THE
GUNSMITH’S MANUAL;

A COMPLETE HANDBOOK
FOR THE
AMERICAN GUNSMITH,
BEING A
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO ALL BRANCHES
OF THE TRADE.

By J. P. STELLE and WM. B. HARRISON.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1883,
By JESSE HANEY & CO.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

INDEX.

THE GUNSMITH’S MANUAL.

CHAPTER I.
HISTORY OF THE GUN.

Discovery of Gunpowder.—No authentic records have been left to show when or by whom was discovered the wonderful properties of the chemical compound now known as gunpowder; nor have we any information concerning the uses to which it was originally applied. There is little probability that it was at once employed as an agent in fire-arms; indeed, we have pretty strong evidence to show that it was not, for Roger Bacon refers to it in his famous treatise, De Nullitate Magiæ, published A. D., 1216, while fire-arms are mentioned by no writer as having been known earlier than about 1338.

The First Fire-Arms.—The first fire-arms, or guns, as we now call them, are said to have been rude cannon, formed by banding together flat iron bars, something on the plan of our wooden casks or barrels of to-day. These guns were fired with a “slow match,” the gunners retiring to a safe distance while the match was burning to the priming. Their earliest use was as engines of war. The writers of ancient history tell us that they were so employed by the Moors at the noted siege of Algesiras, Spain, in 1341, and at the battle of Calais, in 1346. At the latter battle, Edward III is credited with having had four pieces, which made him victorious.

Earliest Hand-Guns.—It is claimed by Spanish historians that to Spain belongs the honor of having been the first power to furnish her soldiers with fire-arms so small that they could be transported by a single person. They were unwieldy affairs at the beginning, however; really small cannon lashed upon wooden scantlings. The soldier could not fire his piece off-hand, but was forced to carry a “rest” with him wherever he went. Being ready to discharge his arm he balanced it upon the rest, steadied it by holding the scantling under his arm, and then “touched it off” with a live coal of fire, while he sighted along the barrel to take aim at his object. What happened immediately after the coal came in contact with the powder the historian saith not, but a modern writer, who has been examining one of these old guns in a museum, jumps to the conclusion that the soldier, with the scantling under his arm, must have been launched suddenly into an impressive dream of first-class earthquakes, or something else “like unto the combined kicking of about fifty mules.”

Prejudice Against Fire-Arms.—For about two centuries after the invention of hand fire-arms they were so inefficient that the cross-bow, then in general use, was able to quite successfully hold its own against them. It was not until 1596 that Queen Elizabeth, by a proclamation, directed that cross and other bows used in the army should be discarded entirely in favor of muskets. And thereat there arose much murmuring of dissatisfaction throughout the English Empire, according to Michael Montaigne, a most prominent man of his time, who narrates the fact, and adds: “Except the noise in our ears, to which we will be henceforth accustomed, I think the fire-arm is one of very little effect, and I hope that we shall one day give up its use.” Could he return to earth at this age, and see the wonderful fire arms that have developed from the humble beginning of which he was then treating, he would speedily lose his hope to the effect that one day its use would be entirely given up.

The First Rifle.—The first rifle is said to have been made about the close of the fifteenth century, by one Gaspard Zollner, of Vienna. It was a simple barrel with straight grooves; the only object of the grooves being to prevent its becoming so “dirty” from continued use, as did the smooth-bore. Spiral grooving does not seem to have been thought of until many years later.

The Arquebus.—The earliest noted improvement in the hand-gun, making it lighter and giving it a longer barrel, was called the arquebus; but even this was so heavy that a “rest” was necessary while discharging it. This rest was a single staff armed with a steel point which went into the ground like the Jacob-staff of a surveyor, but which fitted it for use as a pike when not employed in connection with the gun. It was called the schweine feder, which rendered into English means the “hog’s bristle.”

The arquebus was a regular “match-gun;” that is, it had a “pan” or receptacle at the side of the breech for the priming powder, which communicated with the interior of the barrel by a small perforation called the “touch-hole.” The priming was lighted by a match, which consisted of a coil of small rope saturated with some kind of chemical, which caused it to burn readily and hold fire for a long time. The soldier using the arquebus carried the match in his hand and kept it burning during an action. The manner of setting off the piece was about the same as with the live coal—he secured his sight and then touched the priming with his lighted match.

The Match Lock.—Later, the serpent-match was invented and looked upon as a startling improvement. It was a simple S-shaped piece of iron or wire hinged to the side of the gun just back of the priming pan. The upper end was provided with a beak which gripped the lighted fuse, while the lower end played the part of a modern trigger. With this contrivance the gunner had only to take sight and then pull with his finger upon the lower end of the S until the lighted fuse was brought down into the priming. After many years of use an improvement was made upon the S, consisting of a small spring which threw it back into an erect position so soon as the pressure upon the lower end was discontinued.

The powder employed with the old arquebus was of two grades as to size of grain; a coarse grade for the charge, and a fine grade for the priming. Its chemical composition does not seem to have differed materially from that of our modern gunpowder.

The serpent match, so called because the upper end holding the fuse was often shaped to represent the head of a serpent, was the first actual step taken towards a gun-lock. It was thought to be perfection itself, especially after the returning spring had been added, and so strong a hold did it take upon all nations that only a few years has elapsed since it was wholly abandoned in some of the most benighted regions, as in China, for instance, where it is known to have been used in the army at a date as late as 1860.

Musket-Petronel.—Next in order to the arquebus came the musket, a Spanish invention. It was heavier than its predecessor, and carried a charge twice as large. Almost simultaneously with this appeared the first cavalry fire-arm, which was called the petronel. It was shorter than the musket and larger in bore; the horseman rested its breech against his breast and communicated the fire by means of the serpent match.

The Wheel-Lock.—In 1517 the Germans astonished the world by inventing and bringing into use the “wheel-lock,” which was a regular gun-lock, entirely doing away with the lighted match. It consisted of a small disk of steel fluted on the edges, set in close contact with the priming pan, and made to revolve with great rapidity by means of a spiral spring arranged somewhat on the plan of the spring of a spring-clock. In contact with its fluted edge, and held there by a spring, was arranged a sharp flint; hence when the steel disk was set in motion a train of sparks was thrown off as it revolved over the edge of flint. These sparks fell into the priming pan and ignited the powder, discharging the piece. The spring was wound up like winding a clock or watch, and a slight pressure upon a trigger under the breech set the wheel in motion. The pressure was continued until the gun was discharged, when it was discontinued, the result of which was an immediate stopping of the wheel. A single winding would usually discharge the gun about half a dozen times.

The Pistol.—The wheel-lock went into quite general use, finally leading to the invention of the pistol, about 1544. The first pistols were single barrel, and very short. The stock was heavy, and the breech or handle, instead of leaving the barrel with a curve, as in later days, dropped at right angles to the iron. It was put into use as a cavalry arm, first by the Germans and afterwards by the people of many other nations. In 1607 the German horse soldiers were all regularly armed with double-barrel wheel-lock pistols.

The Snaphaunce.—After the date just mentioned modifications and improvements in fire-arms were rapid and constant. The wheel-lock was finally followed by the “snaphaunce,” which was a straight piece of furrowed steel brought to bear upon the flint instead of the disk. It was more simple in its construction than the wheel-lock, and hence less liable to get out of order. Of course it worked in obedience to the action of a spring, but the spring was not a spiral—it was more on the plan of the mainspring in modern gun-locks.

The Flint-Lock.—About 1630 Spain again popped to the surface; this time with the regular flint-lock, embracing precisely the same mechanism as the flint-lock used in our Revolutionary war, and familiar to very many of the older people of the present day. Its advantages over the wheel-lock and the snaphaunce were so marked that France at once adopted it for use in her armies, but England held back, contending that the wheel-lock was the better invention, till 1690, when she gave up the contest, and adopted the flint-lock.

Important Improvements.—Rapidly following the invention of the flint-lock came important improvements in the musket. The stock was lightened and put into better shape, and sights were invented and placed upon the barrels. Up to this time the soldier had been forced to carry his ammunition in bulk, but now cartridges were brought into use, carried in convenient and neatly made cartridge-boxes. Steel bayonets to set over the muzzle of the gun also appeared, the first in 1693. Prior to this time a rude kind of bayonet had been more or less in use—it was a sort of dagger set into a wooden handle, the latter to be thrust into the muzzle of the gun in case of a hand-to-hand charge, where loading and firing could not be attended to. Iron ramrods took the place of the inconvenient and unsafe wooden ones formerly in use, which was regarded as a long stride in the efficiency of the musket. With the old wooden ramrods, clumsy and easily broken, the loading of a musket was a slow and laborious task, but the iron rod secured comparative ease and rapidity.

Advance of the Rifle.—With the general improvement of fire-arms the rifle had worked gradually into favor and use. Its main drawback, as an army gun, laid in the difficulty experienced in loading it. But it was admirably adapted to the wants of the people settling the wilds of the American continent, hence they adopted it almost to the entire exclusion of any other kind of fire-arm. In the armies its use was limited to a few corps of sharp-shooters, usually on the frontiers where it was advantageous to harass the enemy by picking off his men at long range. England seems to have been rather prejudiced against the rifle until after our war with her for Independence. In that war she appears to have had so striking a demonstration of its efficiency that she soon after adopted it as a military arm; and other nations, having faith in her superior judgment, finally followed her example, bringing the rifle rapidly upward in rank as an effectual implement of war.

The Percussion Lock.—In 1807 a Scotch clergyman by the name of Alexander Forsyth, invented a new method of igniting the charge in fire-arms, which, after various changes and improvements, settled down to what is now known as the percussion cap. The percussion lock was a simultaneous invention, of course; though it did not differ materially, in point of construction, from the old flint-lock already in use. The main difference consisted in the substitution of a cylinder and tube for the priming pan and frizzen, and a hammer for the cock.

