war demands more and more the co-operation of Engineers with other Arms. This has been recognized in Japan, where a Battalion is attached to a Division. The British Division has now 2 Field Companies, or double the number in Continental armies. Each is provided with some Bridging Equipment for forming small bridges without waiting for the “Bridging Trains” to come up. There are two of these Bridging Trains, which form part of the Army Troops, and are ready to be sent to the front whenever it is foreseen that large bridges will be required on the forward march of any part of the Army. When there is no need of them, the Bridging Trains will march in rear, so as not to block the roads.

Organization of the Division

One of the most important improvements in the British organization is that a Division is formed of three Infantry Brigades, instead of the two nearly universal in foreign armies. This change has often been recommended by foreign military experts, notably by von der Golz in his “Nation in Arms.” It is economical in Divisional Staff, and increases the importance and efficiency of the Divisional Command. It provides 12 Battalions for a Division, as in Germany, but without the insertion of an extra link—the Regiment—in the chain of Command. The almost universal organization of Infantry in foreign armies in Army Corps of 2 Divisions, Divisions of 2 Brigades, and Brigades of 2 Regiments, must be considered, for reasons already stated, a faulty one. The British Divisional organization, both in Infantry and Cavalry, is undoubtedly superior.

Inter-communication

The personnel and equipment necessary for inter-communication are now provided by a number of “Communication Units.” These ensure ready and effective communication between the Commander-in-Chief and his Cavalry and his Infantry Divisions, between the Divisions themselves, as well as internally in each. This is now more important than ever, owing to the wider dispersion of the troops, and the absolute necessity of obtaining early intelligence about the enemy, and transmitting orders without delay. All means of Communication, whether by telegraph, wireless, telephone, day and night signalling, or despatch riders, should be under one organization. Each Command—Army, Division, Brigade—is now provided with means of communication forming integral portions of the Command, and trained Regimental Signallers carry on the system from Brigade Head-Quarters to the troops actually at the front. In no other army is the Telegraph system so completely organized, while Signalling is but little developed outside England.

Lines of Communication

In the British Service alone has the important principle been adopted of separating the duties on the Lines of Communication into two independent branches, that of their Protection, and that of their Administration, thus leaving the Officer charged with their administration to concentrate his attention on this vital matter. This Officer, the Inspector-General of L. of C., has now to assist him an adequate Staff, whose composition is organized beforehand, and no longer left to be improvised in war. The organization of the L. of C. has been remodelled, and the necessary Staffs allotted to the Base, Railhead, Advanced Depôts, and smaller posts. This will prevent confusion at the outset, and facilitate working on the L. of C.

The organization of the Administrative Services on the L. of C. has been elaborated in great detail, to ensure their efficient action. This applies especially to the Medical Services, whose organization is now as complete and well thought out as in any army in the world, and to the Transport and Supply Services, which, as explained in [Chapter VII.], are closely united, and likely, therefore, to work better together than in foreign armies, where Transport is a Combatant Unit, and Supply a Civil Department.

The great importance of Railways on the L. of C. has been fully realized. British war experience has of late been considerable, and the personnel required for working railways in war has been carefully thought out, and organized in great detail. The number of Railway Units has been increased, and, in their completion to war strength on mobilization, full advantage has been taken of the unrivalled resources of England in highly trained railway personnel.

Finance and Clerical Work

The financial difficulties met by an Army in the Field have been faced, and the C.-in-C. relieved from responsibility for them. An establishment of personnel to deal with Accounts and Audit accompanies the Army in the Field, and is stationed at the Base, so as to systematize the Finance and Accounts, and facilitate the custody and issue of cash for necessary administrative purposes.

A clerical establishment has been established in the Base Records Office, which should greatly relieve the fighting units from all possible clerical and office work which can be done at the Base.

Postal Service

A complete Postal Service for the Army in the Field has now been for the first time provided in the War Organization.

Reinforcements

The question of Reinforcements has been met by mobilizing with each Unit what are termed its First Reinforcements, at the rate of 10 per cent. of the rank and file. These accompany their Units to the theatre of operations, but are at first left at the Base in depôts which are organized on mobilization to receive them. From these depôts they can, when needed, be sent to reinforce their own Units at the front, without delay or confusion.

Reinforcements of “Second Line” Troops are provided from the “Imperial Service Section” of the Territorial Force, who can be sent abroad as Units for defence of Lines of Communication, escorting prisoners, guarding conquered territory, and all duties for which Second Line Troops are used in foreign armies.

