J H Craven (signature)

A TEXT-BOOK
ON
HYGIENE AND PEDIATRICS

From a Chiropractic Standpoint

BY

JOHN H. CRAVEN, D.C., Ph.C.

DEPARTMENT OF HYGIENE AND PUBLIC HEALTH;
PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY, DEPARTMENT OF ORTHOPEDY,
THE PALMER SCHOOL OF CHIROPRACTIC,
DAVENPORT, IOWA

FIRST EDITION
1924

Published by
JOHN H. CRAVEN
Davenport, Iowa
U. S. A.

Copyright 1924, by
JOHN H. CRAVEN, D.C., Ph.C.
DAVENPORT, IOWA
Printed in the United States of America

HAMMOND PRESS
W. B. CONKEY COMPANY
CHICAGO

DEDICATION

In grateful recognition of his wise counsel and valuable aid in the production of this work, in sincere appreciation of the firm principle for which he has ever stood even in the face of almost overwhelming opposition and many times alone save for the few who understood him, and because of the love I bear him for having saved the life of my son, I count it a privilege as well as a very great pleasure to dedicate this book to B. J. Palmer, D.C., Ph. C., scientist, philosopher, author, but best of all just my plain, frank, candid friend, B. J. of Davenport.

John H. Craven

PREFACE

More than ten years ago when I began teaching hygiene in the Palmer School of Chiropractic, I realized the need of a text-book that would deal with this subject from a chiropractic standpoint.

Many points maintained by hygienists are not in accord with the teaching of Chiropractic, since they are proven untrue by our philosophy. For this reason much subject matter in such text-books was of no value to our students; hence the necessity for a chiropractic hygiene text.

It has been no easy task to prepare this subject matter in view of the conflicting teachings and ideas pertaining to the various phases of hygiene, but the principles of Chiropractic are in no way compromised and the student, from a casual perusal of any one particular phase of the subject, should not draw conclusions that any medical theories of dis-ease are being tolerated.

An effort has been made to include only that part of hygiene pertaining to our science. Since sanitation pertains especially to the environment, the approach to its study is the same regardless of the viewpoint from which it is considered.

Section II, dealing with the care of the infant and the adjusting of children, has been written in response to the hundreds of inquiries which have come in from the practicing chiropractors in the field requesting such a work. This is not intended as an exhaustive study in the care of the infant; its purpose is merely to give a general understanding to those who are interested in adjusting babies.

The technic used in adjusting children is of great importance and is so considered.

It is sincerely hoped that this hygiene will fill the long-felt need on the part of our Faculty for such a text, and that pediatrics considered chiropractically will be of assistance to those in the field who have requested a work on this subject.

February, 1924. John H. Craven

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

Origin of Word Hygiene
Hygiene Defined
PERSONAL
PUBLIC
Sanitary Science
Sanitary Art
Distinction Between Sanitation and Hygiene
Aim and Function of Hygiene and Sanitation
TO INCREASE INTERNAL RESISTANCE
TO IMPROVE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
Internal and External Cleanliness
ESSENTIAL TO HEALTH
CHIROPRACTORS INTERESTED IN
Sewerage System of the Body
CHYME
CHYLE
ABSORPTION
ELIMINATION
Three Viewpoints on Hygiene
MEDICAL
LAYMAN’S
CHIROPRACTIC
Advantages of Proper Sanitary Environment
Cause of Dis-ease
NOT RESULT OF EXTRINSIC CONDITIONS
INTERFERENCE WITH TRANSMISSION OF MENTAL IMPULSES
Sources of Communication
MAN
ANIMALS
SO-CALLED COMMUNICABLE DIS-EASES

SECTION I
CHIROPRACTIC HYGIENE

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Origin of the Word Hygiene

Hygeia was the name given the Greek goddess of health. In her statues she was always represented as a woman of perfect health and beauty, and was worshipped as the goddess of health. She was supposed to be the daughter of Esculapius, the god of medicine. In Greek mythology Esculapius attained great fame as a physician, having power not only to prevent dis-ease, but also to raise the dead. A temple was erected to Hygeia near that of her father. Here the people came to worship. There was even a statue of Hygeia in the temple of her father. Thus we see, from time immemorial, health and medicine have been associated.

Hygiene Defined

From the word Hygeia we get the word hygiene, which means health. Hygiene is defined as the science and the art of promoting health; the science of the preservation of human health by the removal of the cause of dis-ease. It is sometimes defined as the science of health. Hygiene is divided into two classes, personal and public.

Personal Hygiene is the science of the promotion of the individual’s health and deals with personal habits, such as eating and drinking; personal cleanliness; personal activities such as work, recreation, self-restraint. The handling of children comes under this branch of hygiene. The human machine is limited by the limitations of the physical, which necessitates the observance of these laws governing the expression of life.

Public Hygiene deals with the methods and processes necessary to preserve and promote the health interests of the public. It deals with man collectively rather than individually. This includes consideration of the environment, such as cleaning of streets, disposal of the dead, and proper hygienic methods in buildings and in public places.

Sanitary Science

Sanitary science includes the sum total of the knowledge of those principles and processes necessary to maintain personal and public health. It is an inductive science and therefore depends upon observation and verification in determining the general laws and truths of health and the relation between cause and effect in public and personal health.

Sanitary Art

Sanitary art is the practical application of those principles which are necessary to create a proper environment for man in his present artificial state of living, not only for the individual, but for the public as well.

Distinction between Sanitation and Hygiene

The term sanitation or sanitary science is often used synonymous with the term hygiene although there is a difference in their meaning and usage. The term sanitation or sanitary science has been used largely in Great Britain and in this country, although both terms are used in America but with somewhat different meanings.

In reality there is a very important distinction between the two terms hygiene and sanitation. Hygiene may be considered the broader term which may be made to include everything relating to health, but more particularly those things which relate to the person. Sanitation or sanitary science relates more to the environmental conditions and their relation to the health of the individual or the community.

This distinction is drawn more sharply by reason of the developments along the line of sanitary engineering on the one hand and the biological and physiological developments on the other.

Sanitary science has been largely under the supervision and in the hands of sanitary engineers, while hygiene has been almost entirely in the hands of the medical profession.

Aim and Function of Hygiene and Sanitation

Medically the aim and function of hygiene is to increase the internal resistance of the individual and thus prevent dis-ease and prolong life. The aim and function of sanitation or sanitary science is to improve the environmental conditions and thus prevent dis-ease and prolong life of the individual.

Doctor Price gives the aim and function of hygiene as: “The prevention of dis-ease, the prevention of premature death, and the promotion of normal health of individuals and the community by the removal of the causes of dis-ease, destruction of the causes, improvement of the environmental conditions, and by the increase of the vital resistance of the individual and members of communities.” The premise here is correct, but the conclusions as to the methods which are to be used in accomplishing the desired end are erroneous.

Internal and External Cleanliness

There is a distinction between internal cleanliness and external cleanliness. It is a mistaken idea that because the external is clean, the internal will be correspondingly clean. Cleanliness is absolutely essential to health, but by this we mean internal cleanliness. There must be external cleanliness also, but perfect external cleanliness will not necessarily result in perfect health.

Vital resistance of the body is not determined by the degree of external cleanliness nor by the perfect sanitary condition of the environment. However, it can never be said that Chiropractic does not believe in cleanliness. Chiropractic, of all the sciences, lays great stress on hygiene and sanitation. Our greatest teacher in all things is Nature and if there is any one thing that Chiropractic insists upon more than any other, it is that we live according to the laws of Nature and the closer we live to Nature, the more normal will be our functions. When we study the laws of Nature, we find the secret of sanitation. Everywhere in Nature we find laws in operation which result in the destruction of waste material and in the purification of the environment.

From the standpoint of common decency we are interested in sanitation or cleanliness, yet an immaculately clean environment will not result in perfect health or in the cure of dis-ease. The streets and alleys of the city may be kept clean and in a sanitary condition, yet the inside of the homes may be filled with filth. So the environment of man may be in a perfect condition so far as sanitation is concerned, yet the body may be filled with all kinds of poison and refuse.

Sewerage System of the Body

The human body is a machine which performs certain functions and in order that these functions be performed there is a constant process of activity; this means that the tissues which make up the body are being constantly worn out the same as the part of any other machine. This necessitates a constant process of repair.

In order that this process of reparation be carried on, new material must be added to the machine; this is done by means of food. The food is taken into the mouth and properly masticated and mixed with the secretions of the glands of the mouth; it is then carried through the esophagus into the stomach. Here other digestive juices are added to it and thoroughly mixed by the vermicular motion of the stomach until the process of gastric digestion is completed; then this chyme, as it is now called, passes into the small intestines, where other secretions are added and chemical changes are brought about until this process of intestinal digestion is completed. This product is given the name of chyle.

During the time these processes have been going on, the process of absorption has been taking place whereby this digested food has been utilized in building up the tissue cells that are being constantly worn out by the activities of the body. The digested products are being taken up by the serous circulation and carried to every cell in the body. That which one cell gives off as an elimination, another may take up as food, finding just the chemical composition necessary to its life and development. Finally all of the waste material is collected and eliminated from the body through the organs of elimination. Innate Intelligence has provided a wonderful sewerage system for the purpose of taking care of the sewage of the body. This system is much more perfect than any system ever invented by man, but it is possible for it to get out of order. The remarkable thing about it is that the Intelligence within the body is capable of correcting the disorders if the interference with transmission to the affected parts is removed. All that is necessary from the outside is to remove that which is interfering with the transmission of the mental impulses.