A strong current of prejudice set at once against the percussion lock, though nobody could tell why. All declared it would not do, but none attempted to give a reason for the faith that was in them. As a result the new invention was pretty effectually held in the background until 1834, when its opponents accepted a challenge for a public test of its merits against those of the flint-lock. The test extended to 6,000 rounds. In the course of these the percussion lock (afterwards more commonly known as the cap-lock), gave but six miss-fires, while the flint-lock scored nine hundred and twenty-two misses.

This astounding defeat at once sealed the fate of the flint-lock; still it was a long time before the prejudice existing against the other could be entirely removed. Even as far down as the date of our Mexican war, General Scott flatly objected to its use in his army, and had his men armed with the flint-lock, although there were then in our arsenals percussion-lock muskets enough to have armed all his forces more than twice over.

But facts are such stubborn things that even the strongest prejudice must give way to them sooner or later. So it proved in this instance; one by one the manufacturers of flint-lock fire-arms adopted the improvements resulting from the discoveries of the Scotch clergyman, until finally no more flint-locks were made, and the percussion lock was in undisputed possession of the field.

The Breech-Loader.—When the percussion-lock had been fully adopted by the public, and all the “latest improvements” had been added to it, people thought that the fire-arm had attained to such a degree of perfection as to preclude any further change in the future; but how mistaken! The fate of the percussion-lock is now as much sealed as was that of the flint-lock at the test-trial of 1834. It is going the way of all its predecessors, and its entire extinction is only a matter of time. The breech-loader, with charge and ignition combined in the same cartridge, is rapidly taking its place, and, until some new and wonderful discovery comes to the surface, must, undoubtedly, stand paramount as the gun of the future.

While springing into general favor at one leap, as it were, the breech-loader is no new and sudden appearance. In truth it is of great antiquity. In the Tower of London, the Woolwich Museum, and in the Museum of Paris, may be seen hundreds of breech-loaders that were made centuries ago. Of course they were not made to use the percussion cartridge peculiar to many such guns of modern make, nevertheless they were veritable breech-loaders, and the real suggestors, no doubt, of the modern arm of that character.

In the Museum of Artillery, at Woolwich, there is a breech-loading pierrier, or paterera, of the time of Edward IV. (1471). It consists of a directing barrel, terminating in a square bar or frame of iron, and a separate loading chamber, with handle, which was fastened in its place for firing by an iron wedge. There are also found in the museums many breech-loading pistols, that were evidently in use about cotemporaneous with this gun.

The records kept at St. Etienne, France, show that the French monarch, Henry II, shot with a breech-loading gun in 1540. And the English records show that the Marquis of Worcester took out a patent in that country for a breech action on the “cut-screw” principle in 1661. A portion of the specification reads as follows:

“An invencione to make certain guns or pistols which in the tenth part of one minute of an hour may be re-charged; the fourth part of one turne of the barrell, which remains still fixt, fastening it as foreceably and effectually as a dozen shrids of any screw, which, in the ordinary and usual way require as many turnes.”

There are several specimens of the breech-loader made on this plan, now in the Woolwich Museum. There are also other specimens, on a plan entirely different, made at a date but a little more recent, for it seems that then, as in modern days, one invention was very apt to suggest another. Three years after the Marquis of Worcester had taken out his patent, one Abraham Hill, of London, patented some six different systems of breech-loaders. In his specification concerning one of them he says:

“It is a new way of making a gun or a pistoll, the breech whereof rises on a hindge, by a contrivance of a motion under it, by which it is also let down and bolted fast by one of the same motion.”

This, as will be readily seen, was rubbing pretty close upon the breech-loader of the present day.

Since the dates of the patents just referred to, the breech-loading fire-arm is known to have been in uninterrupted existence; but so strong was the current turned against it by popular prejudice, that it was little known to the people in general. A want of scientific training among the masses was the cause which held it back; they were unable to clearly understand all the whys and wherefores connected with its workings, and, therefore, rejected it on the plea that it was dangerous, without really knowing whether it was or not.

Great improvements in the breech-loader now succeeded each other with astonishing rapidity up to the time when M. Lefaucheux, of France, capped the climax by inventing the cartridge containing within itself the cap, or means of igniting the charge. This made it available as a sporting gun, and hence promptly set it forward into public attention; and finally, after a score or so of improvements, usually at the hands of the English, into public favor. It is, at last, the gun of the period, and the old muzzle-loader, with all its good qualities (and they were certainly many), is rapidly surrendering the field to the more successful candidate, and retiring in the footsteps of its honored predecessors, the wheel-lock and the flint-lock.

CHAPTER II.
HOW GUNS ARE MADE.

Gunsmith—Gunmaker.—The modern gunsmith is not necessarily a gunmaker, but rather a repairer of guns that have happened to get out of order. In earlier days the devotees to his calling may, in their little shops, have made guns entire, but now, if the gunsmith makes them at all, that making consists in merely finishing up the parts and putting them together—generally making the stock entire. All gun parts can now be bought as “gunsmith’s materials,” either finished or in the rough, as may be desired. They are made by a variety of workmen, the business of each man being to make a single part, and nothing more. There is at present too much in a good gun to admit of all being made advantageously by one man; he would need to be a kind of “Jack-of-all-trades,” and, like the traditional Jack, it is but reasonable to suppose that he would be really first-class at none.

In some of the large establishments where guns are made all these different workmen are employed, hence such an establishment is really a collection of workers in many trades. The gunsmith who has his shop for repairing purposes, or for putting together materials under the name of gunmaking, will not be specially concerned with reference to any of these trades; still it is but reasonable to suppose that he would like to know something of how the implements, or parts of implements, that he will be constantly handling, were put up; and, besides, there will exist something akin to a necessity for his possession of such knowledge, owing to the fact that his customers will often call upon him to answer many a question as to how this or that gun was made, etc. With this view of the case, it is really necessary to give a brief outline of gunmaking, following the work from the rough material to the final finish.

Gun-Barrels—Best Materials for.—The barrels of the finest and best guns, either Damascus, or other steel, or iron, are formed, as made in Europe and England, of scraps of iron suited to the purpose, and selected with great skill and the greatest possible care. These scraps, which are usually bought up about the country, are placed in what is called a “shaking tub”—a vessel which is violently shaken and rocked about by machinery or otherwise (depending upon the particular locality) for the purpose of scouring and brightening the scraps. This done, they are carefully picked over by adepts, who cull out the unsuitable pieces. So rigid is the culling that it often happens that out of a ton of scoured scraps not more than one hundred pounds weight of them are chosen as suitable for going into the best barrels.

Among the scraps usually thought to be best are old chains that have been used for many years, the wear and rust of time having left only the best elements of the iron. The Damascus steel, which has attained to so high a reputation, got it by being manufactured out of old coach springs. Of course it is not all made of coach springs now, but it was in years ago; agents then traveled all over the country hunting and buying them up, paying a much higher price for an old broken spring than a new one would cost its owner.

On Making Gun-Barrels.—The selected scraps to be worked into gun-barrel material are cut into small pieces and thrown into a furnace, where they are exposed to intense heat until fused, after which they are brought forth an adhering mass and placed under a hammer, which drives them together and forges them into bars. The bars are next rolled into thin plates, and then cut into strips twelve inches long and six inches wide. The very best guns are made of a combination of iron and steel. Both materials having been rolled and cut into sheets of exactly the same size, these sheets (one-fourth of an inch thick) are piled upon each other alternately to the number of thirty, and subjected to a welding heat; they are then driven together under a five-ton hammer into a consolidated slab. The slabs so formed are next worked down into one-fourth inch square rods. The more the material is hammered and worked the better it is. The rods are next twisted until they present the appearance of a strand of rope, some rods being twisted to the right and others to the left. Two rods, with opposite twist, are heated to the welding degree, placed upon each other, and rolled together; they are now in a narrow slab, presenting that fine curl of “grain” peculiar to the Damascus, or that beautiful wavy figure peculiar to the laminated steel, as the case may be. The next operation is to coil one of these slabs around a mandrel in a spiral form, and weld it securely under the blows of hand-hammers. It is now a gun-barrel in the rough.

Finishing and Proving.—The rough barrel goes from the welder to the borer, where it is put through the process of “rough boring.” From the “rough borer” it goes into the hands of the “fine borer,” who bores it out smoothly and to near the size it is to be when finished. Another operator then takes it in charge and dresses it to smoothness externally, then the “tester” takes it and dips it into strong acid, which soon shows any imperfection in either twist or welding that might exist. If not perfect, it is sent back to be worked over; if all right, it passes to the next department, where it is straightened inside. This part of the work is governed entirely by the eye, and hence demands the services of a workman of great skill, and experience.

Having been “passed on” by the “straightener,” the barrel goes to the “turner,” who turns it in a lathe until the outside is true and correspondingly straight with the interior, and is of exactly the required weight. If the arm is to be a double-barrel shot gun, the barrel next goes into the hands of a workman who joins it to another barrel with the utmost nicety; to attain which, levels and other suitable instruments are brought into requisition. Like the man who straightens the bore, the man who joins the barrels must be a workman of great skill.

The next operation is to braze on the “lumps;” then, next in order, the ribs are put on. Now comes the “proving.” The rear ends having been securely plugged, they go to the proof department, where is placed into each barrel fully four ordinary charges of gunpowder; then, atop of this, a wad of strong brown paper, rammed securely down, then a leaden bullet large enough to exactly fit the bore, and then another wad of brown paper. The charge is fired, and if the barrels stand the ordeal unfazed, they are ready to be fitted to the action; otherwise, they go back to be worked over. In some houses the “proving” is done before the barrels are joined together.

