Please see the [Transcriber’s Notes] at the end of this text.

This book on woodworking contains notes and working drawings for the content in [Correlated courses in woodwork and mechanical drawing] by the same author, available at Project Gutenberg.

FOREST INTERIOR. SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA.

ESSENTIALS OF
WOODWORKING
A TEXTBOOK FOR SCHOOLS

BY
Ira Samuel Griffith, A. B.
ILLUSTRATIONS BY
Edwin Victor Lawrence

The Manual Arts Press
Peoria, Illinois

Copyright
Ira Samuel Griffith
1908

PREFACE.

An experience, somewhat extended, in teaching academic branches of learning as well as woodworking, has convinced the author that the most effective teaching of woodworking can be accomplished only when its content is made a subject of as diligent study as is that of the other and older branches. Such a study necessitates the possession, by the student, of a text-book.

The selection of a suitable text is made difficult because of the fact that tool processes are usually treated in connection either with models or exercises. It is hardly to be expected that any one set of models or of exercises, tho they may be of very great value, will fill the needs of varying local school conditions. The production of a text-book which shall deal with tool processes in a general way without reference to any particular set of models or exercises is the author’s aim. It is believed that such a text will prove suitable wherever the essentials of woodworking shall be taught, whether in grammar, high school or college, and whatever the system of instruction.

A few words as to the manner of using the text seem advisable. It is not expected that the book will be studied chapter by chapter, consecutively, as are the elementary texts in mathematics or science. Rather, it is to be studied topically. To illustrate: A class is to make a model, project, exercise, or whatever we may choose to call it, which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the manner of using them. At a period previous to their intended use the numbers of the sections of the text relating to these tools and their uses, or the page numbers, should be given the student. Previous to the period in which these tools are to be used he should be required to study the sections so marked. The recitation upon the assigned text should take place at the beginning of the period following that of the assignment, and may be conducted in a manner quite similar to that of academic branches.

This should prepare the way and make intelligible the “demonstration” which may be given in connection with the recitation or at its close.

If as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is insisted upon in the recitation as is insisted upon in the academic classroom, there need be but little excuse for ignorance on the part of the pupil when he begins his work or at any subsequent time.

Acknowledgement is due the Department of Forestry, Washington, D. C., for the use of material contained in the chapter on Woods and for the prints from which many of the half-tones relating to forestry, were produced.

INTRODUCTION.
Care of Tools and Bench.

It is important that a beginner should become impressed with the importance of keeping his tools in the best condition. Good results can be obtained only when tools are kept sharp and clean, and used only for the purposes for which they are made. Tools properly sharpened and properly used permit one to work easily as well as accurately. When it becomes necessary for the worker to use undue strength because of the dullness of his tools, “troubles” begin to accumulate and the “pleasure of doing” is soon changed to despair.

Orderliness and carefulness, with knowledge and patience are sure to bring good results; just as a lack of them will bring failure.

The bench top must not be marked with pencil or scratched unnecessarily. Chisel boards are to protect the top from any accidental cuts and should always be used for that purpose. Bench tops that are scraped and shellaced or oiled every other year ought to remain in as good condition as when new except for the few accidental marks too deep to remove, which the thoughtless boy may have inflicted.

Good workers take pride in keeping their benches in good order. Tools that are not in immediate use should be placed in their racks that they may not be injured or cause injury to the worker. At the close of the period the bright parts of tools that have come in contact with perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept for that purpose. All tools should then be put away in their proper places and the top of the bench brushed clean.

The beginner should also understand that, important as are the results he may be able to produce in wood, more serious results are being produced in himself in the habits he is forming. Carefulness, neatness, accuracy, ability to economize in time and material, ability to “think” and “to do” because of the thinking, honesty, orderliness—these are some of the more important results that are oftentimes overlooked.

CONTENTS.

PART I.
TOOLS AND ELEMENTARY PROCESSES.

CHAPTER I.
Laying-Out Tools—Their Uses.