As long as there is interference with the transmission of mental impulses we may apply all the laws and principles of hygiene and sanitation, yet the internal condition will not be hygienic or sanitary. We may, by an artificial means, remove the waste material that has accumulated, but this will not stop the process of accumulation.

In view of the fact that the above mentioned processes of absorption and elimination are taking place, let us assume that there is a subluxation at the kidney place (K.P.) impinging the nerves and interfering with the transmission of mental impulses to the kidneys. With decreased current the kidneys are unable to perform their normal amount of function and as a result the waste material, poisons, or in other words the sewage that is supposed to pass out through this channel of excretion, are retained in the body. The poison thus retained is spread over the entire body and there is likely to be excessive perspiration which will have a strong odor of urine. This is because the skin, in its excretory function, is called upon to throw off the waste material which normally should be excreted by the kidneys. Although there is no perspiration there will still be a very offensive and objectionable urinary odor from the patient’s body. From a hygienic standpoint it is necessary for that patient to bathe very often, but no matter how often he bathes, there is still that odor of urine and it is impossible for him to get rid of it. One may thoroughly and frequently cleanse that patient externally, but there will remain that unsanitary internal condition.

Trying to get rid of the odor of urine and to create a sanitary internal condition in a case of this kind by external bathing and by the observance of sanitary laws would be like trying to keep a boat from sinking by dipping the water out when it was running in twice as fast as one could dip it out. It would be better to stop the leak. If the roof of one’s house leaks he does not try to keep the house dry by mopping up the water and putting chlorid of lime about the rooms to absorb the moisture. This may be done as an adaptative measure to the condition that exists because of the defect in the roof, but to correct the condition one must go directly to the roof and repair it so that no more damage may be done the interior of the house.

So in the case of the K.P. subluxation and the unsanitary condition resulting from the accumulation of waste material in the body, it is folly to try to correct the condition by any other method than by removing the cause. The sewage must be carried out through the natural channels and any attempt to dispose of it by any other or artificial means will meet with absolute failure.

Three Viewpoints on Hygiene

According to Dr. B. J. Palmer there are three viewpoints of hygiene; that is to say, there are three aspects from which the subject of cleanliness may be considered: namely, the medical, layman’s and chiropractic hygiene. The chief differences are: the medical hygiene tries to make the internal condition sanitary by the application of external means; the layman’s hygiene makes the external condition sanitary by the application of external means; the chiropractic hygiene makes the internal condition sanitary by permitting the internal forces to operate unhindered in the body.

We see that from every viewpoint, hygiene means cleanliness. The only real difference in these viewpoints consists in the methods used to obtain this desired end. The layman maintains a sanitary external condition by observing the laws of Nature. When dirt accumulates on the outside which creates an unhygienic and objectionable condition, he uses soap and water to cleanse the outside. His unhygienic condition is outside of the body and he uses outside means to rid himself of that condition. It is very obvious that this is a perfectly proper procedure and if correctly and systematically applied it will produce a hygienic external in so far as that condition is influenced by external environment.

The most baffling unsanitary and unhygienic conditions are the internal, and yet if these conditions are considered in the light of the same common sense as is applied to the external conditions, no great amount of difficulty will be experienced in coping with them. However, great difficulties will be experienced if an effort is made to keep the internal in a proper sanitary condition by the application of external means. This has been well demonstrated in the application of medical hygiene. However, the author does not want to be understood as implying that a great deal of good has not been accomplished in the investigations that have been made along the line of hygiene and more especially in sanitary science. But when chiropractic philosophy is properly understood, it will be readily seen that it is far better to clean the inside from the inside than to attempt cleaning the inside from the outside. With all due regard it must be said that up to the time of the introduction of chiropractic hygiene all the efforts were to clean the inside from the outside, but Chiropractic says the inside must be cleansed from the inside and this contention has been amply proven in the results obtained through chiropractic adjustments.

Advantages of a Proper Sanitary Environment

The body is capable of great possibilities in intellectual adaptation. It is possible for Innate Intelligence to maintain a degree of health in widely different conditions. Even where the environment is extremely adverse and objectionable Innate will adapt herself to the abnormal condition and maintain the normal processes of life in the body. However, it must be remembered that a greater amount of internal force is required to bring about an intellectual adaptation to an adverse environment than to a normal, natural or more perfect environment.

There must be a constant process of adaptation to the environment even though that environment be a most desirable one. All internal processes must of necessity be adaptative to external conditions. Drummond says, “Life is uninterrupted correspondence with proper environment.” This is true of the expression of life. If the correspondence with the environment is interfered with there will be a corresponding interference with the expression of the life in the body.

The more adverse the environment the greater the amount of force required to bring about this adaptation. Likewise, the reverse is true—adaptation to a more desirable environment requires less internal force. We should not compel Innate Intelligence to do things that we could do educationally and save the body that extra amount of internal force. To illustrate, one should not unnecessarily expose his body to the cold and thus force Innate to expend internal energy to adapt the body to that condition. One might better put on proper clothing to protect the body. On the other hand, one should not go to the other extreme and make a hothouse plant of his body.

A proper sanitary environment should at all times be maintained that there may not be an unnecessary drain on the adaptative forces of the body.

Cause of Dis-ease

Chiropractic does not accept the theory that dis-ease is caused by extrinsic conditions. There may be a great variation in the environment and yet Innate Intelligence be able to maintain health. If there is sufficient interference with the transmission of mental impulses through the nerves, there will be dis-ease in the body regardless of the perfect environment that may be artificially produced. If the transmission is normal the individual may take the so-called dis-ease germs into his body and feel no ill effects for they will be excreted as so much waste material which can not be used in the metabolism of the body. But if there are subluxations which interfere with the transmission of mental impulses and reduce the process of excretion the tissues will become abnormal and proper culture media will be formed in which there will be developed the germs which act as scavengers for the purpose of destroying the waste matter which accumulates. The cause of dis-ease is within the body itself. The cause of dis-ease is interference with transmission of mental impulses from the brain to the periphery, thus preventing the organ from performing its full and normal function. This results in a lack of coördinate action between the organs of the body and interferes with the intellectual adaptation to external conditions.

The question may be raised at this time relative to the effects produced by the introduction of poison into the body and relative to germs being classed as poisons producing certain effects in the body.

We will not endeavor at this time to fully deal with these questions, for in order that the student understand thoroughly the chiropractic idea of these things, it will be necessary to study many points, both in connection with the hygiene and also with the philosophy of Chiropractic.

This point is thoroughly covered in the philosophy under the head of the Poison Cycle. We will simply state briefly here that a poison is anything which can not be used in the metabolism of the body and which, if allowed to remain in the body, will be carried to the tissue cells and do harm. In this event Innate will at once begin a process of elimination. If the channels of excretion are not normal and the organs are unable to do their work properly because of the interference with the transmission of mental impulses, it can readily be seen that the poison will be retained in the body and do harm. The character of the injury will be governed by the character of the poison retained.

Again, it is clearly explained in the philosophy how the introduction of poison into the body may produce subluxations and thus cause an interference with transmission and reduce the adaptative action on the part of Innate to the poison introduced. The student is referred to Volume V, Chiropractic Library, for further explanation on this point.

Sources of Communication

Generally speaking, there are two main sources whereby dis-ease is communicated: (a) man himself; (b) the animals. Almost all of the so-called communicable dis-eases of man are peculiar to man alone and are not found in animals except as they are communicated to them for experimental purposes. It is interesting to note that the lower animals are much more free from contagious dis-eases than man. As a matter of fact, the lower animals are seldom found to be infected. It is true that the domesticated animal is more susceptible to dis-ease than the wild animal living in the natural state.

Following is a list commonly given as communicable dis-eases peculiar to man and according to medical theory communicable from man to man. Even among those who accept this theory there is quite a difference of opinion as to the dis-eases that should be included in this list. Smallpox, chickenpox, cholera, leprosy, dengue, relapsing fever, measles, mumps, scarlet fever, infantile paralysis, typhus fever, yellow fever, malaria, syphilis, tuberculosis and typhoid fever. It is maintained by hygienists that the greatest source of infection is man himself. No longer is it thought that the environment is the main source of infection. It is believed by Rosenau and others that the water, soil, air and food may be the media conveying dis-ease from man to man; these, however, are not now considered as the main source of infection. Rosenau says, “Most of the microörganisms causing the communicable dis-eases of man are frail and soon die in our environment, as in the air, soil or water. Most of them are obligate pathogens and can not, or do not, grow and multiply under the adverse conditions of our environment.” And yet these frail little creatures are supposed to cause dis-ease in man. We wish the student to bear this in mind for we will have more to say in this respect later on.

It is sufficient to state here that the above named dis-eases maintained by some to be caused by germs are corrected by chiropractic adjustments. Chiropractic has proven that instead of dis-ease being caused by the germ the germ is produced by the dis-ease.