Action, Stock and Final Finish.—The “action man” now takes the perfect barrels in hand and performs his part of the work. In the meantime the stock-maker has not been idle. A stock is already in waiting, and next must come a series of fittings of the most exquisite nicety, until the gun is actually a gun and ready for its final test. This is applied by the “targeteer,” who passes upon it according to its merits. If his report comes in favorable, the gun goes to the proper department for final finish. The stock is dressed up, finished in oil or varnish and chequered, and its mountings put on. Every piece of metal is polished and burnished to the highest possible degree, and all the needed engraving is done. Next comes the case-hardening, coloring, and the browning or bronzing; and this having been well and satisfactorily performed, the gun is ready for market.

On Making the Rifle.—The processes employed in making the modern rifle do not differ materially from those named in the foregoing. Of course there are some processes employed on the shot gun that are not called for in the manufacture of the rifle, and some on the rifle not needed on the shot gun. The general principle is the same, however, and therefore it is not necessary to consume time in further description. The great care mentioned is only done to make a good gun; only the cheap and inferior guns are pitched together in an easier and more irregular way. But the gunsmith would not thank any one for a treatise on cheap and bad guns. They are legion, more’s the pity, and his extensive dealings with them will afford annoyance sufficient to do away with any desire on his part to fight his battles over in a book.

Plain Steel-Barrel Guns.—Of course there are guns with “plain steel barrels,” as they are called, which pass muster as fair; and the barrels of these are made by a process differing materially from that described in the foregoing; all else connected with the making is the same. These plain steel barrels are made of round bars of steel two inches in diameter. The bars are first cut into lengths of nine inches each; a hole or bore three-fourths of an inch in diameter is drilled through the centre. They are now called moulds, and the next step is to pass them through rolls, which reduce them to the required size for barrels and stretch them out to the required length, holding them, at the same time, in the proper shape, externally. Having been thus rolled, they are bored out internally, turned and ground externally, until they have attained to the shape and proportions of correctly-formed barrels. After this comes the fitting up and “proving,” as in the case of the finer guns.

CHAPTER III.
GUNS NOW IN USE.

Guns Defined.—Excepting the pistol, and the mortar, perhaps, all fire-arms now in use are classed under the name of guns. The cannon or artillery ordnance in all its sizes and forms, is simply a large gun. It is variously divided off, according to character, into heavy siege-guns, field-pieces, rifled-cannon and smooth-bores. These again are sub-divided into a large number of different kinds, as the Armstrong, the Dahlgren, the Columbiad, the Paixhan, the Parrot, the Whitworth, etc. But with guns of this class the practical gunsmith will have nothing to do, and hence it is but reasonable to suppose that he feels no particular concern about them. It is with the small-arms that his concern will mainly lie, and therefore from this page to the conclusion of this work the gun mentioned will be some instrument classing with the small fire-arms, and liable to be brought to a gunsmith’s shop for repairs.

The small arms, or hand guns, are muskets, rifles, carbines, fowling-pieces and pistols. These may be properly divided into three classes: the flint-lock, the percussion-lock and the cartridge breech-loader.

The Old Flint-Lock Guns.—Of the old flint-locks, only a few are now in existence within the United States. Here and there one has been kept as a kind of heirloom by some family, and occasionally these drop in upon the gunsmith for repairs, but not often. They are more common along the Mexican border in Texas, perhaps, than in any other portion of the country.

A minute description of the old flint-lock-gun need not be given, as, in general characteristics it does not differ materially from all other muzzle-loaders. The barrel is usually longer than that of the more modern gun; and, in the case of the rifle, the stock (all wood) extends nearly to the muzzle. It is what, in later days, when half-stocks had been invented, was called a full-stock. As already intimated the interior mechanism of the lock differs very little from that of the more modern cap or percussion-lock. On the outside, in place of the cap-hammer is a cock arranged with two lips for holding a flint. The lips are brought together firmly upon the flint by means of a screw which passes down immediately back of it. In the top of the lock-plate, directly in front of the cock, is set the priming-pan; a small iron receptacle made to contain, say the fourth of a teaspoonful of gunpowder. When the lock is in position the butt or open end of the pan comes squarely up against the barrel of the gun where a small hole called the “touch-hole” communicates with the interior, and with the charge, when the gun is loaded. Over the priming-pan a cover fits nicely, lying horizontally when the pan is closed, and turning up at right angles on the edge nearest the cock, and standing erect, a small plate of steel, immediately in front of the flint. This cover, with its vertical plate is called the frizzen. It works on a hinge, and is held into whatever position set, by means of a small spring called the heel spring. When the cock is set in motion by drawing upon the trigger and releasing the check to the mainspring, the flint comes in contact with the steel plate of the frizzen, throwing it back upon its hinge and scraping down its face directly towards the priming-pan. As the frizzen flies back the pan is uncovered, of course, enabling the flint to end its journey directly in the priming powder of the pan. In its scrape over the steel plate of the frizzen it causes many brilliant sparks of fire, which descending with it into the priming sets off the charge.

The Percussion-Lock Gun.—As has already been stated, the immediate successor of the old flint-lock was the percussion or cap-lock. While now far beyond its zenith, it is still the prevailing gun in many portions of the country; especially in out-of-the-way districts South and West. In the oldest make of these guns a small plug of iron is screwed into the barrel at the point where the touch-hole of the flint-lock was located. It is called the cylinder. The end passing into the barrel is drilled to communicate with the powder-bed of the gun, and with a cap-tube, which is screwed into the cylinder, to stand erect near the side of the barrel. In more modern guns the cylinder has been discarded, the tube going directly into the barrel and communicating with the powder-bed.

The oldest percussion-lock rifles are set in whole-stock, on the plan of the flint-lock gun; and on account of the fact that all the old-fashioned folks are not yet dead, some factories put up new guns after the same model, calling them Kentucky rifles. The stock reaches the full length of the barrel, which is heavy and about four feet long. It is octagon in shape. But in most of the more modern rifles the barrel is shorter, say from 32 to 36 inches in length, and comparatively light; and the stock extends only half the length of the barrel, joining to a rib affixed to the barrel for the purpose of holding the ramrod-thimbles.

The “patent-breech” may be mentioned as another peculiarity of the percussion-lock gun, since it was not known in the days ere the flint-lock had lost its prestige. In those early days the breech end of the barrel was closed by a plug of iron, screwed in and called the breech-pin. From its upper side there extended backward along the stock a thin plate or strap, through which screws passed at right angles to hold the barrel in place. This method of securing the breech-end of the barrel into the stock has been done away with by the patent breech, which secures it by means of a short hook on the end of the breech-pin; or, rather, on the end of the short plug screwed into the barrel in place of the old breech-pin. It is much more convenient than the old fashioned arrangement, as it enables the barrel to be taken from the stock in a moment, doing away with the labor of drawing the breech-pin screws.

On the Muzzle-Loaders.—The percussion-lock muzzle-loaders all work upon about the same principle. The charge must go in at the muzzle and be put down to the breech. In the case of army guns it is usually contained in a paper cartridge. The soldier bites off the end of the cartridge in which the powder is inclosed, to admit of a communication with the cap, and then forces it down with the ramrod. But in the case of rifles and fowling pieces, or shotguns, as the latter are most commonly called in this country, cartridges are seldom employed. In loading a rifle the powder is first measured in a “charger,” and then poured down the barrel; next comes the patch, which is usually a piece of new and strong cotton cloth, most commonly the kind known as white drilling. This, having been tallowed upon one side, the tallowed side is spread over the muzzle of the gun, and the bullet is pressed upon it into the muzzle, the side from which the “neck,” formed in moulding, has been cut, must be directly downward. Generally with the handle of a knife the bullet is pressed into the bore as far as it can be sent by such means; then the patch is gathered around it and cut smoothly off exactly flush with the muzzle end of the barrel. The next operation is to draw the ramrod, throw the gun under the left arm, with its breech resting upon the ground and its muzzle in front of the breast, and then having set the butt end of the ramrod upon the bullet and grasped it in both hands, the bullet is gradually, and by main strength, forced downward into position. To make sure that it is entirely down the gun is taken from under the arm, by some, and set with the breech resting upon the ground more in front, after which the ramrod is raised up a foot or so and pitched down the bore like throwing a pike. If it does not bound back the bullet is not down solid upon the powder, and the pitching is repeated until it does bound. The upward bound of a few inches is sufficient to settle it that the bullet is down.

In the early times the bullet of the rifle was patched with dressed deer-skin exclusively.

Charging the shot-gun muzzle-loader is an operation somewhat different. First comes the powder poured down the bore from a charger, as in the case of the rifle. Next comes a wad, usually of paper, which must fit tightly, and be rammed down solid upon the powder. Following this comes the shot, measured in the same charger, or in one of the same capacity. The measure of powder and the measure of shot usually made about the same. Over the shot is rammed a loose wad—it needs only to be tight enough to prevent the shot from rolling out when the muzzle of the gun happens to come lower than the breech. Disk-like wads of pasteboard or felt cloth are the latest invention.

The Breech Loaders.—The breech-loading gun is now before the public in considerable variety; and being really the gun of the day, and, consequently, engaging the best thought of inventors, it is constantly appearing in new forms. This being the case, about all that could be expected in this work, is a mere mention of the general principles upon which it works.

Taking a double-barrel shot-gun for illustrating these general principles, it may be stated that the barrels are movable at the breech or rear end, and butt upon the face of the standing breech peculiar to the latest and best muzzle-loaders. The face of these barrels fits smoothly against that of the standing breech. There is nothing in the way of a breech-pin to resist the backward force of the ignited powder, or hold the barrels in place. The hooks mentioned as peculiar to the patent breech muzzle-loader are not there—nothing at all like them. But the barrels, when put into place for shooting are held there by means of a solid piece of iron attached to them underneath, called the “lump.” To effect this, it descends into an iron bed on the stock called the “action,” its projections fitting into suitable recesses in the action and being held there by the agency of keys, wedges, bolts or grips.