Arrangements for Reinforcements in horses have been made, by registering private horses at home, and organizing the collection of horses purchased abroad, as well as by the organization of Remount Depôts on the L. of C.

FIELD ARMY FOR SERVICE ABROAD.

PART III
ORGANIZATION OF FOREIGN ARMIES

CHAPTER XIII
WAR ORGANIZATION OF THE FIGHTING TROOPS

The organization of foreign armies differs considerably from that of the British Army. They are, however, all formed on the German model, with the exception of the Army of the United States. Their organization is therefore to some extent identical, and may be understood from the following table, showing the normal Continental organization, which has been copied also by Japan. The organization of the United States has followed original lines.

Notes are given of the main points in which some foreign armies differ from the normal organization.

Then follow tables showing the war organization of each of the chief armies of the world (1909). That of the German Army, the typical Continental Army, is given in greater detail than the others.

Normal War Organization of Foreign Armies

INFANTRY

Company: 250 men.

Battalion: 4 Companies, or 1,000 men.

Regiment: 3 Battalions (all Russian, and some German, Austrian, and French Regiments have 4).

Brigade: 2 Regiments.

Division: 2 Brigades.

Army Corps: 2 Divisions (3 in France and Austria).

CAVALRY

Squadron: 4 Troops, or 150 men.

Regiment: 4 Squadrons (Russia and Austria 6; Italy and Japan 5; Switzerland and the United States 3, like England).

Brigade: 2 Regiments.

Division: 2 or 3 Brigades.

FIELD ARTILLERY

Battery: 6 guns (4 in France, Switzerland, and the United States, 8 in Russia).

“Group” (our Brigade): 3 Batteries.

Regiment: 2 “Groups.”

Brigade: 2 Regiments.

Rank of the Officers commanding the above Formations

In Russia the Lieutenant-Colonel replaces the Major, as that rank does not exist.

The following tables give the war organization of the formations of fighting troops in the principal armies of the world.

GERMANY

Infantry

Fighting strength: 3,000 bayonets, 6 machine guns.

Total strength: 3,300 men, 190 horses, 60 vehicles.

Fighting strength: 12,000 rifles, 600 sabres, 72 guns, 24 machine guns.

Total strength: 17,000 men, 4,000 horses, 600 vehicles.

Fighting strength: 25,000 rifles, 1,200 sabres, 126 guns, 48 machine guns.

Total strength: 41,000 men, 14,000 horses, 2,400 vehicles.

Cavalry

Fighting strength: 3,600 sabres, 12 guns, 6 machine guns.

Total strength: 5,000 men, 5,300 horses, 200 vehicles.

Artillery

FIELD ARTILLERY

(In one Division of each Army Corps 1 Abteilung is detached for duty with the Reserve Army.)

HEAVY ARTILLERY

One Battalion of Heavy Field Howitzers will probably be allotted to each Army Corps. Their function is to support the Field Artillery.

The Heavy Field Howitzer Battery has 4 guns and 8 wagons.

The Field Mortar Battery has 4 mortars, each with 3 carriages—one for travelling, one for firing, and one carrying firing platform. It has no ammunition wagons.

The function of Field Mortars is to attack Barrier Forts, or strongly defended positions. These Batteries will probably be allotted to Armies, not Army Corps.

Ammunition Columns

Field Battery wagons: 130 rounds shrapnel per gun.

Light Ammunition Columns, Field Artillery: 58 shrapnel, 44 high explosive, per gun.

Heavy Ammunition Columns, Field Artillery, 8 per Army Corps, or 1 per Artillery Regiment: 115 shrapnel, 26 high explosive, per gun.

Total with Troops, per Field Gun: 373 rounds, of which 80 per cent. are shrapnel, 20 high explosive.

FRANCE

Infantry

Fighting strength: 12,000 to 18,000 rifles, 150 sabres, 36 guns.

Fighting strength: 36,000 to 42,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres, 126 guns.

Cavalry

Artillery

FIELD ARTILLERY

HEAVY ARTILLERY

RUSSIA

Infantry

Fighting strength: 28,000 rifles, 3,600 sabres, 124 guns.

Total strength: 40,000 men, 16,000 horses.

Cavalry

Fighting strength: 3,600 sabres, 12 guns.