CHAPTER II
HOUSING HYGIENE

HOUSING HYGIENE

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Site
RELATION TO HEALTH
EFFECT OF DAMP SITE
Aspect
MOST SUITABLE
ARRANGEMENT OF ROOMS
DIRECT RAYS OF THE SUN
Soil
RELATION TO HEALTH
MOST SUITABLE SOIL
Ground Water and Ground Air
FLUCTUATION OF
DISTANCE OF GROUND WATER FROM SURFACE
GROUND AIR FORCED INTO BREATHING ZONE
DRAINAGE OF GROUND WATER
ASSISTANCE IN PROCESS OF PURIFICATION
ILL EFFECTS OF WATER-LOGGED SITES
Stagnant Water
ILL EFFECTS OF
METHODS OF DISPOSAL
BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Foundation
RELATION TO THE BUILDING
CHARACTER AND PREPARATION OF
PREVENTION OF DAMPNESS
Walls
MATERIALS USED
CONSTRUCTION
Floors
SANITARY REQUIREMENTS
MATERIALS USED
CONSTRUCTION
Roof
MATERIALS TO MEET SANITARY REQUIREMENTS
FIREPROOF
HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH
House Dampness
OBJECTIONS TO
SOURCE OF DAMPNESS
METHOD OF PREVENTION
ILL EFFECTS OF HOUSE DAMPNESS
Fireproofing
ADVANTAGES OF FIREPROOFING
METHODS USED IN FIREPROOFING
CONSTRUCTION
House Plumbing
SYSTEM OF PIPES
FIXTURES
TRAPS
SEAL
WATER TO CARRY AWAY SEWAGE

CHAPTER II

HOUSING HYGIENE

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Site

From a hygienic standpoint the building site bears a certain relation to health and this should not be overlooked. This is in perfect accord with the chiropractic philosophy as to the expression of life in the body. The building site may be so unnatural as to create an environment which would draw too heavily upon the adaptative forces of the body. In this case Innate would find difficulty in maintaining a state of coördination.

Model Site

The artificial methods of living must be made to conform as nearly as possible to the needs of the body. Damp surroundings might have no ill effects upon the individual who was living a very active life outdoors “roughing it,” but place that individual in a damp, poorly lighted and poorly heated house where he is less active and his expression of life will be materially affected. Innate requires a proper environment, although not necessarily a perfect one, but it must be such that an adaptation can be maintained.

If the building site is damp it will require special methods to prevent the dampness from entering the house. This is expensive and if the site is too humid such a method will prove highly unsatisfactory. If the location is cold the house is very likely to be cold. The site should be well adapted to the needs of the building.

Aspect

The importance of the aspect should not be overlooked. A southeasterly facing is generally considered best, because it is dry and mild and has the morning sun and yet is not exposed to the hot afternoon sun.

The main living rooms should be so arranged as to admit the direct rays of the sun some time during the day. This can best be accomplished when these rooms are on the southeast. Each room should be so arranged with respect to window space that there will be ample lighting and proper ventilation of the whole house. Care must be exercised, however, that there is not too much window space which will give excessive heat in summer or too much cold in winter.

In large dwellings there is a tendency for the halls and stairways to be poorly lighted and poorly ventilated. This should not be. Ample provision supplying light through windows, and ventilation from the outside should be made to insure plenty of light and air.

Bedrooms should be well lighted and if possible direct sunshine should be admitted some time during the day, preferably in the morning.

Soil

The soil bears a close relation to health. The porous soils such as sand and gravel are considered the most healthful because they are driest. But there are objections to these, since they are easily polluted by leaky drains and cesspools, and are capable of holding a notable volume of ground water and ground air. Such air is almost invariably impure. The rain percolates through the soil until it reaches an impervious stratum which prevents it from penetrating any further, and it is held in the interstices or interspaces of the soil and forms the ground water.

Ground Water and Ground Air

There is a certain fluctuation of ground water and ground air. As the water rises the air is forced out of the ground, and as it recedes air is drawn in to occupy its place. There are other factors which influence the ground air, such as the perflating action of the wind and certain climatic changes. Thus the ground may be spoken of as breathing.

If the ground water is near the surface the ground air will be noticeably moist and will produce a dampness of the atmosphere which will result in a decided cooling of the air by evaporation. If the ground water is deep the ground air will be comparatively dry, although the ground near the surface is generally moist owing to the capillary attraction and evaporation from the surface of the ground water. For this reason it is important that damp soils be properly drained to permanently lower the level of the ground water. This may be accomplished by properly laid tile. This will reduce the fluctuation of the ground water since it will be carried off when it rises to the level of the drains. In this way the ground air will not be forced out into the breathing zone to pollute the atmosphere.

The ground air is impure due to the organic matter in the soil. This organic matter is decomposed by microörganisms that feed upon such material and break it up into simpler combinations, carbonic acid, ammonia and water. These processes of fermentation and decay result in a purifying action converting the complex organic matter into products which growing vegetation is capable of assimilating. The presence of oxygen, moisture and warmth is essential to the proper execution of these processes. We can thus see that ample provision has been made for the natural purification and utilization of animal and vegetable matter. Nature provides the oxygen in the ground air, the necessary moisture is derived from the ground water and the temperature of the earth is generally sufficient to supply the needed warmth for this natural process of purification.

If the ground water rises too near the surface or if the building site is water-logged, the water may be drawn off by means of a subsoil drainage. This will also prevent fluctuation of ground water, for as this water rises the ground air is forced out and causes the atmospheric air to become damp. This brings about a cooling of the air. The moisture will ascend by capillary attraction into the walls of the houses; in the evaporation from the inner surfaces, heat will be absorbed from the surrounding objects and this will cause the houses to become damp and cold.

This drainage may be accomplished by placing unglazed porous tiles with the ends in apposition, but not jointed in the subsoil. The fluctuation of ground water is of little consequence in itself; but we can see that in this way the water in wells may become polluted, impure ground air may be forced into houses, and dampness may thus be produced.

Stagnant Water

Stagnant water favors the breeding of mosquitoes and the development of certain dis-eases, malaria and cholera for example; hence the necessity for proper drainage. Trees are sometimes planted in such districts and they, together with the subsoil drainage, render the conditions more healthful. The trees and other vegetation in hot climates absorb the water from the ground and then it is evaporated from the leaves and in this way soil is made drier.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

Foundation

In the building of a house the foundation must receive just consideration. As the foundation holds the entire structure, such material must be used as to give adequate support to this weight. Care must be exercised in the evacuations that the basement be protected from dampness and that the entire site beneath the foundation be properly drained. The ground water should be ten feet beneath the surface of the site.

It is recommended by some hygienists that the basement floor be of cement six inches thick to prevent the entrance of ground air and moisture. This should be covered with a wood floor.

The preparation of the foundation is comparatively easy where the ground is solid, but if the site be water-logged, marshy, quicksand, or entirely under water, its preparation then becomes a problem that may baffle the best engineers. Artificial foundation beds may have to be resorted to. These are accomplished in several ways. One very common method is to drive wooden piles into the ground, saw off the tops and construct the foundation on these piles. Another method is that of the cofferdam.

The foundation having been properly prepared, care must be taken that the footings or base course of the walls are of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the superstructure. The footings should be of stone or concrete and should be a little thicker than the walls.

Precautions for a dry basement must also be considered. This subject will be discussed under House Dampness.

The air of the basement must be kept pure by proper ventilation, since it is being constantly drawn up into the house. This will receive some attention in the chapter on Ventilation.

Walls

The walls of the house may be of brick, stone, timber or concrete. The method of construction will depend upon the material used. If timber is utilized the security of the walls will be governed by the timber posts, sills and plates. The materials used should be as little absorbent of moisture as possible. All wood should be well seasoned.

Floors

In order to meet all sanitary requirements the “floors must be secure and proof against air, dust, sound, vermin, fire and water.” But it is not often that the floors meet all these sanitary demands. Ordinary floors are made of hard boards tongued and grooved, tightly fitted and laid upon joists placed about one foot apart; the under surface is lathed and plastered to form the ceiling of the room below, or some sort of patent ceiling may be used. However, there is great objection to the space thus left between the floor and the ceiling, as it becomes a receptacle for dust and greatly endangers the spread of fire.

It is better, according to sanitary demands, to have the floor of reinforced concrete, or the space within filled with mineral wool or asbestos; or the floor may be made of steel beams encased in terra-cotta with interspaces made of concrete.

Roof

For roofing some non-absorbent material is best. Wood shingles are possibly the most common in this country, although they are rapidly being replaced with composition shingles. The wood shingles are somewhat absorbent and are inflammable. Slate and tile are also used. The slate is a good conductor of heat, and is hot in summer and cold in winter. Tiles are heavy but are warm in winter and cool in summer. Lead, zinc and copper have all been used, but they are good conductors of heat and for various other reasons are not exactly desirable. The best method of preventing too rapid conduction of heat is to have an air space between the roof and the ceiling of the top floor.