There are many devices for gripping, bolting or wedging up the gun, as it is called; and also many for attaching the barrels to the stock. In all cases the barrels play upon a hinge pin, which admits of their dropping down at the muzzle and rising at the breech, the latter to reject the empty cartridge and receive the loaded one. At every discharge the gun is opened and closed by throwing up the barrels for the purpose just named, and then letting them down again into position for shooting. The means by which this opening and closing is effected vary greatly in the guns of different makers.

Variety of Breech-Loaders.—This gives the general idea of about all there is of it. There are a few breech-loaders made in both this country and in Europe whose barrels are fixed, the cartridge being inserted through some other device; and there are still a few others whose barrels slide forward or sideways in the stock to receive the load—do not tilt on a hinge-pin—but neither of these kinds are so common as the kinds just referred to.

CHAPTER IV.
PISTOLS NOW IN USE.

Old-Style Pistols.—Pistols, the smallest of fire-arms, were originally plain implements of a single barrel; but, as improvements advanced, a second barrel was added to many of them, presenting what is known as the double-barreled pistol. Some of these old-fashioned single and double-barreled pistols will still occasionally find their way into the shop of the gunsmith, though their numbers, as now in use, are comparatively small, especially the muzzle-loaders. In rare instances a flint-lock “horse pistol” or holster may put in an appearance, though none such are now on sale at any house dealing in fire-arms. Some few houses are still offering the old cap-lock army holster, always a second-hand article that once belonged to the Government, and was bought up by dealers when the Government had discarded it for the adoption of more modern and better arms. A description of this kind of weapon is unnecessary as it is simply a small musket with side-lock, and all on the usual plan, differing only in being short and having a turned-down handle, to be held in one hand, instead of the usual breech. The single or double-barrel muzzle-loaders, outside the line of army holsters, will usually have the central lock, which is next to no lock at all; simply a mainspring working in the handle and throwing the cap-hammer, which is fitted in the middle of the piece immediately behind the breech-end of the barrel. Some very cheap pistols for boys are still made on this plan.

The Derringer.—The old Derringer, though not now much manufactured in this country, is still among the people in considerable numbers. It is a muzzle-loader, with side-lock and full-stock in wood; and, by the way, it is a very good pistol of its kind.

The Pepper Box.—There are quite a number of little breech-loading cartridge-pistols, with single barrels, now in use, but the pistol of the day is a repeater, of which there are kinds in great variety. One of the oldest and now rarest of these is the “pepper-box,” so called. It has a single barrel containing from five to seven bores, which are loaded from the muzzle. A tube for percussion caps communicates with each bore at the breech, and upon these a hammer strikes, having an automatic action, rising up and striking in response to pressure upon a trigger underneath, which pressure also revolves the barrel, bringing the caps into proper position for receiving the blow. It was never a popular pistol, people objecting to a kind of way it had of sometimes letting off its seven charges simultaneously, when the person operating it had intended to fire but one.

Old Colt’s Revolver.—Next among the repeaters, in point of scarcity, is the Colt’s revolver of the earliest patent. It has a stationary single barrel and revolving cylinder, the latter containing from five to seven chambers for receiving the charges. It is not a muzzle-loader, though the charges must be put into the chambers at the breech, somewhat on the muzzle-loading plan. It is fired by means of percussion caps. The cylinder revolves, throwing the chamber to be discharged into proper position at the breech of the barrel when the cap-hammer is drawn back. Though inconvenient, compared to the cartridge pistol of more modern make, the old Colt’s revolver is yet an excellent arm. There are houses still making revolvers on the same plan.

Sharp’s Four Shooter.—Next to the old Colt’s revolver may be placed the Sharp’s four shooter. It is a neat and strong-shooting, little breech-loading pistol, using a No. 22 cartridge. The barrel has four bores but does not revolve; but the hammer has a revolving point, for striking the cartridge, which moves into proper position for a new discharge every time it is drawn back to full cock. The barrel slides forward upon the stock for receiving new cartridges.

The Breech-loading Cartridge Revolvers.—Next comes the regular breech-loading cartridge revolver, which is the pistol now most common and most popular. To attempt a detailed description of every style of this weapon would be to swell our book to unwieldy proportions, and even were the multitudinous styles at present before the public described, it would be impossible to keep pace with the number which would be constantly introduced. But, even were it possible to do so, no good purpose would be subserved. Various as the styles appear, they all embrace devices and combinations which are substantially covered by our several chapters, and the intelligent workman will not require minute descriptions to recognize or understand the individual weapon when well grounded in a knowledge of the class of fire-arms to which it belongs. It is our purpose to give such descriptions, directions and illustrations as shall make everything sufficiently clear and explicit to enable the reader, with careful attention thereto, to handle successfully and satisfactorily any job likely to come to his hands.

CHAPTER V.
ON GENERAL GUNSMITHING.

The Gunsmith and his Trade.—Few trades present so little regular routine as does that of the gunsmith. In most trades it is the same thing over and over again; but, with the exception of taking the gun to pieces and putting it together; and, perhaps, of tempering, case-hardening and the like, the gunsmith may work regularly for a long time without being called upon to do precisely the same thing twice. As a consequence, the gunsmith must be merely an ingenious mechanic or worker in metals, capable of thinking deeply and searching out causes and requirements—there is little need of his being anything more. The gun, in all its forms, is only a machine, and a simple one at that—so simple as to be easily understood by any one capacitated for making an intelligent study of machinery.

Fitting up a Shop.—The specialties to claim the attention of the gunsmith in fitting up his shop if his means are limited may be few. It will be about like fitting up the shop of any general worker in metals. He will need a forge, an anvil and a vise; in a word he will need a light but complete set of blacksmith’s tools, to begin with. This outfit will be his foundation, so to speak; and he can add to it such smaller tools as judgment and experience may suggest as wanted; such, for instance, as a hand-vise or two, cutting-pliers, bending-pliers, holding-pliers, small files of various shapes, small drills, a screw-plate or two, a few gravers, and so on. He might have many special tools, such as could not be bought at the ordinary hardware store, or at any house dealing in outfits for the general worker in metals, but for ordinary repairing, he will not have much need of them. Among the special tools that he will be compelled to have will be a rifle-guide, a few sets of rifle-saws and a few mould-cherries. These with proper instructions he can make himself if he finds he cannot buy them cheaper than he can make them. There are a few specialties in the way of tools or machines for gunsmiths that are offered to the trade by houses dealing in gunsmith’s materials, and some of them may be found very useful as labor-savers, but the gunsmith can get along without them if he does not wish to buy. Prominent among these is a mainspring-vise or clamp, which has several advantages over the common hand-vise sometimes employed for clamping the mainspring. It would be well to look after these things, and to adopt them in every case where it appeared beyond question that they could be made to pay. There is no occasion to speak against any of the specialties that may be presented to the attention of the trade—of their merits the party most concerned must be his own judge.

CHAPTER VI.
TAKING APART, CLEANING AND PUTTING GUNS TOGETHER.

To Take the Gun Apart.—With the muzzle-loading guns now in common use this is an operation so simple as to be scarcely worthy a mention. If the gun is an old-fashioned breech-pinned muzzle-loader, the first thing is to push out the small wire pins or bolts which pass through the stock, under the barrel, and through the barrel-loops. The next thing is to draw the breechpin screw; this lets the barrel out of the stock. If it is desirable to unbreech the gun, it is done by clamping the breechpin in a vise, and then turning the barrel by hand until it is screwed off the pin.

The patent-breech muzzle-loader comes apart the same way in every particular, with the exception that there is no breechpin screw to draw; the barrel can be easily lifted from the stock by simply raising the muzzle and unhooking the patent breech, so soon as the pins or bolts before mentioned as holding it down have been removed. The unbreeching is done at the vise much the same as in the other case.

To take apart the ordinary breech-loader, begin by setting the hammer at half-cock. Open the lever, then draw the bolt, starting it with a tap from the handle of the screwdriver. Next detach the fore-piece, and the barrel will come out without further resistance. Instructions to take down and assemble different kinds of breech-loading guns will be found in [Chapter XL].

To Clean the Gun when Apart.—In olden times a bucket of water and a wisp of tow and a stout “wiper” had to be brought into requisition, particularly for the interior of the barrel, but now these things are mainly obsolete, so far as relates to the outfit of the gunsmith. The owner of a muzzle-loader, who does not wish to remove the breechpin, may still resort to the old plan of washing out the barrel, though there is now really no necessity for it. A little benzine poured down the muzzle, after stopping the tube, will do the work of cleaning effectually and in a few minutes. Let stand a short time, then remove the plug from the tube and force the benzine out by running down a tow wad on the wiper—all the dirt will go out through the tube with it, leaving you nothing to do but wipe the benzine from the bore with the tow.

In the case of a gun unbreeched, or a breech-loader, all that is necessary is to saturate a bit of cotton flannel with benzine and run it through the barrel a few times. If the gun is a fine one, well finished, this process will leave the interior as shining and bright as a mirror.

With the same arrangement rub thoroughly any of the metal parts that happen not to be clean, and all impurities will promptly leave them. After this, oil and wipe with a chamois skin, and the work is done.

Benzine may be had at any drug store at about the price of kerosene. It is especially valuable as a gun cleaner for two reasons: its peculiar fitness for detaching and carrying away dirt, and its highly volatile properties, which cause it to evaporate and entirely leave the metal in a short time after the application has been made. Its adoption has completely done away with the necessity of ever using a drop of water upon a gun, in any case, which is a matter of decided importance and advantage.