1. The Rule.

—The foot rule is used as a unit of measurement in woodwork. The rule ordinarily used is called a two-foot rule because of its length. Such rules are hinged so as to fold once or twice and are usually made of boxwood or maple. The divisions along the outer edges, the edges opposite the center hinge, are inches, halves, fourths, eighths, and on one side sixteenths also. [Fig. 1].

Fig. 1.

The rule should not be laid flat on the surface to be measured but should be stood on edge so that the knife point can be made to touch the divisions on the rule and the wood at the same time. [Fig. 2].

Fig. 2.

Whenever there are several measurements to be made along a straight line, the rule should not be raised until all are made, for with each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur.

Fig. 3.

The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or surface by placing it across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece to corresponding inch, or fractional marks shall be the same, [Fig. 3], the middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks selected.

2. The Try-square.

—The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel or it may have a head of wood called the beam and a blade of steel. The blade is graduated into inches and fractions of an inch. As all try-squares are liable to be injured by rough usage, care should be taken not to let them drop on the bench or floor, nor should they ever be used for prying or pounding. [Fig. 4].

Fig. 4.

The try-square is used for three purposes: First, to act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right angles to an edge or surface; second, to test an edge or end to see whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test a piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length.

[Fig. 5] shows the various positions assumed in lining across a piece. The beam should be held firmly against either the face side or the face edge.

The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made true. The face edge is the first edge which is made square to the face side and straight. These two surfaces are usually marked in some way so that they may be distinguished from the other surfaces. Their use is fully explained in [Chapter III].

Fig. 5.

If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it should be reversed. The knife should be inclined forward and away from the blade of the try-square slightly. A light, firm line should be made the first time across the piece.

Fig. 6.

In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam should be held, as in lining, firmly either against the face side or the face edge. [Fig. 6]. Care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece. Also test at a sufficient number of points to show fully the condition of the edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not objectionable if the blade be held lightly on the surface. Under no circumstances should the try-square be used to scrape the wood.

Fig. 7.

In testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length, place the blade across the surface to be tested, holding the beam lightly against the face side or face edge, slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the graduations at the outer edge. [Fig. 7].

3. The Framing Square.

—Large squares of one piece of steel, called framing squares, are used by carpenters for large and rough work. The long arm is called the blade and the short one the tongue. [Fig. 8]. In addition to the divisions into inches and fractions of an inch, there is on the blade a board measure table and on the tongue a brace or rafter measure table. This square will be found convenient when “cutting up” stock, also for testing corners of large pieces of furniture and for setting the bevel to various angles.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

4. The Bevel.

—The bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable blade. [Fig. 9]. This blade may be set at any desired angle from 0 to 180 degrees. The manner of using the bevel is similar to that of the try-square. When adjusting, the blade should be just loose enough to move upon the application of slight pressure.

There are various ways of setting the bevel to the required angle. Should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available, angles of 30 degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees are easily obtained by adjusting the bevel to the sides of the required angle.

Fig. 10.

To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the framing square, hold the beam against one of the arms, [Fig. 10], and move the blade so that it shall pass through corresponding points on both blade and tongue. [Fig. 11] illustrates a method in which no other tools are needed. A line is squared across a board having a straight edge. Equal distances are measured from the point at which the line cuts the edge, the blade then being made to pass through these points while the beam is held tightly against the edge.

Fig. 11.

For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife line at right angles to an edge. [Fig. 12]. Measure from the edge, along this line, or from this line along the edge any given distance. Take twice this distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be twice that of the shortest.

5. The Marking Gage.

—The gage is used for laying out lines along the grain of the wood. It consists of a beam, [Fig. 13], head, thumb screw, and marking point or spur. The spur should be sharpened to a knife point with a file so that it may make a fine smooth line. It should project far enough below the beam so that the beam may be rolled forward in such a way as to bring the spur into the board at a slight angle, when properly marking. It should extend not less than an eighth of an inch and in most cases three-sixteenths of an inch.

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13.

The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It is safer to set the gage with the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the gage block. This is done by holding the gage bottom side up in the left hand. With the right place the end of the rule against the head. [Fig. 13]. After the screw has been tightened, apply the rule again to make sure of the correctness of the setting.

Fig. 14.