House Dampness

Great care should be exercised to prevent the entrance of moisture into the house. A damp house is very objectionable. In a newly constructed building there is always more or less dampness coming from green lumber, mortar and plaster. This is known as building water. Before a new house is occupied it should be thoroughly dried by a fire in stoves or furnaces. Dampness from building water is only temporary and easily eliminated.

Moisture in houses from damp sites, leaky drains, porous building material which admits rain and other similar causes, require the attention of an engineer who understands water-proof construction.

Moisture from the ground water may ascend the walls of the building by capillary attraction. This may be prevented by properly draining the site and by placing a horizontal water-proof course in the walls. This may consist of asphalt one-half inch thick or a course of slate or other material through which the moisture will not penetrate.

The ill effects of a damp house upon the health of the occupants can hardly be overestimated. Such houses are cold, being difficult to heat and ventilate. The bodily heat is too rapidly withdrawn. This necessitates adaptative action on the part of Innate Intelligence and requires an unnecessary expenditure of internal energy.

Aside from a damp house having an ill effect upon health by creating an environment which is not conducive to the expression of life indoors, the dampness tends to produce moulds and otherwise injure the furniture and hangings. This results in a musty odor and creates a condition conducive to the development of cockroaches and water bugs. These conditions are repulsive to the finer sensibilities.

It is a recognized fact that Innate Intelligence is able to adapt the body to various conditions and people who appear to be in a state of comparatively good health may be found in such environments, but why should we force Innate to adapt the body to such adverse conditions when we may educationally improve the surroundings and make them more healthful? The educated mind is the expression of the same Innate Intelligence that is adapting the body to the environment, so it is only reasonable that the educated mind should be used in as intelligent a manner as the Innate mind. It is the function of the educated mind to bring about an educated adaptation to the environment through the educated body and to study the laws of nature and adapt them to the needs of the body.

So it is in perfect accord with chiropractic philosophy that a proper dwelling be provided wherein the condition is such that there may be perfect adaptation to all the needs of the body. This is as much a part of the chiropractor’s work as is any other part of his duties and obligations to the sick. He need not be able to do all these things, but he should know what conditions are conducive to the expression of life in the body and why others are not.

Fireproofing

The expression, fireproof, is a misnomer. There are no materials that are absolutely fireproof, but there are many that, are fire resisting. A material may be ignition-proof but not capable of resisting high temperatures. Some metals will withstand higher temperatures than others.

Fire protection is important from the standpoint of hygiene, since it is a factor in preventing loss of life and property. It will also be observed that fire-resisting material and fireproof construction is more sanitary than soft absorbent materials and improper house construction.

Three methods are used in reducing the danger from fire: First, by the use of fire-resisting building material; second, by proper fireproof construction; third, by providing ample fire escapes and fire extinguishers.

In a fireproof building all inflammable materials are eliminated and such materials as brick, reinforced concrete, stone and burnt terra cotta are used. As has been stated before, these materials are not fireproof but only fire-resisting. They will all be affected by fire if the intensity is great enough.

In the construction of fireproof buildings, only fire-resisting materials are used. No wood nor other combustible materials are utilized. All spaces, air wells and air shafts are eliminated as far as possible. The floors are constructed of rolled wrought iron on steel floor beams, or of Portland cement. The roofs are made of burnt terra cotta, rolled wrought iron or cement.

The stairways and landings are of brick, stone, cement, iron or steel, all wood being eliminated even for windows and doors. The partitions are constructed of fireproof material such as hollow tile.

Every building should be provided with ample fire escapes to furnish plenty of exits in case of fire. This is accomplished by providing wide stairways and by furnishing sufficient fire escapes on the outside of the building. These fire escapes should be constructed of metal or some fire-resisting material.

House Plumbing

A system of house plumbing consists of pipes carrying the water into the house, the fixtures or receptacles which are used to receive the waste and refuse from the household and the processes that are performed in the house. The latter includes the fixtures of the bathroom—the stool, bath tub, lavatory and foot tub; those of the kitchen such as the sink; those of the laundry; and the system of pipes which carry the refuse from the house into the main sewer.

Between the pipes which carry the water into the house and those which carry the sewage out are placed the house fixtures. There is a pipe leading to each fixture which carries the water to dilute the sewage, and a pipe leading from each of these fixtures carrying the sewage to the main house drain. The admission of sewer gas into the house through the fixtures is prevented by the trap which contains water known as the seal. The trap is of no value unless it is properly sealed. The trap is simply a bend in the pipe, as shown in the illustration, in which water is contained. This water keeps the sewer air from coming back into the house.

A system of house plumbing, in order to meet the requirements of hygiene, must be properly trapped. There is a small trap for each fixture and in some cities an additional outside trap is required which protects the entire system.

When some fixture loses its seal then there is great danger of sewer air coming into the house. The main causes for traps becoming unsealed are: the forcible ejection of the seal by the momentum of the flush; loss of seal through siphon; the evaporation of the water when the fixture is not in use; and by capillary attraction as when waste paper or some similar material is left in the trap and projects through. Siphonage is caused by a large volume of water passing down through a vertical pipe with which the fixture is connected.

The loss of the seal by evaporation may be prevented by frequent use of the fixture, or if the fixture is not to be used for some time the trap may be filled with oil or some substance that will not evaporate. The loss of the seal from momentum may be averted by providing proper flushing tanks, while the protection from capillary attraction may be effected by not allowing anything to remain in the trap which will exert this capillary attraction on the water in the trap.

Prevention of siphonage is accomplished by providing proper ventilation for each trap so there may be a column of air which may be drawn upon in lieu of the seal.

Care should be taken that the seal does not become foul. The fouling of the seal is the result of back pressure from the sewer and may be avoided by providing a vent pipe through which the air may pass from the sewer and thus relieve the pressure on the seal.

The sewage is carried from the house by the house sewer into the street sewer, from the street sewer into the district sewers, and then into the large trunk sewers. There are also relief sewers, storm sewers, under drains, and intercepting sewers. The entire system is known as the sewerage system.

The amount of water required to carry away the sewage varies in different cities. In the smaller towns it may be as low as fifty gallons a day per capita, while in some of the larger cities it may be as much as 200 gallons per capita per day.

At one time the sewer gas was considered the greatest menace to workmen in the sewers. But it has been found that there is little danger from this gas. Sewer air is very objectionable because of the very foul odor, but even those who contend that germs cause dis-ease maintain that there is little danger of contracting dis-ease from breathing sewer air.

CHAPTER III
AIR

AIR

CONSTITUENTS OF AIR

General Considerations
AIR, MIXTURE OF GASES
ATMOSPHERE
AQUASPHERE
PETROSPHERE
FUNCTION OF AIR
Oxygen
PER CENT OF OXYGEN
USE IN BODY
AMOUNT REQUIRED VARIES
Nitrogen
MORE IMPORTANT TO PLANT LIFE
USE IN BODY
Argon
MEANING OF NAME
AMOUNT IN ATMOSPHERE
ARGON GROUP
Carbon Dioxide
AMOUNT IN AIR
SOURCES OF
PROPERTIES OF
COURSE IN BLOOD
Ozone
NOT CONSTANT ELEMENT
WHERE FOUND
HOW FORMED
Ammonia
HOW PRODUCED
WHERE FOUND
Other Constituents
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE
HELIUM
KRYPTON
NEON
XENON
NITROGEN AND SULPHURIC ACID

AIR PRESSURE

Normal Air Pressure
AVERAGE PRESSURE
INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION
Reduced Air Pressure
INCREASED RATE OF BREATHING
EXPERIMENT
SYMPTOMS IN REDUCED AIR PRESSURE
Increased Air Pressure
CONDITIONS IN SAME
DANGER FROM
Caisson Dis-ease
SEVERE PAIN IN MUSCLES AND JOINTS
DIVER’S PALSY
BENDS

HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE OF AIR

Humidity
RELATIVE
ABSOLUTE
Cold Dry Air
ADAPTING BODY TO CHANGE
HEAT STROKE
HEAT EVAPORATION NECESSARY
Warm Moist Air
INTERFERENCE IN ADAPTATION
EFFECTS UPON BODY
Cold Damp Air
PRODUCES CHILLING OF BODY
INTERFERES WITH INTELLECTUAL ADAPTATION
Warm Dry Air
VERY DESIRABLE
LOSS OF MOISTURE FROM BODY
Proper Temperature and Humidity

CHAPTER III

AIR

CONSTITUENTS OF AIR

Air is a mixture of gases, not a chemical compound, which envelops the earth and it is estimated to be at least one hundred miles high. This gaseous envelope is known as the atmosphere. The water upon the earth’s surface is called the aquasphere. The solid substance composing the earth is known as the petrosphere.

Air performs a very important function in the interchanging of gases in respiration and in the regulation of bodily temperature. The gases contained in the atmosphere are given by most authorities in the following proportions, per volume:

With traces of helium, krypton, neon, xenon, hydrogen, ammonia, ozone and hydrogen peroxide.

It is also found that there is a varying amount of water in the air, as well as dust and other substances. It is worthy of note that the air maintains a wonderful uniformity of composition over the entire surface of the earth. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the atmosphere is in constant motion which maintains its proper mixture. It must also be noted that the air is not a chemical compound but is a mixture of gases.