To Put the Gun Together.—With the muzzle-loaders the operation of putting together is simply a work directly in reverse to that of taking apart. In case of the common make of breech-loaders a little more variation may be regarded as necessary. Take the grip of the stock in the left hand, having the lever open. Hook on the barrel and turn the gun over with the hammers underneath, still holding the stock at the grip. The weight of the barrel will keep it in place. With the right hand attach the forepiece and push in the bolt.

Of course there are guns of peculiar make, now and then to be met with, which will require a different routine, both in taking apart and putting together. The details, with full directions for taking down and assembling nearly all the breech-loading guns now made, will be found explained, with cuts of their mechanism and working parts, in [Chapter XLII].

A careful study will soon show the gunsmith how they come apart and how they go together. The main thing is to work with extreme care, and to never act until you clearly understand what you are doing.

CHAPTER VII.
TOOLS REQUIRED FOR WORK, THEIR COST, ETC.

Given in alphabetical order are some of the tools that will be required by the gunsmith, and in connection a very brief sketch is given of their approximate cost at hardware stores. This list is intended only as a sort of guide in purchasing, and is by no means intended as a complete list of what may be wanted.

Figure 1.

The Alcohol Lamp.—This lamp, shown in [Fig. 1], is useful for small soldering, tempering small taps, drills, etc. Glass or brass lamps with caps to prevent evaporation, are sold for about 50 cents each.

Alcohol Lamp, Self-Blowing.—This lamp, shown in [Fig. 2], very convenient when continued blowing is required, or when the “knack” of using the common plow-pipe cannot be readily acquired. It may be used for soldering, brazing small articles, or hardening small tools, Size 2½ inches diameter and 5 inches high, $2; about 3 inches diameter and 6 inches high, $3.

Figure 2.

Anvil.—An anvil weighing about ninety or one hundred pounds is heavy enough. An Eagle anvil of this weight will cost about $9 or $10. The body of this kind of anvil is cast iron with steel face and horn. Price per pound is about ten cents.

Barrel Planes.—These planes are now but little used, except for stocking guns or rifles which are to be fitted with full-length stocks. As this form of gun is somewhat going out of use, so the stocker’s planes are getting to be cast to one side. They are made similar to a narrow rabbet plane, but have the iron set close to the fore end. Any narrow plane with the fore end cut off to within half an inch of the opening in which the iron is placed will make a substitute for the stocker’s plane. The plane with round face is used to let in round barrels, and one with a face equal in width to the sides of an octagon barrel, for letting in such barrels. A narrow plane is used to let in the ramrod, by cutting a groove centrally in the bottom of the barrel groove. The planes used are about four in number and the cost is about seven or eight dollars for the set as sold by dealers.

Bevel.—Bevels for ascertaining and forming surfaces, not at a right angle with some certain line, can be had from one dollar upward in price. The four inch is very good size. The blade is held in position by a screw, which forms part of the joint on which the blade turns. Shown in [Fig. 3].

Figure 3.

Beveling Clamp.—These tools are generally made of about three sizes, and are used for holding hammers when filing the bevel upon the sides. They are also useful for holding lock-plates while filing the bevel on them. In the vise, work can only be conveniently held at a vertical or horizontal position; this clamp is designed to furnish a means to hold it so as to file an angle of about 45 degrees. The tool is shown in [Fig. 4]. It is held in the vise, the shoulders resting on the vise jaws. The spring between the jointed portions opens the tool when the vice jaws are opened, the closing of the vise jaws, of course, closing the clamp upon the work that is placed in it. The cost of these tools is from two to three dollars, according to size and quality.

Figure 4.

Blacksmith Tongs.—Blacksmith tongs can now be purchased of the hardware dealer. The twelve-inch length are used for small work, and the fifteen or eighteen for heavier work. The twelve inch cost about 50 cents; the fifteen, 62, and the eighteen, 75 cents each.

Blow-Pipe.—Select a blow-pipe eight or ten inches in length, with bulb or without, as fancy may dictate. If the end where the mouth comes in contact be silver or nickle-plated, it will not taste of brass. If it be difficult to get one plated, tin it with soft solder by wetting with soldering acid, and melting the solder on it by holding it over the lamp. Wipe off all superfluous solder with a rag. The cost of plain eight or ten inch pipe is about 25 cents. Add about one-third or one-half this price for pipes with bulb.

Breeching Taps.—Breeching taps ought to be obtained in pairs, one to enter first and another to follow, cutting a full thread at the bottom. The prices per pair are for the ⅜ inch $2.25; ½ inch, $2.50; ⅝ inch, $2.75. For shot gun taps, ¾ inch, $3.00; ⅞ inch, $3.25. A stock with dies will cost about a like sum, but if the stock be fitted with only two sets of dies, it will be much less. The two threads used for rifle pins are 14 and 16 to the inch.

The 14 and 16 threads are not always adhered to. A house in Philadelphia say they use taps of 18 threads, and a firm in Pittsburg advertise taps of 20 threads per inch.

Calipers and Dividers.—The best length of spring calipers and dividers, for common bench work, is about four inches. The cost is from 50 cents to $1.50, according to quality.

Chisels.—The chisels, as used by stockers, are about half a dozen in number. The narrowest is about one-eighth of an inch wide, and the widest about half inch. The set of six will cost about a dollar or a dollar and a half.

Cutting Pliers.—A pair of cutting pliers, six inches in length, for cutting wire, are indispensable. Select those of good quality. Poor pliers of this description are poor, indeed. The cost will be from 75 cents to $1.50. There are patented pliers of this kind in market that are recommended by many who use them.

Drill Stock.—Many kinds are in market, from eight inches in length upward. Some are termed hand drills, and the larger ones, used against the breast, are called breast drills. The hand drills can be obtained as low as 50 cents and upward; the price of breast drills from two to three dollars. Select a drill stock, if one be required, of a size and strength to suit the work to which it will be used.

File Card.—This is for cleaning filings, dirt, etc., that may collect in files. It consists of a strip of common cotton card tacked to a piece of wood conveniently shaped to handle. It is also useful to clean the dirt and debris that will collect in screw taps. The cost is about 25 cents. Shown in [Fig. 5].

Figure 5.

Fitting Square.—A fitting square with a four, five or six-inch blade is required for many purposes, not only for laying out iron stocks and marking off “square work,” but other work that will come into a gun shop. The gun squares used by carpenters and cabinet makers are very good. If the stock be of iron, or an iron frame filled with wood, they are better than those with wooden stocks. The cost of the six-inch may be about 75 cents. The other somewhat less.

Floats.—For half-stocking, the gouge and floats are used for letting in barrels. The floats are made with a handle bent at an angle so that the hand will not hit the work. The round float in form resembles a gouge with teeth like a coarse file cut on the rounded or bottom surface. Floats have been made by drawing the temper of a thick gouge and cutting teeth in it, or taking a half-round file and drawing the temper, and then cutting teeth on the round side. Floats for octagon barrels are flat, like a chisel with teeth cut on one of the flat sides. A thin float for letting in cross bolts is made in the same manner. A float for fitting ramrods may be made of a steel rod with teeth cut on one end, and a handle fixed to the other. The bolt float will cost about 50 cents. The rod float about $1.00 each for two sizes. Rifle, two sizes, about $1.25 each. Shot gun, two sizes, about $1.50 each.

Forge.—Little advice can be given respecting a forge. Some prefer the bellows forge, while others select the fan blower. The great requirement of the gunsmith is portability and occupying little space. It should also be so enclosed as to prevent escape of dust, and be free from accident of fire escaping if left with the fire lighted. The cost of either form of portable forge will be from $20, upward.

Glue Pot.—Glue pots can be purchased with kettle fitting inside the pot and tinned on inside, quart size about 75 cents. A glue pot may be extemporized by selecting a common round fruit can, cutting out the cover so as to allow a smaller can to fit and be held in place. Where economy is desired or a pot cannot be purchased, the can glue pot will answer every purpose.

Gouges.—About six gouges are needed. The sizes are about one-eighth for the smallest, and increasing to three-quarters for the largest. The cost of the set will be about one dollar and a quarter.

Grind Stone.—An Ohio stone, about 20 inches diameter and 2½ inches thick, mounted plain, can be got up for about three or four dollars. The iron fixtures will cost about a dollar, and the stone a cent and a half or more per pound, according to locality.

Hack Saw.—A hack saw shown in [Fig. 6], with iron frame, to hold a blade of eight or ten inches in length is required for cutting off barrels, slotting screws, cutting off rods of iron, brass, etc., besides many other uses. The eight inch with blade will cost about $1.25, the ten inch about $1.50. If at any time a blade be broken they can be replaced at from 25 to 50 cents.

Figure 6.

Hammers.—In choosing hammers select the plain riveting hammer with cross pein. The sizes generally most used are a four ounce, a twelve ounce and a heavier one for use at the forge. The four ounce costing about 30 cents, the twelve ounce about 50 cents, and the larger one according to weight. In selecting hammers try the pein with a fine file to learn the temper. In many cases the pein is left too soft for riveting steel.

Handles.—Handles for files or screwdrivers are best when made of maple or apple wood. Maple is generally preferred. Some mechanics like soft wood, as bass-wood or white birch, for file handles, but they are not so neat as those made of maple. Get those with ferrules made from sheet brass, raised to form. Soft wood handles are worth about 25 cents per dozen, and the hard wood about 50 cents.

Hand Shears.—For cutting sheet tin, brass, thin sheet steel, small springs, etc., select a pair of hand shears about nine or ten inches in length, costing about $1.50. With these, common watch-springs can be cut lengthwise, for making small springs for pistols. The temper need not be drawn to cut them. (Shown in [Fig. 7].)

Figure 7.

Hand-vise.—A hand-vise for holding wire, screws, etc., is needed. About four or four and a half inches in length is most convenient. For holding small wire, cut a groove with a three-square file across the jaws toward the jointed end. The cost will be from 50 cents to $1.00, according to quality.