Artillery

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Infantry

Strength: 16,000 rifles, 730 sabres, 24 guns.

Strength: 32,000 rifles, 1,500 sabres, 144 guns.

Total strength: 46,000 men, 13,000 horses, 4,000 vehicles.

Cavalry

Fighting strength: 3,600 sabres, 12 guns.

Artillery

HEAVY ARTILLERY

MOUNTAIN ARTILLERY

ITALY

Infantry

Fighting strength: 12,000 rifles, 150 sabres, 24 guns.

Fighting strength: 25,000 rifles, 450 sabres, 72 guns.

Cavalry

Artillery

JAPAN

Infantry

Cavalry

Field Artillery

SWITZERLAND

Future war organization by Divisions, which will, in 1912, replace the present organization in 4 Army Corps.

Infantry

Of the 18 Infantry Brigades, 4 will be “Mountain Brigades.”

Cavalry

Artillery

UNITED STATES

The organization of the army of the United States is on different lines from that of other armies.

No higher formation than the Regiment exists in peace, but it is understood that the following is the organization contemplated in war.

Infantry

Cavalry

Artillery

CHAPTER XIV
COMPOSITION OF NATIONAL ARMIES

It may be of interest to glance at the strength of the Forces which the chief military nations will put into the field at the outbreak of war. The strength depends essentially on the number of organized Formations of Troops. It would be quite erroneous to estimate it by the total number of individual soldiers which the nation is estimated to possess.

Large numbers of untrained men, without organization to embody them in, add little to actual military strength.

Armies of First Line

The Army which will take the field at the outbreak of war is the Regular Army, which is organized, kept up, and trained, year by year, in peace. The War Army will be this Peace Army mobilized, or brought up to war strength and completed in every essential, by calling up reserve officers and men to fill its ranks.

The Force thus produced is the “Army of First Line,” and its strength is measured by the number of the main Sub-Commands (Army Corps or Divisions) which the peace organization indicates that it is intended to form on mobilization. The men in its ranks are from 20 to 30 years of age. The Army will, on mobilization, form large depôts for all its units, on which to draw for reinforcements.

Armies of Second Line (Reserve or Territorial Armies)

Most nations will also mobilize an “Army of Second Line,” mainly composed of Reserve Divisions of Infantry. Some of these Divisions may be inserted in the Army Corps of the First-Line Force, as in France and Austria; others may be added independently to some of the Armies, as in the German Army in 1866 and 1870; in some cases they may be formed into a separate Reserve Army, either for support of the Armies in the Field, or for special operations in a separate theatre. The main work, however, of the “Second-Line” Force will be to defend the Lines of Communication, and provide troops for Sieges, for Garrisons, and for Coast Defence. It will also have to guard the railways at home, keep order in the cities, guard frontiers, and take charge of prisoners. Germany provides an Army of Third Line, called the Landwehr or Home Defence Army, for the latter purposes.

Until late years no country but Prussia had an Army of Reserve, or a “Territorial Army.” Its formation to replace loose levies, or “National Guards,” has been a great step in organization for war. The latter, being practically improvised bodies, were deficient in discipline and cohesion, even if inspired by patriotism and courage. Territorial Forces, on the contrary, are to some extent organized, at least with “cadres”—that is, in skeleton—the officers for them being allotted beforehand; their personnel, too, will consist to some extent of men who have had more or less training; their arms and equipment can be provided in peace. The process, therefore, of mobilizing a Territorial Force will be far less hasty and confused than in the case of new levies. At the same time, “Second-Line Armies” are never so well organized as those of First Line. They comprise an undue proportion of Infantry to the other Arms, and will be weak in Cavalry, guns, and Engineers; their Administrative Services will be mainly improvised; they will be officered by old regular officers, or non-professional younger ones; the men will have been some years away from the ranks, and their training will be rusty. The formation, too, of Reserve Units will generally have to be postponed until the heavy work of mobilizing and concentrating the First-Line Army is completed. In German opinion the Reserve Army is not fit to be placed in first line at the beginning of a war.

The British Territorial Force differs from all others in being completely organized with a correct proportion of all Arms and Services, and provided in peace with Subordinate Commanders and their Staff, besides being trained annually.

Reserves

In addition to the above Reserve Forces, all foreign nations possess a last resource in the shape of a great number of men, many of whom, however, have received no training at all. Being totally unorganized, they could only be used as reserve men to fill the depôts of the organized Forces, and should not rightly be counted in to swell the numbers of available troops.