Oxygen (O)

Probably the most important element in air is the oxygen which represents about one-fifth of its composition. This percentage is maintained with very slight variation; for instance, the percentage of oxygen in towns will be slightly less than 20.93%, about 20.87%.

When the atmosphere contains only 11% or 12% of oxygen it becomes dangerous, and death results when the percentage gets as low as 7.2%. A candle will not burn with the oxygen at 16%. Slight variation in the amount of oxygen is of no special importance.

The amount of oxygen in the air has little to do with the amount absorbed in respiration, as this is governed more by the need of the body than by the amount taken into the lungs.

Nature has made a wonderful provision in the protection of the body from extreme changes in the amount of oxygen in the air. This provision increases the degree of intellectual adaptation which is possible in the body. This is shown by the fact that there is a larger amount of oxygen contained at all times in the lungs than is required to supply the red blood cells. It is maintained that the alveolar air contains normally 16% of oxygen. The red blood cells are practically saturated with oxygen as they leave the lungs; however, this amount of oxygen may not be needed by the tissue cells which the red blood cells supply and the amount they absorb upon their return will depend upon what they have given off to the tissue cells.

It can readily be seen that the air in the lungs at no time contains the full percentage of oxygen, since one at no time completely exhales the entire amount of air. In this way the residual air loses some of its oxygen and collects carbon dioxide.

Animal life is sustained by the oxygen in the air while the carbon dioxide is essential to plant life. The oxygen is carried into the lungs during the inhalation which is produced by the expression of Innate Intelligence through the organs of respiration. The oxygen passes into the blood and is combined loosely with the hemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles; then under the direction of Innate it is carried to all the tissue cells of the body. Here the oxygen leaves the blood and is used in the oxidation which is necessary in the metabolism of the body.

The amount of required oxygen varies with different conditions that obtain in the body and is dependent upon age, the activity of the individual and his condition of health. Some authors assert that the average person will inhale about thirty-four pounds of air in twenty-four hours. This would mean a little over seven pounds of oxygen. Only about one-fourth of the oxygen inhaled is absorbed; therefore, according to these figures the individual would absorb on an average of about two pounds of oxygen in twenty-four hours.

Nitrogen (N)

The nitrogen in the air is of more importance to plant life than to animal life. It is of little significance from a hygienic standpoint, yet it is an important constituent of all matter containing protein. Nitrogen tends to regulate or influence the rate of combustion by diluting the oxygen in the air. Respiration does not seem to affect the amount of nitrogen in the air as there is no noticeable difference between the amount of nitrogen in the inspired and expired air.

Argon (A)

In 1894 Lord Rayleigh and Prof. William Ramsay discovered a gaseous substance in the atmosphere which had no chemical affinity. They gave this element the name argon which means in the Greek, “inactive.” So far as is known argon will not combine with any other element.

The atmosphere contains about 0.94% argon, but so far, according to Rosenau, it has not been demonstrated in the body. Argon has no hygienic significance. Helium, krypton, xenon, neon and argon form what is known as the argon group, since they will not unite with other elements to form compounds. These elements are all found in very small quantities in the atmosphere.

Carbon Dioxide (CO₂)

Carbon dioxide is a gas, a very small amount of which is found in the atmosphere. About 0.03% is ordinarily expressed. This means there are three parts of carbon dioxide in 10,000 parts of atmosphere. This is a very small percentage, but when we consider the enormous bulk of atmosphere we appreciate the fact that the total amount is beyond our comprehension. It is claimed that there is more carbon in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide than there is in all other forms on the earth.

In densely populated areas there is a slight increase in the amount of carbon dioxide. It may reach 0.04% or even 0.05%. There is also likely to be more carbon dioxide in the air close to the soil than there is a few feet above. This is because the processes going on in the soil tend to produce this gas and hence the soil air contains a larger percentage. The air receives its carbon dioxide from such sources as respiration, fermentation, from chemical action in the soil, from mineral springs, and from oxidation of organic matter.

Carbon dioxide is a transparent, odorless and colorless gas. It is a very important constituent in the atmosphere and a very slight variation either in its increase or decrease will vitally interfere with both animal and vegetable life. Green plants in the sunlight absorb great quantities of carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. The body obtains its carbon from the food that is taken in while the oxygen is obtained from the air that is breathed. It is maintained that one acre of ordinary tree land will withdraw as much as four and one-half tons of carbon dioxide from the air in one season. Carbon dioxide is also absorbed by water; hence the oceans and other large bodies of water perform a very important function in this respect. In certain localities, such as industrial centers, a very large amount of carbon dioxide is given off into the air; but this is quickly taken up and thoroughly mixed with the atmosphere by the constant motion which is maintained by the varying temperature, air pressure and other involved factors. It is not allowed to accumulate in any one place in larger amounts than normal. In this way the proportion is kept the same at all times.

Hygienists maintain that the regulation of breathing is largely dependent on the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air cells of the lungs. This, however, is not true since the process of respiration is not a question of chemical action nor the influence of any chemical element in the lungs or in any part of the respiratory system. The breathing, like all other functions of the body, is under the direct control of Innate Intelligence within the body.

Innate Intelligence, recognizing the need for more oxygen in the tissue cells, will bring about an intellectual adaptation by increasing the respiration. This does not take place, however, until the need has exceeded the already adaptative possibility when the reserve amount of oxygen contained in the residual air in the lungs has been exhausted.

In inspiration the air is taken into the lungs and the oxygen is taken up by the hemoglobin of the blood as before stated; then the oxygen is given off to the tissue cells. The hemoglobin absorbs the carbon dioxide from the tissues and it is then carried back to the lungs where the process is reversed. That is, the carbon dioxide is given off and the oxygen is absorbed by the hemoglobin.

The carbon dioxide which is carried to the lungs by the venous blood escapes into the air cells. The resistance which it meets here depends upon the percentage of carbon dioxide present in the alveolar air. Normally the percentage of the carbon dioxide in the alveolar air is maintained at a pressure of about 5% of an atmosphere. If the pressure becomes less than this Innate Intelligence will adapt herself to this condition by decreasing the respiration until the normal percentage is again attained; or if the pressure goes above normal Innate will increase the rate of respiration until the amount of carbon dioxide has been decreased in the alveolar air, for this poisonous gas must be eliminated. This shows how Innate at all times is working in an adaptative way to maintain equilibrium in the body.

Ozone (O₃)

Ozone is not a constant element in air, although of such potency that a very small amount may be of great importance. In centers of population it is usually absent. In thickly wooded sections and at sea it will be found in large quantities, but even here only traces will be found. It is thought to be formed by the friction of the sea water against the air in connection with the respiration of vegetation. It is also formed in nature by electric discharges during storms.

Ammonia (NH₃)

Normally there is only a trace of ammonia in air. It is produced by the decomposition of organic matter. This accounts for the larger amount being found in the air near the ground. Ground air may contain ammonia in sufficient quantity to be perceptible to the senses.

Other Constituents

Hydrogen peroxide is a very active oxidizing agent. Rain water and snow contain very small traces of it. Hydrogen peroxide is not constant in air, but may be found in very small quantities.

Air also contains small traces of helium, krypton, neon, xenon, which have no important bearing from a hygienic standpoint. Nitric, sulphuric and other acids will at times be found in the atmosphere. These acids are formed principally from industrial processes and will, therefore, be found near industrial centers, rather than in the open country or at sea.

AIR PRESSURE

Normal Air Pressure

Ordinary air pressure on the surface of the earth at sea level is, in round numbers, fifteen pounds to the square inch. It has been found that the average sized man is exposed to about 34,000 pounds of pressure. This pressure may be increased or decreased, and if the change takes place gradually so that Innate Intelligence will have time to adapt the body to the change, no harm will result. There is a limit, however, either in a decrease or in an increase of pressure to which the body may be adapted.

This intellectual adaptation obtains in every tissue cell of the body as well as in all of its secretions and chemicals so it can be seen that any sudden change in the atmospheric pressure will disturb the equilibrium of the entire body.

Reduced Air Pressure

When the atmospheric pressure is decreased it has the same effect on the individual that the breathing of rarefied or diluted air has. In this event the adaptation consists in an increased rate of breathing. It is also asserted that the number of red blood corpuscles is increased, which in turn increases the capacity of the blood to carry oxygen. In the diminished air pressure there is a marked decrease in the amount of oxygen absorption and this accounts for the increase in the respiration and quickened pulse rate.

As previously stated, if the change from a normal air pressure to a greatly decreased pressure takes place gradually, thus giving Innate sufficient time to bring about an adaptation, man will be enabled to live in a healthy state in a rarefied air. As the altitude is increased the air pressure is decreased. This is because there is less air above to exert pressure. Naturally the air near the earth has the greatest weight above it to exert compression. The air pressure decreases gradually until, it is assumed, it is gradually thinned into a perfect vacuum. If oxygen is added to the air it is possible to maintain life at a remarkably reduced air pressure. A bird was kept alive by P. Bert in oxygenated air at a pressure of 0.1 of an atmosphere.

The symptoms produced in diminished air pressure will vary with the general conditions of the individual. People suffering from cardiac disturbances will be affected most by high altitudes. This is possibly the first symptom to be manifested in rarefied air. If there is any inclination toward heart weakness it will be observed when the air pressure is decreased.