Figure 8.

Iron Clamps.—A pair of malleable iron clamps (shown in [Fig. 8]), opening about four inches, are useful for holding barrels into the stock during stocking, holding a lock plate or strap in place for marking, holding barrels together, pieces of wood to be glued, etc. Cost, about 50 cents each.

Figure 9.

Mainspring Vise.—This tool (shown in [Fig. 9], as clamping a spring) is used to clamp the mainspring, preparatory to removing it from the lock. The hammer is set at full cock, and the vise applied, the screw tightened until the spring can be lifted from place. In taking down double guns, a vise for each lock spring is very convenient, as the springs can then rest in the vise, being cramped in place, until ready to be put back into their respective places. The cost of these vises is from 25 cents to $2 each, according to quality and make. For a left-side lock, reverse the sliding piece, so that the short end will bear on the bend of the mainspring.

Marking Gauge.—A wood marking gauge is used for laying out lines parallel to a surface already formed. If made of beech wood, and plain, it is generally sold for about 25 cents each.

Screw-cutting Tools.—A small die stock and dies, with taps for lock work, will cost about $2.50. A plate and ten taps, suitable for all sizes of nipples, English and German, can be had for about $8.00.

Screw Wrench.—One of Coe’s patent wrenches, about twelve-inch size, costing about a dollar, is the best make and the most durable size for all purposes. This wrench is generally known as a “monkey wrench.”

Soldering Copper.—A copper for soldering, similar to the kind used by tinners, is the kind to get. A good size—No. 3—will weigh about a pound and a half, costing about 75 cents.

Screw-drivers.—Several screw-drivers are required, and of several widths, to fit different sized screw heads. The narrowest may be about one-eighth inch, and the widest, say, half inch to five-eighths inch. If the mechanic desires to make these himself, select octagon steel, about one-quarter inch diameter, draw one end to form the tang, and the other to form the screw-driving part. Get good apple, beech or maple wood handles. Let the length project about six or seven inches from the handle. For the larger size screw-drivers get steel three-eighths diameter. Old files, with the temper drawn and the points ground to shape, make a passable screw-driver. Screw-drivers purchased at the store, are generally not so satisfactory as those made from rods. Stub’s round steel wire rod makes good screwdrivers

Pliers.—Three kinds of pliers are used by gunsmiths; flat nose, round nose, and long flat nose or clock-makers’ pliers. Six inch is about the right length for general use. The round nose are useful for bending wire or metal into circular forms. The long flat nose for holding work for soldering and handling work at the forge. Of the flat nose a five inch pair are useful in many cases. The cost of pliers (six inch), is from about 50 cents to $1.00 per pair according to quality.

Wing Dividers.—A pair of wing dividers, about eight inches in length, will be found the best size for general use. The cost will be about 75 cents. In purchasing see that the screw that binds the leg to the arc or wing is well fitted. The thread, either in the leg or the screw, is sometimes stripped or worn out after a little using.

CHAPTER VIII.
TOOLS, ETC., AND HOW TO MAKE THEM.

The tools given in this chapter are such as are needed by the gunsmith, and as directions are given for making them, they can be made by almost any ingenious person during leisure hours.

The Alcohol Lamp.—A lamp for this kind of work is easily made. A common gum or mucilage bottle with a tube inserted in the cork has been used, so has a small tin spice-box, with a tube soldered into the cover. A common copper or brass cartridge, with the head filed off, can be used for a tube. A common oil can, such as is used for oiling sewing machines, with about half of the taper tube cut off, will make a serviceable lamp. These appliances are small, unsightly and not to the taste of the mechanic who has a pride in the appearance of his tools.

The best form of lamp, shown in [Fig. 10], may be made by obtaining a small glass kerosene hand lamp, which will cost only a trifle of two or three shillings. Cut off that portion of the burner above the screw, where it is held to the socket that is fastened to the lamp. Remove the tube that holds the lamp-wick and also the little contrivance made to raise and lower the wick. In the place where the tube was inserted, generally a flat one, file out with a round file, a place which is large enough to receive a common brass 44-cartridge that has had the head cut off or removed by filing; this is the tube for the wick. Fasten it in place with soft solder. Let this tube project a little into the lamp, and solder it on the under side. The greater portion of the tube projects above the place where soldered.

Figure 10.

The wick is made of common cotton wicking, letting the end inside touch the bottom of the lamp. Fill with alcohol, and the lamp is ready for use. Be careful that the wick is not too tight in the tube, or in other words, do not fill the tube with too much wick, as it will prevent the alcohol from rising and the lamp from burning. To prevent evaporation of the alcohol and to have the wick always ready for lighting, cover the tube with a cap that fits it quite closely and has the upper end closed. A brass cartridge that will go over the tube makes a good cover. Remove the primed cap or see that the cap has been exploded before using it to cover the lamp tube.

Figure 11.

A Self-blowing Lamp.—A very good form of this lamp is shown in [Fig. 11]. It consists of a lamp enclosed in a kind of cup which has an open place at the bottom to admit the lamp and a small boiler, fitting loosely, and held by a flange on its top. A small pipe is soldered to the top of this boiler and extends downward, and has an end like a blow-pipe that passes through one side of the cup and ends near or a little above the lamp wick. The operation is as follows: the lamp being lighted, heats alcohol placed in the boiler, and the steam thereby made produces a jet that blows the lamp flame the same as is done with the mouth.

The size of the cup may be from three inches to three and a half in diameter, and about five inches high. The opening at the bottom may extend about half of the height. The lamp is made of less diameter than the interior of the cup to admit of moving to get a good flame from the blow-pipe. The lamp may be 1¾ inches in diameter and an inch high. The boiler is about two inches high and has the bottom made a little convex, as shown by dotted lines, and is some smaller than at the top where a flange is formed to admit of its resting on the top of the cup. The top of the boiler is also convex, and has a short tube in which a cork is fitted, for the purpose of filling it. The blowing tube is about three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. There is a long slot in the cup near its handle which readily admits of its being put in position for blowing. There are several small holes near the top of the cup to insure draft to the lamp, and there is a large hole about an inch in diameter opposite the end of the blow-pipe through which the flame issues where the work is held.

For silver soldering, small brazing, tempering, or any similar small work, this lamp is most excellent. To make the small blowing-pipe, drill a smooth hole through a piece of iron or steel and ream out one side of it. Cut a strip of thin copper or soft brass of a width just enough to fill the hole if it were made into a tube. Point one end of the strip and roughly form it into a tube, insert in the hole and pull it through. Or the strip can be rolled around a piece of iron wire forming it to a tube by hammering. Soft solder it after being formed to shape.

Breech Wrenches.—In many shops the monkey wrench is made to do duty in removing breech-pins, but at the expense of marring the pin where the wrench engages it. If many guns with breech-pins like those used in army guns are handled, it is worth while to have solid wrenches forged of iron like [Fig. 12]. The length may be about fifteen inches, with an opening to fit the shoulder of the breech-pin. The width at this place may be about one and a half inches; thickness, about half an inch; diameter at end of handle, about three-quarters of an inch, and at the small portions near the centre, about half an inch.

Figure 12.

A wrench for removing patent breeches or nuts from double guns is made like [Fig. 13]. It consists of a steel bar about fifteen or sixteen inches long and about three-quarters of an inch diameter. At a little to one side of the center is fastened a steel collar that has four projections made at one end. A similar piece is fitted opposite to it, but is made to move back and forth to fit the work by means of a screw that is formed behind where it is fitted. A slot is made in the extension of the piece and a key fitted to prevent its turning around as the nut is turned to advance it toward its fellow piece.

The only substitute to answer for this tool is to file down the jaws of a monkey wrench so that they will turn between the extensions of a patent breech while the first breech is being removed. This is a poor substitute, as there is only one handle to turn with, and when force is applied to remove the breech it does not have the force applied equally to each side as in the other kind of wrench, consequently it is not as effective nor so easy to remove the breech. If an extension to form another handle could be improvised it would make it much better.

Figure 13.

The Bit Stock.—Even if the gunsmith have a lathe there is much work that can be done to advantage with a common bit-stock. But as the drills and tools used in the lathe generally have round shanks by which to hold them in the chuck, the square hole where bits and tools are held in the bit stock must be filled by brazing or soldering a piece of iron into it and boring a hole to fit the shank of the lathe tools. It is advisable to have these shanks about seven-sixteenths diameter, as explained under the heading “Shanks of Tools.”

In holding small drills made of steel wire or twist drills a small drill chuck must be fitted to the bit stock.

A small solid chuck with a quarter inch hole may be made with a shank to fit the seven-sixteenth hole. A set screw must be fitted to hold the shanks of the two sizes mentioned.

Figure 14.

Bottoming Tools.—Bottoming tools are used for letting in locks, cutting out for escutcheons, and are useful in other places where a chisel cannot be made to operate. The form of this tool is shown in [Fig. 14]. It consists of a square or round shank about three-sixteenths or a quarter-inch in diameter and about six inches long. At one end a wooden handle is attached, and the other end is bent at an angle which is about half an inch or perhaps a little more, and on this angle is another one turned parallel with the shank and which is about three-eighths of an inch long. This is the cutting end and is fashioned like the cutting edge of a chisel, and is about a quarter of an inch wide. The bottom side, as it would be held for use, is ground flat and the upper side bevelled like a chisel. The cutting edge may be square or rounded to suit round places as letting in the bridle of a lock. The size given is that generally used, but if it be made about twice this size it will be found very useful in letting in octagon rifle barrels; if the tool be made larger and hollow like a gouge it is very useful in letting in round gun barrels. In letting in break off straps it will be found to take the place of a chisel to some advantage.