To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three fingers grasping the beam, first encircling the head for narrow work, and the thumb back, or nearly back, of the spur. [Fig. 14]. The head should be kept against one or the other of the face sides. Begin at the end of the piece which is towards you, hold the block firmly against the piece, roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the surface and make a very light line. [Fig. 15] illustrates the manner of raising the spur from the wood by raising the wrist during the backward stroke. It will be found convenient to hold the piece against the bench stop. This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see how deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against the face properly. Avoid deep lines. They are inaccurate even if straight and always cause trouble in the making unless the grain of the wood is perfectly straight.

Fig. 15.

6. The Pencil Gage.

—There are occasions when a pencil-gage marks with sufficient accuracy and is more suitable because its point does not cut the wood, such as in gaging for a bevel. A hole bored thru the beam near one end, just large enough to receive a pencil snugly, will suffice. [Fig. 16].

Fig. 16.

[Fig. 17] illustrates a method frequently used by carpenters. The fingers act as a gage head.

7. Slitting Gage.

—A slitting gage is one in which the spur is sharp and strong, and will cut thru soft lumber as thick as one-quarter of an inch. The boards are cut from each side and considerable pressure is required. Sometimes a handle like that of the plane is fastened to the beam near the knife or spur. [Fig. 18].

Fig. 17.

Slitting Gage
Mortise Gage
Panel Gage For wide boards

Fig. 18.

8. The Mortise Gauge.

—[Fig. 18] also shows a mortise gage used in advanced work. It has two spurs, one of them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the beam at any desired distance from the stationary one, so that the two sides of a mortise or tenon can be marked at once.

9. The Dividers.

—Dividers, [Fig. 19], are used (1) in describing circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a given number of parts, and (3) in marking one member which is to be fitted to another irregular member. [Fig. 20] shows the manner of setting the dividers. The thumb-screw should be released so that the legs may be moved without much effort. When the approximate setting has been secured, use the thumb-nut for adjusting to more accurate measurement. In describing circles, the dividers should be held as in [Fig. 21] and swung to the right or left as is convenient. They should be leaned forward slightly and an effort made to secure a sharp, light line. For most work the two legs may be sharpened to points. Sometimes one is sharpened like a knife point.

Fig. 19.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 21.

10. Pencil and Knife.

—Pencil lines may be used in getting out stock from rough material and in laying out work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not be visible. Pencil lines should be carefully made, however. The pencil may be used also in marking bevels, curves and in other places where the knife or gage mark would be injurious. Otherwise, the knife and gage should be used. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by means of the eraser.

Fig. 22.

In laying out rough stock, if the first edge is sufficiently straight, it is usual to thumb-gage for width. This is done by holding the pencil at the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage head, drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-beam. [Fig. 22].

Fig. 23.

A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often used in marking out. Mark off the length of the piece of wood required. Mark off the breadth at the end of the board, also mark it near what is to be the other end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two marks and draw the line. [Fig. 23]. The try-square should be used to mark across the grain.

CHAPTER II.
Saws.

11. Saws.

—Saws which are used in cutting across the grain are called crosscut; those which are used in cutting parallel to the grain are called ripsaws. [Fig. 24]. Upon the blade of a saw, near the handle, will be found a number. This represents the number of points to the inch. Points should not be confused with teeth, for there is always one more point per inch than there are teeth.

Fig. 24.

To prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the saw, the teeth are bent alternately from side to side, that the opening may be wider than the blade is thick. The saw teeth are then said to have “set.” To do good work, a saw should have no more set than is necessary to allow a free movement. [Fig. 25]. Damp, spongy lumber will require considerable set, while well seasoned lumber necessitates but little.

End view—(Exaggerated)
Edge view
Side view

Fig. 25.

The rake, or pitch of the teeth of a saw is the degree of slant which the cutting edges possess with reference to an imaginary line passing thru the points of the teeth. [Fig. 25]. The amount of pitch given will depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put, whether for ripping or cross cutting, and somewhat upon the hardness or softness of the wood to be cut. [Fig. 26] shows the saw in proper position. It should be held in the right hand with the left hand grasping the board, the thumb of the left hand acting as a guide in the beginning. The thumb should be held firmly on the board and the blade of the saw should be pressed lightly against it. The cutting edge of the saw should be held at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the board and should be started on a backward stroke. The first few strokes should be short ones, increasing gradually in length.