The effects of reduced air pressure will vary with circumstances. There will be increased and deep breathing, with an increase in the pulse rate. There is likely to be dizziness and ringing in the ears. The sense of hearing, of sight and possibly of sensations, become impaired. There may be drowsiness and the patient may have a strong desire to sleep. The intellectual faculties become dull. Where the change has taken place very suddenly to the decreased air pressure there will be syncope, dyspnea, dizziness, nausea and weakness. These symptoms are commonly known as mountain sickness.

Increased Air Pressure

The greatest air pressure in nature is at sea level. Even the increased pressure in the deepest mines is so slight that it has no physiological significance; hence man is exposed to increased air pressure only under artificial conditions. This subject will be referred to again under the head of Industrial Hygiene.

Some of the conditions under which man is exposed to increased air pressure are, for example, divers in diving bells and diving suits, and caisson workers. At a depth of ten meters of water the air in a diving bell is compressed to one-half its original bulk, and as a result the pressure of air is doubled. At thirty meters, or about 100 feet, the pressure is quadrupled, exposing the diver to four atmospheres or about sixty pounds per square inch.

The danger in increased air pressure is not in going from a normal pressure to a high pressure, nor does the danger come from the high pressure. The danger is not from the compression, but rather from the decompression. The individual must be brought from the increased air pressure to the normal air pressure very gradually, allowing Innate sufficient time to adapt the body to the normal pressure of fifteen pounds to the square inch. If this is done no great amount of harm will result, although there are some men who are not able to withstand these changes. This shows a lack of intellectual adaptation through the body on the part of its Innate. In an experiment P. Bert exposed dogs to an air pressure of ten atmospheres, or about 150 pounds to the square inch, and then released them very gradually, producing no ill effects.

When the air pressure is increased it results in an increase in the absorption of the gases of the atmosphere. There is an increased amount of oxygen taken up by the blood and the tissues absorb large amounts of nitrogen. When the pressure is released slowly these gases gradually escape from the lungs and no bubbles will be formed.

During compression the symptoms are not so severe as those during and after decompression. During compression the symptoms are a deepening but slowing of the respiration, a slowing of the pulse rate, and an interference in evaporation in the water vapor. The increased pressure on the ear drums will cause pain in the ears and sometimes the ear drums rupture. There may be an alteration in the voice, headache and dizziness. However, in a short time, intellectual adaptation takes place and equilibrium is established by the internal change and there is at least temporary relief from these symptoms.

Caisson Dis-ease

The greatest risk to health and life occurs during the time the individual is coming from the high to normal pressure after the decompression has entirely taken place. This may produce a condition known as caisson dis-ease. It may be several hours after the workman has been taken from the decompressing chambers before the symptoms appear. Gradual decompression is the only thing that will prevent the manifestation of these symptoms. When the workman shows any symptoms of caisson dis-ease he should be rushed back into the compression chambers and kept there a short time until Innate has a chance to establish equilibrium in the pressure of the body, and he should then be taken very gradually through the decompression chambers.

The symptoms that appear after decompression are vertigo, nose bleeding, nausea and vomiting. The most common symptom is the severe pains in the muscles and joints which is known by the layman as bends. There may also be temporary or permanent paralysis called diver’s palsy. In the more severe cases there will be unconsciousness, and even death.

When the workman is taken too quickly from the high pressure there is formed gas and air emboli. These may form in the labyrinth of the ear, in the spinal cord, in the brain, in the heart, or in any other vital part of the body and not only be distressing but may even prove fatal.

It must be remembered that the conditions produced by changes in the air pressure may be classed as traumatic, immunity from which is not entirely a question of uninterrupted transmission. If there are subluxations in the spine at the time the workman goes into the caisson, or if subluxations are produced at the time of decompression, the interference thus produced will interrupt the process of intellectual adaptation. Such subluxations should be adjusted, but it must be remembered that if emboli are formed or if bends occur the result or the relief is a question of the natural processes of Innate in the body, and the results will depend entirely upon the ability of Innate to cope with the traumatic condition. Innate Intelligence operates through the body according to law, and it is possible for the body to become so affected and deteriorated that it becomes a physical impossibility for her then to repair it and restore it to normal.

We have seen that the normal air pressure at sea level is fifteen pounds to the square inch. In order that the body will not be crushed by this weight it is necessary to have an internal resistance to equal this weight. This internal resistance is maintained in the body by the tone of all of its parts; it is maintained by the expression of mental impulses in the tissue cells.

We have also observed that the combining of chemicals is influenced by the pressure exerted; therefore, in order that the chemical combinations of the body be constant there must be equilibrium established between the external pressure and the internal resistance. This is maintained through the adaptability of the expression of Innate in the body. As the change takes place externally there is a corresponding adaptative change taking place internally and this all requires time. Therefore, in passing the body from one air pressure to that of another degree, there must be a sufficient amount of time intervening to allow Innate Intelligence to bring about the necessary adaptation.

The changes that take place under differing degrees of air pressure are not purely the result of chemical changes in the body as is maintained by some, but in all these processes we see the evidence of intelligent action which we believe is the result of the reasoning of the intelligence in the body. One evidence of this is that when the workman is brought gradually from an increased air pressure to the normal air pressure the gases that have been absorbed by the tissues under the abnormal condition will be given off through the normal channels, and less injury will be done. It is interesting to note that in Nature, man is not exposed to a greater air pressure than that at sea level; it is only under artificial, man-invented environments that the body is called upon to withstand a greater pressure than the normal. It may also be noted that without the inventions of man it requires quite a little time for man to be transported from the air pressure at sea level to that of the higher altitudes as on the mountain tops. This gives Innate Intelligence an opportunity to bring about an adaptation to this change, since the change in the pressure takes place so gradually. But with man-made inventions, such as the automobile and aeroplane, one may transfer himself from sea level to great heights where the pressure is less in a very short time. This does not allow sufficient time for adaptation to take place and is much different from the slow process of climbing the mountains.

So we see that, after all, most of the necessity for immediate adaptation of the body to changed environmental conditions is the result of the work of the educated mind of man, and not the result of the laws of Nature. In Nature we seldom see the necessity for sudden or extreme adaptation. But under our present artificial means of living there are such cases, and these necessitate a study of the artificial conditions as well as a study of the Innate laws of adaptation that there may be as far as possible an educated adaptation to the environment.

HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE OF AIR

Humidity

Water vapor is present at all times in the atmosphere. It is the least constant of all of the air constituents, varying greatly under different conditions. The temperature produces a greater change in the amount of aqueous vapor in the air than any other factor. There may be so much water vapor in the air that the air is spoken of as being completely saturated. This is known as absolute humidity. If there is any excess over and above this complete saturation, it is given off as dew; it is spoken of then as having reached the dew point. It must be remembered that this absolute humidity does not represent a constant amount of water vapor, for the amount of moisture necessary to produce complete saturation varies with the degree of temperature. It is erroneous to speak of the air holding water.

“As a matter of fact, the air has nothing to do with it, for it has always been clearly observed that the presence of water vapor in any given space is independent of the presence or absence of air in the same space. The amount of aqueous vapor which a space contains depends entirely upon the temperature and not upon the presence of the air.”—Rosenau in Preventive Medicine and Hygiene.

The higher the temperature the greater the amount of water vapor in one cubic foot of air at a temperature of 10° F., while at 100° F. there would be 19.1 grains at complete saturation. Since increased temperature increases the amount of aqueous vapor and this aqueous vapor in turn absorbs heat, we thus see a reciprocal action of the aqueous vapor upon the temperature.

Absolute humidity is all of the water vapor that may be contained in the air at a given temperature. Relative humidity is the difference between the amount of water vapor that must be contained in the air at a given temperature to reach absolute saturation and the amount actually contained in the air at that same temperature.

If the relative humidity of the air in a room becomes as high as 85% the moisture will begin to condense and form on the walls and objects. This makes the room damp and interferes with the ventilating and heating of the room.

There is less water vapor contained in the air at high altitudes, the air being cooler. A large amount of rainfall does not necessarily produce an increase in the relative humidity. That is to say, a country with a very high average of rainfall is not necessarily a damp country so far as the atmosphere is concerned.

Cold Dry Air

Cold dry air is exhilarating and tends to quicken metabolism in the body, while warm damp air is depressing and tends to retard metabolism.

The body possesses great possibilities of adaptation to the varying degrees of temperature and humidity through the action of Innate Intelligence. With the aid of the educated mind in bringing about adaptation in the way of clothing, for example, it is possible to increase the range of temperature and humidity to which the body may be adapted.

Due to the fact that heat is being constantly formed in the body by the different processes that are carried on within, it naturally follows that this heat must be carried out of the body or it will accumulate and result in harm to the tissues, producing what is known as heat stroke. This heat dissipation is greatly influenced by the humidity, or in other words, the amount of water vapor in the air. The temperature of the air also has some influence on heat dissipation.

Cold air is made to feel colder by an increase in the amount of moisture while warm or hot air is made hotter by increasing the moisture. The reason for this is that the moisture in the cold air favors heat conduction, hence draws the heat from the body at a more rapid rate than is normal, while the moisture in the hot air hinders evaporation.