Chequering Tools.—The tools used for chequering are very simple. Imagine a small saw, or rather two small saws about one inch or more long, made at the end of a straight steel shank. The form is given in [Fig. 15]. The double saw can be made by filing it as one thick saw and then cutting a groove lengthwise with it. In using, one blade first forms a groove and the other blade works the next cut; as the first cut is finished, another mark is being made while so doing. This insures equal width of the cuts. Care must be exercised in using them so as not to tear the wood. A fine cut, sharp edged, three square or a small half round file may be used to finish the work if desired.

Figure 15.

Nipple Wrenches.—Two forms of nipple wrenches are used, one for square and the other for two-sided nipples. The most serviceable of these are made from a straight rod of steel, with a cross handle and an opening at the opposite end to correspond with the square on the nipple. For the two-sided, a hole to receive the round part of the nipple where the cap goes on, may be drilled in a rod of steel and a slot filed across to receive the shoulders of the sides. The square shouldered kind must have a hole drilled of the diameter of the square, and then being heated a square punch of the size of the square is driven in. The nipples used for Government or military arms have the squares larger than sporting guns, and the wrenches are generally made of a flat piece of steel with a square hole made through from side to side at one end and squared to fit the tube. When made, harden and draw to a blue color for temper.

Portable Forge.—The following description of a “home made” portable forge shown in [Fig. 16] is given by a contributor to the Blacksmith and Wheelwright: “In size it is two feet square and three feet high; it is made entirely of wood; the bellows are round and are sixteen and a half inches in size, covered then with the best sheep skins. The bed of the forge consists of a box six inches deep. It is supported by corner posts, all as shown in the sketch. Through the centre of the bottom is a hole six inches in diameter for the tuyere; this is three inches in outside diameter, and is six inches high. The bed is lined with brick and clay. It does not heat through. The bellows are blown up by means of two half circles with straps from a board running across the bottom, all of which will be better understood by reference to the sketch. In addition to protecting the bed by brick and clay, the tuyere is set through a piece of sheet iron doubled and properly secured in place. The hood which surmounts the forge may be made out of old sheet iron, and will be found sufficient for the purpose. The connection between the tuyere and bellows is a tin pipe.”

Figure 16.

Vise Appendages.—The best vise for general use is one made by C. Parker, Meriden, Conn., and is termed a “swivel” vise. To the bench is attached a round plate of iron, and on this plate the vise turns to right or left as may be desired. It is held in position by screwing up a nut by means of a handle underneath the bench. The jaws are of steel, and a small projection back of the jaws, formed like a small anvil, is very convenient for bending work or to lay work upon for cutting, working with prick punch, etc. The width of jaws of No. 22, the size that is most convenient, is three and five-eighths inches, the weight about thirty-five or forty pounds, and the price about eight dollars, or perhaps a little more. This vise is shown in [Fig. 17].

Figure 17.

As the jaws of the vise where the steel faces come together are cut like a file and tempered, they will necessarily mar or bruise the work. Pieces of brass or copper must be bent so as to be retained in place and at the same time cover the file-like surface of the jaws. Pieces of leather, common belt leather, upon which a little beeswax has been spread, may be placed between the jaws, and by forcing them together with the screw the leather will be retained in place. In holding barrels, stocks, and for stocking a fixture made like the cut, [Fig. 18], is best. Two pieces of thin board, or even two pieces of a wide barrel stave may make it. The opening is for the purpose of “straddling” the square box of the vise that encloses the screw. Nail a piece of wood about an inch and a half thick across the bottom part, before the opening is made, and also nail a thin piece across the top of the pieces, being careful to sink the nail heads to as to not mar the work. The top ends of the fixture must come even with the top of the vise jaws.

Figure 18.

For holding screws without damaging the heads use a pair of false jaws made of cast brass, like those shown in [Fig. 19]. The heads being held in the indentations formed along the upper edges of the fixture. For holding rods or small square pieces without injury a similar pair of false jaws are made which are shown in [Fig. 20].

Figure 19.

Figure 20.

For holding articles that are tapering a fixture is required like that given in [Fig. 21]. The yoke clasps the neck of the vise, and is held in place by a set-screw. The upright pin is received in the yoke by turning on a screw cut for the purpose, and by turning this up or down, the triangular piece at the upper part is made to accommodate itself to the height of the vise. The back angular corner of this piece has a bearing against the jaw of the vise, and the opening made between the other jaw of the vise and the front of this angular piece will be the same as the piece of work that is held between the two.

Figure 21.

Shanks of Tools.—The best two sizes for shanks of tools are about seven-sixteenths and about quarter-inch. Two solid chucks, fitted with set-screws, may be made for the lathe, and they will be found sufficient for all kinds of work. If half-inch octagon steel be used for the larger size, a light chip turned off for about an inch and a quarter, or an inch and a half, will make the shank. From this size steel may be made large drills, reamers, countersinks, bullet cherries, etc. The shanks of many other tools may be made to this standard. When a bit stock is fitted to hold this size of shank, the tools may be used either in the lathe or by hand with the bit stock.

Octagon steel, a quarter-inch in diameter, may be used for smaller tools, or round steel rod of this size may be employed. For small drills and tools, taps, etc., it will be found very convenient. No turning is necessary to fit to the solid chuck.

The common cheap bit stock, made from round steel, may be selected, and the square hole filled with a piece of iron and then brazed to make it solid. A hole is then drilled to fit the seven-sixteenths shank. A solid chuck is to be made to fit this, and drilled with a quarter-inch hole to fit the smaller sized shanks. This solid chuck will also fit the chuck for the lathe. If barrel boring tools, quick boring reamers, be made with the larger sized shank, they can be used both in the lathe and with the bit stock.

CHAPTER IX.
THE WORK BENCH.

Material for the Work Bench.—The first thing to do in fitting up a shop is to put up a work bench. Do not make a rude affair of an unplaned plank and a rough board, but let it be seen that you fitted up your bench for use, and at the same time sought to have it neat and durable. A plank two inches thick is heavy enough, yet in some respects it is light enough; for the front portion of the bench twelve or fourteen inches is a good width. Pine wood makes a very good bench, but as it is soft, it will absorb oil, and in time will become black and dirty. As a remedy for this, give it two or three coats of shellac varnish. The best bench is made from a hard or sugar maple plank that has been well seasoned and has been planed true in a planing machine. Ash wood does very well, so does beech. Oak is not good; it absorbs grease and dirt readily, and if struck much with a hammer will soon show splinters, the fibres of the wood easily separating by the blows. A hard maple plank has one advantage; after being discarded as a bench, it will make good rifle stocks; the years of use will so season it that it will be valuable. For that part of the bench—that is, back of the two-inch plank—use a board ten or twelve inches wide. Select pine or any other kind that fancy may dictate. Calculate the plank and board so that the width of the bench will be twenty-two or twenty-four inches.

How to Make the Work Bench.—For supports for the bench use 2 × 4 inch studding, such as carpenters use in house building. Pine, oak or any other material will answer. Plane smooth on all sides. For each support cut three pieces; two of the height of the bench, and one about an inch less than the width, so that when the bench is made the plank in front projects an inch or so in front of the supports. As the short piece on which the bench rests is four inches wide, cut away half of the thickness of the uprights of this width at the upper end, and cut enough in length to receive the short piece, when it is halved together—as is the term used—thus making it four inches thick when put in place. Fasten with nails or screws—the latter being the best fastening. To keep these uprights steady, nail a piece of board about three inches wide, and about twelve inches from the bottom, from front to the rear upright. On these pieces a board or two may be placed, with the other end resting upon a neighboring support, and it forms a convenient shelf upon which to place boxes and other things that will soon accumulate in any shop.

The height of bench from the floor may be about two feet and ten inches and a half. This will be found to be the most convenient height.

Putting the Vise in Place.—In putting the vise in place, fix it on the bench far enough in front so that if a gun stock or barrel were held upright in the jaws it will not touch the bench. If there be a window in front, put it a little to the left of the window. The light will then shine more on the right side of the vise, and consequently it will be more easy to distinguish lines or marks that may be made on work held in the jaws, as it is more convenient to look on the right side of work to see what is being done than on the left. The height of the vise at the top of the jaws should be on a level with the elbow of the person who is to work at it. In no instance try to work with the jaws of the vise higher than the elbows as the workman stands erect before it. The reason is this: as the workman grasps the file handle in the right hand and the point of the file in the left, the arms are in a natural position, and can be thrust forward and brought back in a horizontal line. If the elbows were to be raised from the natural position the horizontal forward and back motion could not be made with facility.

Place for Drawer.—A few inches to the right of the vise is the best location for a drawer. This is generally opened or drawn out with the right hand, and when so placed can be readily opened with that hand without stepping to one side.

The Gun Brace.—A gun brace, as shown in [Fig. 22], is made from a piece of inch and a half or two inch plank, with its upper edge of a height about an inch less than the height of the vise jaws. It is hinged or pivoted by a single screw passing through the end of the bottom extension, this screw passing into the bench, the brace turning freely upon it. It can be swung around back out of the way, and when needed for use is turned in front, and is ready to support a barrel or gun stock which is held in the vise. This brace is put to the right of the vise, but if another one like it is put in the left side it will be found useful at times.

Figure 22.

In cutting out gun-stocks from the plank, many times pieces of just the right form for these braces will be found among the “scraps” that will be made. The shape is of little moment so long as they are of the proper height and have an extension through which to put the pivot screw.

To Deaden the Noise of Hammering.—In shops, especially if the work-room be in an upper story, to deaden the noise of hammering, etc., put pieces of rubber under the legs of work benches, the feet of lathes, anvil-block, etc. If rubber cannot be obtained, any woolen texture as felt or thick loose-made cloth may answer the purpose, but not with so good results as the rubber. The anvil may be set in a tub made by cutting off the top of a barrel to the right height and filling it nearly full of sand or earth.