Fig. 26.

If the tool is sharp, but little pressure will ever be required and, in starting, the tool must be held up so that its weight shall come upon the wood gradually. Saws can be guided better if the index finger of the right hand is allowed to extend along the side of the handle. Test occasionally, sighting down the saw blade to see that the sides of the saw are at right angles to the surface of the board. A try-square may be used by the beginner, as shown in [Fig. 26].

If the saw does not follow the direction of the line, the blade should be slightly twisted, as the sawing proceeds, in the direction it ought to take. This must be carefully done so as not to cause the blade to bind and kink. In sawing a board which has been fastened in the vise, the most convenient position is obtained by sawing at right angles to the surface. Unless the saw has considerable set, difficulty will be experienced in changing the direction of the cutting should this be necessary. This may be overcome by lowering the handle so that the cutting edge shall make the same angle with the board as when the board rests on trestles.

When making a long cut, should the kerf bind, a wedge may be inserted as shown in [Fig. 26].

All saws will work easier and will be found less likely to rust if their sides are rubbed occasionally with an oily rag or a piece of tallow.

Fig. 27.

12. The Crosscut Saw.

—[Fig. 25] shows the teeth of a crosscut saw. This saw is filed so that the cutting edges are on the sides of the teeth. Every tooth is sharpened to a point, one on the right side, the next on the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points with a V-shaped groove between.

The pitch given the teeth of a crosscut saw will vary with the hardness or softness of the wood which is to be cut. For all-around use the amount of slant is about one-third of the whole tooth. [Fig. 27].

13. The Rip-saw.

—The teeth of the rip-saw are chisel shaped, [Fig. 28], and are made by filing straight across the blade. The front or cutting edges are filed so that they are square, or at right angles to an imaginary line passing through the points of the teeth.

Fig. 28.

14. The Back-saw.

—The back-saw, or tenon-saw as it is often called, has a thin blade strengthened by a heavy steel back piece. It is used upon work requiring delicate, accurate cutting, [Fig. 29]. [Fig. 30] shows the shape of the teeth, which differ slightly from those of the cross-cut. These teeth are suitable for both cross-cutting and fine ripping. But little set is given the teeth of the back-saw.

Fig. 29.

Fig. 30.

In using this saw, [Fig. 31], hold the work firmly against the stop of the benchhook with the left hand, guiding the saw with the forefinger or thumb placed against the blade just above the teeth. Begin on the backward stroke, holding the handle end of the saw highest. Begin at the farthest corner, using short, easy strokes. Gradually lower the handle to a horizontal position, meanwhile increasing the number of teeth used, but continuing the slow, regular strokes.

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

In accurate cutting, [Fig. 32], where no paring or block-planing is to be done, the saw teeth should cut just by the line, with the kerf in the waste, but with no wood between the line and the kerf. To allow for paring or block-planing, saw about one-sixteenth of an inch in the waste. [Fig. 33].

Fig. 34.

Fig. 35.

When ripping, place the piece in the vise and begin sawing as indicated in [Fig. 34]. Place the saw so that just the whole of its thickness is in what is to become waste wood. Begin sawing as was done in crosscutting. Gradually lower the handle, while sawing, until most is being cut from the side nearest you. [Fig. 35]. Reverse the wood several times, working down one side then the other until the cross lines are reached. [Fig. 36] illustrates the result of good and bad sawing.

Good Sawing Bad Sawing

Fig. 36.

15. The Turning-saw.

—The turning or bow-saw is used for cutting along curved lines. [Fig. 37] illustrates the manner of holding this saw. The sides of the blade must be held at right angles to the surface of the wood. Either or both handles may be turned, thus turning the blade with reference to the frame. Avoid turning the blade, however, as much as possible and see that the blade is not twisted by turning one handle more than the other.

Fig. 37.