It may be of interest to glance at the actual forces which Germany could produce for war, as her army may be taken as the best developed example of the modern national armies of Europe.

A. Army of First Line: 23 Army Corps and 14 Cavalry Divisions, with their Depôts.

B. Reserve Army, of Second Line: 48 Infantry Divisions, formed by Cadres taken from the Standing Army in peace, and filled by men who have passed through the Army into the Reserve.

C. Landwehr Army, of Third Line: 30 to 40 Brigades of Infantry—that is, 1 per Division, or perhaps only 1 per Army Corps, of the Standing Army.

Cadres for B and C are formed as follows:

Each Infantry Regiment of the Army in peace forms on mobilization:

(a) A Depôt for itself, to supply drafts.

(b) A Reserve Regiment for B.

(c) 1 or 2 Companies of a “Landwehr” Regiment for C.

Each Cavalry Regiment forms its own depôt with its 5th Squadron, and provides 2 reserve Squadrons for B and C.

Artillery and Pioneers form a few units for B and C.

The Train does the same, but can only supply rudimentary units.

Table of War Strengths of the Various Powers

TOTAL WAR STRENGTH

The following table shows the strength of the Armies of First and Second Line which could be put into the field by the various military nations at the beginning of a war. The strength is shown in Army Corps and Divisions, and the Armies are placed in two Categories:

A. The larger ones, organized by Army Corps.

B. Those organized by Divisions.

The strength shown does not include Troops raised in the Colonies, nor those garrisoning outlying possessions, such as the Russian Army Corps in the Caucasus and Siberia, or the British garrisons of Coaling Stations.

The British 7th Division, made up of the Mediterranean and Cape garrisons, and the French Army Corps in Algeria, are, however, included.

The numbers of Cavalry and Reserve Divisions are conjectural, as in most cases they are only formed for war.

A. ARMIES ORGANIZED BY ARMY CORPS

B. ARMIES ORGANIZED BY DIVISIONS

PART IV
HISTORY OF ORGANIZATION

INTRODUCTION

This interesting subject can only be treated very cursorily, but it is hoped to present a general view of the developments which have taken place in the organization of armies in the field, since the introduction of firearms.

The method adopted for describing this process of evolution is as follows:

The beginnings of organization, and the earliest organized forces—those of the Reiters and Landsknechts in the fifteenth century—are briefly described.

An account follows of the subsequent development of organization in each Arm of the Service separately, noting especially the armies which stand out as the best organized of their time—namely, the Dutch Army of Maurice of Nassau, and the Swedish of Gustavus Adolphus.

A description is given of the “New Model” Army raised by the Parliament in their struggle with Charles I., which is a typical example of seventeenth-century organization. The New Model is of especial interest to Englishmen, not only from the unmatched quality and unbroken success which make it one of the most remarkable armies in history, but because its organization still survives to a great extent in the British Army of to-day.

After describing the organization of armies during the eighteenth century, the great changes introduced in the wars of the French Revolution are discussed, and it is shown how modern forms of organization have resulted from them.

A chapter is devoted to the development of the Staff, and more especially that of the General Staff, and some remarks are then given on the evolution of the Services of Transport and Supply, and of Medical Organization for War.

Throughout these chapters notice is taken of the period at which our military terms were introduced, and the way in which they obtained their special signification—a subject of some interest in connection with organization. These facts are embodied for reference in a list of military terms, showing their origin and derivation, given in [Appendix A].

In this connection it did not seem out of place to make some remarks on the inconsistencies and ambiguities of our present Military Terminology, with the view of pointing out the desirability of reforming it. These remarks are given in [Appendix B].

CHAPTER XV
ORGANIZATION IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

A Sketch of the Origin of Organization as seen in the Early Standing Armies of Europe

The organization of armies in the ancient world, or in Asia in more recent times, must be regarded as beyond the scope of this work. The history of Organization will be taken up at the time when the use of firearms had begun to revolutionize fighting, and transform the feudal levies of the Middle Ages into regular armies.

Modern organization dates from the close of the Feudal Epoch in the fifteenth century, after which wars were waged less for national purposes than for the furtherance of dynastic or State interests, and were no longer carried on by the levy of the nation, but by mercenaries hired by the Monarch or the State.