Innate Intelligence is able, through the specially devised machinery of the body, to maintain a perfect balance between heat production and heat dissipation or heat loss. Even though the temperature of the air may rise, yet if the body is normal it will not produce an increase in the bodily temperature. Indeed, it is asserted that when the temperature of the air goes above 70° F. the bodily temperature would rise if it were not for the perspiration which Innate will produce through the sweat glands. As long as the perspiration is produced and is evaporated from the surface of the body the heat production and heat loss will be kept in perfect balance. But when something interferes with this adaptative process of Innate and the individual can not perspire, there will soon be symptoms of overheating and the temperature of the body will begin to rise.

Evaporation is decreased in an atmosphere in which the humidity is high. The reason for this is obvious; the atmosphere already filled with water vapor is slow to take up more. This is because molecules of vapor given off from the body collide with those in the air and are returned to the surface of the body as moisture. When this condition obtains there is an adaptation produced by increasing the amount of blood to the skin; this increases the temperature of the surface of the body, but allows for an increase in the heat loss by radiation, conduction and convection.

The conductivity of the atmosphere for heat is increased by an increase in the humidity; hence a cool damp air will chill the body for the reason that the conductivity is increased and bodily heat is lost more rapidly through conduction. Increased humidity interferes with the evaporation of perspiration; hence a hot, moist air is heating to the body and deprives the body of force, making the patient feel sluggish and fatigued.

There is much moisture given off from the body each day. It is estimated by Pettenkofer, Voit, Rosenau and others that the average individual under ordinary circumstances will give off through the lungs about 290 grams, and from the skin from 500 to 1800 grams daily. If this fact is kept in mind some idea of the necessity of proper ventilation will be appreciated.

Warm Moist Air

Workers fatigue much more easily when in warm moist atmosphere. Work is done much more rapidly in cool dry air and the efficiency of the worker is noticeably raised; in warm damp air the bodily temperature rises and the pulse rate increases.

Mental and physical activities are reduced in an atmosphere of high humidity and increased temperature. This is due mainly to the reluctance on the part of the individual to put forth an effort sufficient to perform any great amount of work. There is a general feeling of languor because of the enervating effect of the air.

There is no serious injury resulting from working in such an atmosphere, unless there is an increase in the bodily temperature, and then there may be serious results to the health unless relief is obtained. When the humidity has reached the point of complete saturation and the temperature is above 88° F., compensation can no longer obtain through evaporation and heat stroke may result. The most noticeable effect of warm moist air under ordinary circumstances is reluctance to put forth any mental or physical exertion, and a loss of appetite. With a temperature at 75° F. and the relative humidity 80%, an individual not accustomed to such will require complete rest.

It will be noticed that under such conditions Innate Intelligence is constantly working to bring about intellectual adaptation and that she is able to do so to a remarkable degree. The glands of the body are used to produce secretions which constantly bathe the tissues and keep them cool in the high temperatures, and at a proper degree of warmth in the low temperatures. The fact that the individual is indisposed to mental and physical activity in such an atmosphere is adaptative on the part of Innate. This inactivity is suggested by means of the languid feeling in order that the body will not be over-exercised and thus will not increase the amount of heat in the body; because under these circumstances the process of evaporation is interfered with and this is one of Innate’s principal means of regulating the temperature of the body.

Perspiration is an adaptation on the part of Innate, for in this way the surface of the body is kept moist and as this moisture evaporates the body is cooled; otherwise the temperature of the body would increase with every rise in the temperature of the atmosphere. Not only does this help to regulate the bodily temperature, but it keeps the surface tissue of the body soft. If there was no perspiration, the surface of the body would soon become dry, parched and hard. The skin would become scaly and would crack and become chafed.

Because of these adaptative processes it is possible for the body to be adjusted to great extremes in temperature. The body may become accustomed to extremely high temperatures even with high relative humidity, providing the change takes place gradually and sufficient time is allowed for the processes of adaptation to take place.

It is very important that the kidneys be able to perform their normal function in order that these processes of adaptation may take place. The kidneys are important not only because of the function which they perform in the excretion of poisons, but because of the function which they perform in relation to the serous circulation. This is important because of the secretions that are involved. This subject will be treated more fully under the subject of Water.

Cold Damp Air

The body quickly becomes chilled in a cold damp air because the increase in the water vapor increases the conductivity of the air for heat. It can thus be seen that the heat producing processes of the body must be increased in order to maintain the normal temperature of the body. As we know, all activity of the body requires an expenditure of energy, so if the body is exposed to a cold damp air for an abnormal length of time it will necessitate an increased expenditure of internal energy to meet the increased demands for heat and thus dissipate forces that should and would, under normal conditions, be utilized in the metabolism of the body. If the heat production is at a minimum in the body, which it may be, due to several factors such as old age, infancy, or dis-ease, this exposure to lowered temperature and high humidity will result in injury to the body.

An interference with the transmission of mental impulses to the kidneys resulting in a decrease in their functional activity may mean a retention of poisons in the body and produce a condition diagnosed as rheumatism, for example; or an interference with the serous circulation may result in the tissue cells being under-nourished. Both of these conditions will interfere with the processes of intellectual adaptation. Educationally, man may help in the adaptation by proper clothing and by giving attention to proper exercise.

Warm Dry Air

By far the most desirable air is the warm, relatively dry air; but as has already been noted, it is possible to have an atmosphere with a relative humidity that is too low. If the air is abnormally dry, and at the same time warm, there will be a great loss of body moisture due to the increased evaporation. When the loss of water from the body reaches 21% death ensues. In an experiment performed by Rubner and Lewaschew it was found that a man weighing about 127 pounds gave off about 54.1 grams of water in an hour in a temperature of 68° F. with a relative humidity of 82%; the same individual in a temperature of 68° F., but with a relative humidity of 82%, gave off only 15.3 grams.

Proper Temperature and Humidity

The most desirable atmospheric conditions are obtained at a temperature of 68° F. to 70° F., with the relative humidity from 40% to 60%. This is given only as a general average and will necessarily vary with many conditions, such as seasons of the year and occupation.

Moderately cool and relatively dry air increases the activities of the body, makes breathing easy and more frequent, and hence increases the circulation of the blood. Innate is thus enabled, in such an atmosphere, to bring about more perfect metabolism.

Proper temperature and humidity of the air in houses, impurities found therein, source of impurities and their effect upon health, will all be considered thoroughly under Hygienic Housing.

CHAPTER IV
VENTILATION

VENTILATION

Introduction
VENTILATION DEFINED
RATE OF RESPIRATION
VOLUME OF AIR INSPIRED AND EXPIRED
CAPACITY OF THE LUNGS
AMOUNT OF AIR REQUIRED PER HOUR
OBJECT OF VENTILATION
Sources of Impurities in Air
RESPIRATION OF PERSONS
IMPURITIES FROM HEATING AND ILLUMINATION
ACCIDENTAL SOURCES
EFFECTS OF FOUL AIR
Requirements of a Ventilating System
EXCHANGE AND CIRCULATION OF AIR
ILL EFFECTS OF VITIATED AIR
REBREATHING AIR
NATURE’S PURIFICATION METHODS
NECESSITY FOR VENTILATION
Natural Means of Ventilation
THROUGH WINDOWS AND DOORS
AMOUNT OF CUBIC SPACE PER PERSON
THROUGH SPECIAL DUCTS
Mechanical Ventilation
DEVICES REQUIRED
PLENUM SYSTEM
VACUUM SYSTEM
Washing the Air Before Admitting to House

CHAPTER IV

VENTILATION

Introduction

Ventilation as defined by Webster is, “To cause fresh air to circulate; to cause inside resident impure air to be removed and replaced with fresh, pure air, whether it be in building, streets, mines, or sewers.”

Shakespeare speaks of sleep as “Nature’s second course.” Fresh air may well be called “Nature’s tonic.” Everything else necessary for good health may be provided, but if there is not a sufficient amount of fresh air the tissues of the body can not perform their functions. It is quite as necessary to have plenty of fresh, pure air as it is to have a proper amount of wholesome food and pure water. Ordinarily not enough attention is given the subject of ventilation, especially of the average home.

The average adult breathes at the rate of seventeen or eighteen respirations per minute. At each respiration about thirty cubic inches of air passes in and out of the lungs. The air in the lungs loses 4% of oxygen and absorbs about 3.5% to 4% carbon dioxide. The nitrogen remains the same. The temperature of expired air is raised to about 98.4% F. and contains approximately 5% aqueous vapor.

This volume of air inspired and expired during gentle respiration, which is, as has been said, about thirty cubic inches, is known as tidal air. By forced inspiration another 100 cubic inches of air in addition to the tidal air may be taken into the lungs. This is known as complemental air. By forced expiration it is possible to expel from the lungs 100 cubic inches of air over and above the 30 cubic inches of tidal air; this is known as the supplemental air. There is another 100 cubic inches which can not be expelled by the most violent expiration; this is the residual air. The supplemental air can, by forced expiration, be expelled from the lungs, but the residual air can not. Altogether there is in the lungs during forced inspiration about 330 cubic inches of air. An average adult gives off about 0.71 cubic feet of carbon dioxide per hour.