This saw may be used for cutting enclosed curves by boring a hole, releasing one end of the blade and inserting it thru this hole then replacing it in the saw frame.

As the cut of the turning saw is not very smooth, it is advisable to leave about one-sixteenth of an inch between the kerf and the line, to be removed later with the spokeshave.

16. The Compass Saw.

—The compass saw, [Fig. 38], is better suited for inside curve sawing. Its use requires a steady hand, else the thin blade will buckle and break.

Fig. 38.

17. Saw Filing.

—Learning to sharpen a saw is a difficult thing—so difficult that it is not considered within the province of a book on elementary woodworking to treat of it. One who uses saws, ought, however, to know the steps which are taken to put a saw in order.

Fig. 39.

The teeth are first set. [Fig. 39] shows a common form of saw-set in position. Beginning at one end of the saw, every other tooth is bent outward by means of this instrument. The saw is then reversed and the remaining teeth are similarly treated.

As these saw-sets are adjustable, the teeth may be bent much or little as the work to be done demands.

Second, the teeth are jointed. A flat file is run lengthwise over them the full length of the saw so that none of the teeth may project more than others. [Fig. 40] shows a flat file in position for jointing. This block keeps the surface of the file at right angles to the blade of the saw.

Fig. 40.

Fig. 41.

Third, the saws are filed, a three-cornered file being used for this purpose. The kind of saw determines the angle or angles at which the file is held with reference to the saw blade. [Fig. 41] illustrates the position when filing the crosscut and [Fig. 42] the rip-saw.

Fig. 42.

Fig. 43.

Fourth, the teeth are side jointed by laying the saw flat upon the bench and rubbing an oil-stone over each side lightly, once. [Fig. 43]. This is to even the sides of the teeth that the kerf may be smoothly cut.

CHAPTER III.
Planes.

18. Planes.

—A standard plane of the present time is shown in [Fig. 44]. The bottom of this plane is of iron. [Fig. 45] shows a plane with the same adjustments in which the bottom is of wood. Planes are made in different sizes. As certain lengths are more suitable for certain kinds of work they have been given distinguishing names such as jack-plane, smooth-plane, fore-plane, jointer. [Fig. 44] shows the jack-plane.

Fig. 44.

Fig. 45.

The two irons of the plane, the plane-iron or plane-bit, and the cap-iron are fastened together by means of a stout screw. [Fig. 46].

This cap-iron serves a double purpose. First: It stiffens the plane iron; second, it serves to bend and break the shaving and thereby prevent a splitting action in front of the cutting edge. This action would surely occur were the grain in the least unfavorable and the cap-iron not used. [Fig. 47].

1. Plane-Iron.
2. Cap-Iron.
3. Plane-Iron Screw.
4. Cap.
5. Cap-Screw.
6. Frog.
7. “Y” Adjustment.
8. Adjusting Nut.

1. Lateral Adjustment.
2. Frog Screw.
3. Handle.
4. Knob.
5. Handle “Bolt & Nut”.
6. Knob “Bolt & Nut”.
7. Handle Screw.
8. Bottom.

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

19. Setting the Blade.

—The cap-iron should extend to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the cutting edge of the plane-iron in the smooth-plane and three thirty-seconds in the jack-plane. [Fig. 48]. The screw which holds the plane-iron and cap-iron together must be fastened with a screwdriver—many carpenters use the plane-iron for this purpose—tightly as possible, otherwise a few strokes of the plane and the plane-iron will have been forced up so that the cutting edge will not touch the wood. The reason for this action will be understood when it is seen that the lever of the brass adjusting nut does not act directly on the cap-iron but only on the plane-iron as it is carried along by being fastened with this screw to the cap-iron.

The cap-iron and plane-iron are fastened in the throat of the plane by a cap on one end of which is a little lever or cam.

Should this cam fail to hold the irons firmly, the screw which holds the cap to the frog should be turned with the screwdriver. It should be remembered, however, that this screw, once set, seldom needs adjusting.

Beginners frequently, in ignorance, place the plane-iron and cap-iron together so that the side of the plane-iron having the bevel is next the cap-iron. This results in a loose acting cam and they should look to see that the irons are properly set before changing the screw.

Should it be impossible to force the cam into place without great pressure, first look to see whether the blade rests flat upon the frog before releasing the screw. Frequently the little lever which should enter the small opening in the cap-iron will be found to have entered the opening in the plane-iron only.

20. Adjustment of the Iron.

—There are two adjustments for the blade of the modern plane. The first consists in turning the thumb-screw or adjusting nut, [Fig. 46], that the plane iron may cut a thicker or a thinner shaving. The direction in which it should be turned to give the desired result must be learned by experiment, for in some planes it is the reverse of what it is in others.

A little observation of the action of the screw upon the lever which connects it to the plane iron will show that there is often quite a little lost motion so that it becomes necessary to turn the screw a little before the iron is raised or lowered any. One soon learns by the sense of feeling when the lost motion has been taken up.

The second adjustment is by means of the lever, 9, [Fig. 46]. Moving this lever to the right or the left serves to straighten the plane-iron, so that the cutting edge shall extend evenly through the mouth and not take a shaving thicker at one side of the iron than at the other.

Fig. 49.

In adjusting a plane-iron, turn the plane upside down with the toe towards you, hold it toward the light and sight along the bottom, [Fig. 49]. If the plane-iron projects, observe whether it projects evenly or not. Usually one side will be found to project more than the other. Move the adjusting lever until it shall project uniformly. The cutting edge should project about the thickness of a piece of drawing paper for average work.

Fig. 50.

21. The Jack-Plane.

—The jack-plane is about thirteen inches long. Where a full equipment of planes is at hand, the plane-iron of the jack-plane is ground slightly rounding as is shown in [Fig. 50 A]. The purpose of this plane is to remove rough or large quantities of wood and this shape of blade is best suited for that purpose. Of course the surface of the wood is left in hollows and ridges, and it is necessary to use another plane with a plane-iron ground straight and set shallower in order to smooth the surface.

In manual-training schools where the jack-plane is made to serve the purpose of smooth-plane also, the plane-iron is sharpened straight across and the corners slightly rounded, B, [Fig. 50].

22. The Smooth-Plane.

—The smooth-plane is shorter than the jack-plane. [Fig. 51]. It is used, as its name implies, for smoothing surfaces. As the straightening is supposed to have been previously done, the shorter length is no disadvantage. For fine work the cap-iron of this plane may be set as close as one thirty-second of an inch to the cutting edge of the plane-iron. The plane-iron should be set correspondingly shallow.

Fig. 51.

23. The Jointer.

—This plane is used for straightening long and uneven stock. It is most commonly used for preparing the parts for glue joints. [Fig. 52].

Fig. 52.

Its advantage lies in its length, often two feet or more, which prevents the blade from cutting in the hollow places until all of the high places have been leveled. A short plane would simply follow the irregularities, smoothing but not straightening. The plane-iron of the jointer should be ground straight across.

Fore-planes are short jointers, next in size to the jack-planes, and are used for such work as straightening the edges of doors, windows, etc., when fitting them.

24. The Block-Plane.

—The block-plane is about six inches long. [Fig. 53]. It is made especially for cutting across the end of the wood. In addition to the adjusting nut, which is in a different position but serves the same purpose as in the jack-plane, and the lateral adjusting lever, there is a lever for adjusting the size of the opening at the mouth of this plane.

Fig. 53.

The block-plane differs from the planes just described in that it has no cap-iron, none being needed in end-planing. The plane iron is put in place with the bevel side up instead of down as in the other planes.

The block-plane is not a necessity where a vise can be used for holding the piece to be planed. A smooth-plane or jack-plane may, if the plane-iron be set very shallow, do the work just as well. The block-plane is used mostly by carpenters in fitting together pieces which cannot be taken to the vise. Here the smallness of the plane and the fact that but one hand is needed to operate it are of very great advantage.