Taking into consideration the amount of air breathed into the lungs per hour and the amount of impurities carried into the breathing zone by the expired air, it can readily be seen that the problem of supplying a sufficient volume of pure air in the house is no small problem.

The amount of fresh air needed for the average adult is estimated to be 3,000 cubic feet per hour. The ventilating system that does not provide this amount of air per hour without objectionable draughts does not meet the requirements of modern hygiene.

In a system of ventilation it is not only a question of providing a certain volume of air from the outside, but the great problem is to provide a sufficient volume of pure air of proper temperature and of proper humidity. Air that is laden with smoke, dust and suspended matter, or that which contains gas or foul odors, is objectionable and does not meet the requirements. Therefore, the source of the air becomes important. The ventilating system must also keep the air in proper circulation at a proper velocity.

The ventilating system of an ordinary building might seem a very simple proposition, but when considered carefully it is a very great problem and one that requires the careful attention of engineers trained in that particular line.

It is not the object of ventilation to provide an indoor condition identical with that outdoors, but it is to maintain a condition indoors conducive to a normal expression of indoor life. It is quite obvious that if indoor conditions were maintained identical with outdoor conditions the desired results could not possibly be obtained, for indoor life demands a much different environment. It is necessary to give any system of ventilation as much attention as is given a heating system in order to obtain the best results. No system will work itself.

Sources of Impurities in Air

There are many processes carried on within the house that add to the impurities of the air. Such sources may be classified as follows: respiration of persons, impurities from heating and illumination, and accidental sources from processes carried on within the house, such as house cleaning and laundering.

It will be observed from a study of the amount of air inspired and expired and the impurities carried from the body in the process that one of the most common sources of vitiation of the air in houses is respiration. That these expired poisons may be diluted or carried out of the breathing zone it becomes necessary to have an adequate ventilating system. If the room is heated by a stove impurities will be added from coal dust and the dust of ashes. When the iron is overheated it gives off carbon dioxide and other gases. Open fire or an open blaze for lighting purposes consumes oxygen, gives off carbon dioxide, raises the temperature and increases the amount of aqueous vapor.

Vitiation from accidental sources consists of dust particles of organic and inorganic detritus which are added to the air from walls, floors, furniture and hangings. Other processes such as laundering will add a certain amount of poisons and suspended matter to the air. All this reveals the necessity for exchanging the inside air for pure outside air.

Requirements of a Ventilating System

A ventilating system must not only bring about an exchange of air, but it must also keep the inside air in proper circulation during the time it is contained inside. Proper circulation of air is one of the most important functions of ventilating systems.

The value of air circulation will be appreciated when it is known that an aerial envelope is formed around the body when the air is not kept moving and the temperature and humidity of this air will resemble that of a very hot, humid summer day. The effects will also be similar to those of heat exhaustion. This shows the importance of keeping the air in circulation in order to carry away the poisons that are being constantly excreted from the skin and through the respiratory tract.

The effects of foul air are usually manifested as headache, fatigue, lassitude, vertigo, nausea, vomiting, collapse and even death. The chronic effects are anemia, debility, lowered vitality and disturbances in digestion. Prolonged exposure to vitiated air will necessitate increased adaptation on the part of Innate Intelligence. If this exposure is carried to an excess it will draw upon the adaptative forces of the body and make it more susceptible to the invasion of toxins and subject to changes which it would not be when under more natural environmental conditions.

It is now affirmed by the best hygienists that there is no great objection to rebreathing air if provision is made for diffusion of the carbon dioxide and if the bodily odors are eliminated. In this way air may be properly warmed and kept recirculating; thus there is a saving on fuel. If air is to be rebreathed it must first be washed. There is, of course, a limit to the length of time air can be recirculated. At no time is the recirculated air equal to outside air and because this method is not properly regulated and carefully controlled it is not considered safe for use.

Before considering methods for obtaining pure air it is interesting to look at Nature’s purifying system. The effect of vegetation upon the air is to consume carbon dioxide, especially in the sunlight. The purifying effects of the sun’s rays on the organic particles, the washing of the air by the rain which carries down the dissolved gases and suspended impurities, the natural constant diffusion of the air due to the wind, are all natural processes tending to keep the outside air in a state of purity.

Man so far has been unable to find any artificial means of purifying the air and therefore must provide means of admitting air from the outside in a state conducive to sustaining indoor life.

Natural Means of Ventilation

Outside air may be polluted with dust, smoke and suspended matter and it is then necessary to free the air of these impurities before it enters the house. Especially is this true in cities and where large buildings are to be ventilated. The most satisfactory methods of ventilating a large building is the plenum and the vacuum systems.

In the ordinary home, ventilation is through the natural openings such as windows and doors, although special openings may be provided which will admit fresh air and carry out the vitiated air. A great deal of air is admitted through the crevice and openings around windows and doors. A very simple method of airing a room in cold weather when a direct draught is objectionable is to place a board a few inches wide and as long as the width of the window beneath the lower sash. This prevents the air from coming through the open window, but permits it to enter between the upper and lower sashes. This also has the advantage of directing the air current toward the ceiling. This is very effective in the sick room and is so simple that any one can use it.

The size and shape of the room to be ventilated must be taken into consideration as well as the number of persons therein. The minimum amount of space allowed for each person has been placed by various authors at from 300 to 1,000 cubic feet, depending upon the nature of the work carried on, the size and shape of the room and the type of ventilation depended upon. In hospitals where fever cases are cared for 2,500 cubic feet are desired, while in government barracks each soldier is allowed 600 cubic feet.

The necessity for a sufficient supply of pure air can not be over-emphasized. When the windows and doors are used to ventilate the house they should be thrown open at different times so that the house air may be completely changed. We must not, however, go to the other extreme and jeopardize the health of the occupants by keeping the temperature too low, yet it has been proven that cool, fresh air is more easily heated than warm vitiated air.

When air is admitted by special ducts they should be so arranged that air may be evenly distributed over the room. The relative position of the inlets to the outlets is a question upon which the engineers are not exactly agreed. It is obvious, however, that their arrangement must admit of a complete change of air at proper intervals and that draughts will not be established directly between inlets and outlets. It is generally conceded that the best results are obtained when the inlet is placed above near the ceiling, and the outlet placed directly below near the floor. In this way there seems to be a more equitable distribution of the entering air and less likelihood of a direct draught between the inlet and outlet. The outlet should never be directly opposite the inlet, since the air will pass directly through the room and there will be very little mixing with the room air. If the room is crowded it is more desirable to admit the fresh air from beneath, but when this is done there must be a great number of inlets. In this way the fresh air is admitted more directly into the breathing zone and at the same time advantage is taken of the natural air currents in the room.

There are many patent devices on the market for ventilating through the windows. Such devices are very good and may be used to an advantage. Usually they are so built that the air is directed toward the ceiling as it is admitted. The same desired end is accomplished by placing a board under the lower sash as described above.

Mechanical Ventilation

By far the most satisfactory method of ventilating large buildings is the mechanical method. This is not practical for small buildings or homes because of the special devices that are required and the expense of operation. Mechanical ventilation may be accomplished by the plenum system, the vacuum system, or by the combined plenum and vacuum systems. The most desirable results are obtained when both systems are used and used in connection with the heating system. Heating and ventilating are so closely related that they must be considered one with the other. A poorly ventilated room is more difficult to heat and an improperly heated room is difficult to ventilate.

The plenum system consists of a fan to force the air into the rooms. These fans are run by water motors or electricity whereby the air is forced through ducts into the rooms. This system is made necessary by the great buildings, basements and large steamships, which could not be inhabited if natural ventilation was the only method employed.

The vacuum system consists of suction fans whereby the vitiated air is drawn out of the rooms and replaced by fresh air through the natural openings. In this way natural ventilation may be made more efficient, but this method in itself is not adequate for large buildings.

The two systems, vacuum and plenum, are commonly used together and when employed in connection with the heating device the very best results are obtained. The amount of air, the temperature and humidity, and the purity of the air may be regulated to a nicety in this way.

A complete system of vacuum and plenum consists of plenum fans for forcing the air into the rooms, vacuum or suction fans for the removal of vitiated air, the ducts for conducting the air to and from the rooms, the necessary machinery to run the fans, and a proper heating system whereby the air may be warmed in the winter and cooled by ice coils in the summer. It is also necessary to have a device for washing the air.

Washing the Air

As the air is drawn into the buildings by the plenum fan it is passed through a chamber where it is washed. This is done by forcing the air through a spray of water. A water curtain is formed by forcing water through perforated pipes placed across the chamber from each other and the water thus sprayed made to intercept. As the air passes through this curtain of water many of the impurities such as dust, cinders, bacteria, some of the gases, particles of decomposition, and epithelial cells, are removed. Washing does not remove carbon dioxide or bodily odors. Washing is one of Nature’s methods of cleaning the air as is seen in rain.

Central heating with washed air.

After the air is washed it is passed over tempering coils. In the winter the air is warmed and in the summer it is cooled in this way. The humidity is also controlled. It can thus be seen that this method, although rather expensive, is the only real method of ventilating large buildings satisfactorily.