25. The Wooden Plane.

—The old-fashioned wooden planes are still preferred by some woodworkers. The iron bodied planes have displaced them because of the ease with which they can be adjusted rather than because they produce any better results. Wooden planes are subject to warpage and as the bottoms become uneven thru wear, it is necessary to straighten and level them occasionally. The plane-iron and cap-iron of the wooden plane are fastened in the throat of the plane by means of a wooden wedge. This wedge is driven in place with the hammer. [Fig. 54] shows the manner of holding the plane while setting the irons and wedge. If the plane-iron does not project enough, the iron is lightly tapped as indicated. If too much projects, the stock is tapped as in [Fig. 55]. This figure also illustrates the manner of removing the wedge, two or three blows being sufficient to release it so that it can be withdrawn with the hand. In setting the plane-iron, should either corner project more than the other, tap the side of the iron.

Fig. 54.

Fig. 55.

Fig. 56.

[Fig. 56] shows the manner of holding the smooth plane in releasing the wedge, as well as when the cutting edge projects too much.

26. Planing First Surface True.

—A true surface is one which is straight as to its length and width and which has its surface at the four corners in the same plane. Select for this first surface, which we shall call the face side, the better of the two broad surfaces. Knots, sap, wind, shakes, etc., should there be any, must be taken into account when passing judgment. Often the two sides are so nearly alike that there is little reason for choice.

Where several parts are to be fitted together, the faces are turned in; in this case, the best surfaces should not be selected for faces. [Chapter VII], [section 75].

Fig. 57.

Fig. 58.

Before beginning to plane hold the piece toward the light, close one eye and sight as in [Fig. 57]. If the surface is not warped or in wind, the back arris ab will appear directly behind the front arris cd. Also sight the arrises for straightness, [Fig. 58], being careful to hold so as to get the full benefit of the light. Again, test from arris to arris, [Fig. 59]. The try-square may be used either side up, but the beam must not be held against either edge. It is not for squareness but for straightness that this test is made.

Fig. 59.

Notice the direction of the grain and place the piece so as not to plane against it. In [Fig. 60] plane from A toward B or the surface will be roughened instead of smoothed. When the stock is rough, the direction of the grain cannot be told readily. A few strokes of the plane will give the desired information. As most stock is to be planed to size, it is well to test with the rule before beginning to plane, so as to know just how much margin has been allowed. If you find you cannot true this first surface without getting the piece within one-sixteenth of an inch of the thickness required, ask your instructor to show you where the trouble lies.

Fig. 60.

These tests ought to give the worker a pretty fair idea of what and how much he dare plane, so that when he begins he may work intelligently. As few shavings as possible, and those thin ones, with the proper result attained, show forethought and care. Nowhere can good, common sense be used to better advantage than in learning to plane.

When planes are not in use they should be laid on their sides, or otherwise placed so that the cutting edge shall not touch anything.

For roughing off and straightening broad surfaces, the jack-plane should be used, and this followed by the smooth-plane.

When using the plane, stand with the right side to the bench; avoid a stooping position. [Fig. 61]. The plane should rest flat upon the wood from start to finish. Press heavily upon the knob in starting and upon the handle in finishing the stroke. Unless care is taken to hold the plane level in starting and stopping, the result will be as indicated in [Fig. 62 A].

Fig. 61.

Fig. 62.

Take as long a shaving as the nature of the work will permit. In planing long boards or where it is desired to lower one particular place only, it becomes necessary to stop the stroke before the end of the board is reached. That no mark shall show at the place where the plane-iron is lifted, it is necessary to feather the shaving. This is done by holding the toe of the plane upon the board and raising the heel as the stroke proceeds, beginning just before the stopping point is reached. If the cut is to commence other than at the end of the piece, lower the heel after having started the forward stroke with the toe upon the board.

It is customary to raise the heel of the plane slightly on the backward stroke that the edge may not be dulled.

When the surface has been planed so that it fulfills the tests by sighting described above, an additional test may be given it. Should the board be of any considerable width—three or more inches—the following test will prove sufficient: Place a straight-edge lengthwise, then crosswise the surface planed and along each of its two diagonals. If no light can be seen between the piece and the straight-edge in any of these four tests, the surface may be considered level or true. [Fig. 63].

Fig. 63.

Fig. 64.

A second test, one which will answer for narrow as well as broad surfaces, differs from the above only in the manner of determining whether the surface is in wind or not. Two sticks, called winding sticks, are prepared by planing their two opposite edges straight and parallel to each other. These sticks are placed across the surface to be tested, close to the ends, and a sight taken over their top edges. If the surface is in wind the edges cannot be made to sight so that one edge will appear directly back of the other, [Fig. 64]; one end of the back stick will appear high, at the same time the other one will appear low with reference to the edge of the fore stick. The back corner is high only as compared with the fore corner. The wind may be taken out of the surface just as well by planing the fore corner which is diagonally opposite. Usually, equal amounts should be planed from the surface at each of these corners. If, however, the board is thicker at one corner than the other, it is best to take the whole amount at the thicker corner.

27. Face Side, Face Edge.

—The first surface and the first edge planed serve a special purpose and are given special names. The first surface is called the face side, and the first edge, the face edge; both may be referred to as the faces. These faces are sometimes known by other names such as working face and joint edge, marked face and marked edge, etc., but their meaning is the same.

Fig. 65.

That these faces may be known, they are marked with pencil with what are called face marks. There are various ways of making face marks. Unless otherwise instructed, the marks may be made as in [Fig. 65]; for the face side, a light slanting line about one inch long extending to the edge which is to become the face edge; for the face edge, two light lines across the edge. The marks on both face side and face edge should be placed about the middle of the piece and close together.

These two surfaces are the only ones marked. From one or the other of these, measurements and tests are made. In squaring up stock, for illustration (which means to reduce a piece of rough lumber to definite length, width and thickness so that it shall have smooth, flat sides at right angles to each other) the gage block is held against one or the other of these faces only, and the beam of the try-square when testing for squareness is placed against one or the other of these faces only.

28. Planing First Edge Square with Face Side.

—Make a preliminary test with the eye before beginning to plane. Sight the arrises of the edge to see where it needs straightening. Examine the end to see which arris is high. Also look to see which way the grain runs. Avoid imperfections in the wood as far as possible in choosing this edge.

It is the part of wisdom to examine the plane-iron to see that the surface planing has not caused the cutting edge to project unevenly. A plane, set out of true, is likely to cause hours of extra work; it defeats every effort that may be made to hold the plane properly.

Strive to get shavings the full length of the piece, especially on the last few strokes.

The smooth-plane is little if ever used for edge planing on account of its short length. In using the jack-plane in which the edge is slightly rounded, thus making a shaving thicker in the middle than at the edges, avoid tilting the plane to make it cut on one side rather than the other. Move the whole plane over to the high side so that the middle of the cutting edge shall be directly over the high place. Keep the sides of the plane parallel with the edge so as to get the full benefit of the length of the plane.

The two tests which this first edge must fulfill are: First, that it shall be straight; second, that it shall be square with the face side. [Fig. 6], [Chapter I], shows the method of testing for squareness. As in planing the face side, try to accomplish the desired result with as few shavings as possible.

The caution about planing the first surface, where a definite size is to be attained, applies equally to planing the first edge.

When the edge has been properly trued, put on the face marks suitable for the face edge.

29. Finishing the Second Edge.

—A line gaged from the face edge indicates the proper stopping place in planing the second edge. This line, if lightly made, should be half planed off.

As the line is parallel with the face edge, no straight edge test is necessary. The try-square test for squareness, the beam being held against the face side, must be frequently applied when approaching the gage line.

Where the amount of waste stock to be planed is about an eighth of an inch, the plane-iron may be set a little deeper than average. When near the line, however, it must be set quite shallow. If the waste stock measures more than three sixteenths of an inch, the rip-saw should be used, sawing parallel to the gage line and about one-eighth of an inch away from it.

30. Finishing the Second Side.

—Lines gaged from the face side on the two edges show the amount to be planed.

The test for this side is made by placing the straight-edge across the piece from arris to arris as the planing proceeds, to see that the middle shall be neither high nor low when the gage lines have been reached. No other test is necessary; a little thought will show the reason.

Never attempt to work without lines. If by mistake you plane out your line, take the piece to your instructor at once, unless you have been otherwise directed, that he may tell you what to do.

31. Planing the First End Square.