CHAPTER X.
ON WORKING IN IRON.

Hand-Forging.—Two rates of heat figure in this operation. If the object is merely a smoothing of the surface of the iron, the “cherry-red heat,” so-called, is the rate wanted. The work of smoothing is performed by striking lightly and evenly with the hand-hammer, until the desired condition is secured. The same degree of heat is employed where hammer-hardening the iron is one of the objects to be obtained; in this case the blows with the hammer must be heavier than in the case first named.

If the forging is to extend to a material change in the shape of the iron, the rate of heat must be much higher; it must be increased to what smiths call the “white flame heat.” The hammering must be much heavier, of course; if the piece is large a sledge-hammer must be brought into requisition. But the gunsmith will seldom have work heavy enough to demand the aid of an assistant with a sledge-hammer.

Welding.—The “welding” or “sparkling heat” is required in this process, which is a higher degree of heat than either named in the forgoing. In securing this heat, the metal is brought nearly to a state of fusion; which condition is made known by its sparkling, and presenting the appearance of being covered with a glaze, or a fresh coat of varnish. So soon as the two pieces of iron to be welded together have both attained to this necessary degree of heat, they are taken from the fire with the utmost dispatch, the scales or dirt which would hinder their incorporation scraped off, placed in contact at the heated point, and hammered until a union has been effected, and no seam or fissure remains visible. If the first effort fails to unite them sufficiently, they must be reheated and rehammered until the desired end is secured.

The fire for welding should be free from sulphur; and the iron, while heating, should be taken out now and then and sprinkled over at the point of greatest heat with powdered glass, or with powdered borax. A small proportion of sand or powdered clay is sometimes mixed with the borax. These applications tend to prevent the iron from running or burning, and they are supposed to assist the adhesion when the two pieces are brought together in the act of welding.

Hardening Iron by Hammering.—Iron may be hardened to the character of a pretty fair spring metal by simply hammering it thoroughly while in a cold state. Many of the cheap spiral springs in use, as those attached to small bells for the purpose of imparting a vibratory motion, are hardened or stiffened in this way. They are first cut from soft sheet-iron and then hammered into the required hardness. Some heat to a cherry red and hammer to and after entire coldness.

Case-Hardening.—The various parts of gun mountings, such as guards, heel plates, etc., and the different parts of locks, such as hammers, tumblers, triggers and plates, as received by the gunsmith from the manufacturer or dealer in such articles, are generally in the rough or partially finished condition. Many gunsmiths, particularly those in the country, where there is more or less a class of cheap work, finish up these parts with a file and a little hand polishing, and when the work is put together hand it over to the customer. Not only tumblers and triggers, but even sears and tubes are finished up in this manner. As these parts are almost always made of soft iron, the result is they soon wear and have to be repaired.

The gunsmith who does good work will thoroughly case-harden the parts when they are fitted and finished, and by so doing will turn out a really good piece of work that will wear as well as hardened steel. Why the majority of the trade do not case-harden their work cannot very well be explained, unless they are ignorant of the process or do not care to be put to the trouble of doing it. It is true it may be made a tedious job or a quick and easy one.

Some gunsmiths, when such work is finished, heat it red hot, smear it with prussiate of potash or cyanide of potassium, and while hot, plunge it into cold water, letting it chill. This produces a superficially hardened surface that is not “skin deep,” and as soon as this surface becomes abraded will wear away rapidly.

If the case-hardening of the expert manufacturer be examined, it will be observed that the surface of such work has a fine grayish appearance, and in many places mottled with colored tints that are pleasing and beautiful to the mechanical eye. It will be further observed that the hardening is of such depth that it will wear for a long time. In fact it will wear better than hardened steel. The condition of the material is that of a hardened steel surface stretched over and shrunk upon the iron body of the work. It is stronger than steel, for it has the tenacity of iron for its interior. It has the advantage of steel, inasmuch as it may be bent when cold to a limited degree, and when so hardened will not break as readily as steel. This property of bending is not confined to all articles, as they may case-harden entirely through, and then they will be very brittle and easily broken, but by drawing them to temper after hardening, in the same manner as a tool is drawn to temper, they may be of any hardness desired.

A good way to Case-Harden.—The easiest and perhaps the best way to case-harden gun work is to have a number of short pieces of common gas pipe, such as will be adapted to the size or quantity of the work, and have one end of these pieces securely plugged or closed. One way will be to heat the pipe and close by flattening the end with a hammer on the anvil, but it is a “slouchy” way of doing it. A neater way is to have a gas fitter cut a thread in the pipe and then screw in a plug, such as are used to close ends of gas pipe; if such cannot be obtained, drive in a cast-iron plug and upset the end of the pipe so that it will not readily come out. In these pieces of pipe place the work, packing it well with good, fine bone-dust, such as is used by farmers for fertilizing land. Be careful to so pack that the different pieces of work will not touch each other. Stop the open end of the pipe with a cover, but in such a manner as to be readily opened; place the pipe and its contents in a good fire, letting it remain at a red heat for fifteen minutes or more, dependent upon the thickness of the articles or the depth they should be hardened. Remove from the fire and quickly empty the contents of the pipe into a pail of cold water.

If pieces of gas pipe cannot very well be obtained, thimbles from old carriage hubs may be used instead. Plug up the small end, fit a cover to the large end and use as if it were gas pipe. As these thimbles are made of cast iron they will not bear the rough usage nor the heat that wrought iron will withstand. Common cast malleable iron makes the best receptacles to contain work for case-hardening.

Articles of malleable iron and cast iron are as easily case-hardened as wrought iron. A poor quality of steel is benefited by the operation, as the metal imbibes carbon in which it was before deficient.

Material for Case-Hardening.—For case-hardening, bone-dust is the article most readily obtained and it is clean and neat to use; but it will not produce the mottled tints that charred or burned leather will give. The leather may be prepared by cutting up old shoes or boots, putting them in an old pan and setting the mass on fire. Let it burn until it is a charcoal that will readily crumble in pieces by using a little force. Grind this charcoal to a fine powder by pounding in a mortar or by running it through an old coffee or spice mill. Pack the work with the powder, the same as bone-dust. Bone-black may be used the same as bone-dust, but it is not very satisfactory in its results. It is also dirty to use and to have around a shop. Ivory dust will also answer the same purpose as bone-dust. Gun guards, straps, and long pieces of work will become shorter by case-hardening, and it is best not to fit such pieces into the stock until after they are hardened. If it be desired to have a portion of the work left soft and the other parts hardened, securely cover the places to be left soft, with a coating of moist clay, and this will prevent the hardening material from coming in contact, and, consequently, it will have no opportunity to absorb carbon and harden when put in the cold water.

It may also be observed that articles that are case-hardened will not rust so readily as those not so treated.

If the articles be quite thin and there be danger of their cracking by sudden chilling, the water may be warmed a little, or a film of oil may be spread on the water which will tend to prevent a too sudden contraction of the articles while cooling.

If it be desired to have the work present the colors or mottled tints as seen on some kinds of case-hardened gun work, the surface of the work before being put in the receptacles containing the burnt leather, must be nicely polished and then buffed or burnished. The higher the finish the more brilliant will be the colors.

In using prussiate of potash to case-harden, the potash must be finely powdered, the work heated and dipped in, or if the work be large the potash must be spread over it. The work must be hot enough to fuse the potash, and if it become somewhat cold by removing from the fire it must be reheated, removed quickly from the fire and quenched in cold water.

Another way to Case-Harden.—Collect such articles of animal origin as cows’ horns, or hoofs of either cows or horses, or leather trimmings from about the shoe-shops, or old cast off boots or shoes, and burn them until sufficiently charred to admit of being easily pounded into a powder. Having finished up the article to be hardened, ready for the final polish, place it in an iron box, and surround it completely on all sides by a packing of the powder. Pour into the box, until the powder is made moist, a saturated solution of common salt in urine. Next close the box and seal it until airtight, with wet and well-worked clay, then put it into the furnace and blow up gradually until heated to a cherry red. Don’t run the heat any higher, but hold it at that about five minutes, then take out and plunge at once into the slack-tub.

By this means a piece of soft malleable iron is rendered as hard as hardened steel. Some workmen contend that the salt solution is of no particular importance—that just as good results will come of packing in the animal charcoal alone. The iron box, though very convenient when a good deal of case-hardening is to be done, is not an absolute necessity. If the article, surrounded by the animal charcoal, is incased in a ball of stiff and well-worked clay, and then exposed to the proper heat and slacking, the results will be the same as if heated in an iron box.

Another Formula.—In earlier times, when guns were more in use than either agricultural or mechanical implements, and there was a gunsmith’s shop at almost every cross-road, they had a way of case-hardening that was much more simple than either of the foregoing, and yet quite effectual. Scraps of old leather, as cut from old boots or shoes, were tightly wrapped and tied around the piece of iron to be made hard, to the extent of several thicknesses. Around this was placed a layer of sand and salt in equal proportions, to the thickness of half an inch. The sand and salt was dampened with water to make it stick together. A layer of plastic clay, an inch in thickness, was worked around the whole, and the ball, so made, was exposed to heat at about the cherry-red degree, sufficiently long to consume the leather, when it was dropped suddenly into the slack-tub.

Still Another Formula.—Make a powder of pulverized prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac and saltpetre in equal parts. Heat the iron to cherry-red and sprinkle thoroughly on all sides with the powder, then immediately plunge into the slack-tub.

Some smiths contend that the pulverized prussiate of potash, used in the same way, is entirely effectual without the other ingredients.

To Chill Cast Iron.—Make a powder by pulverizing together, salt, 2 lbs.; saltpetre, ½ lb.; alum, ½ lb.; ammonia, 4 ozs., and salts of tartar, 4 ozs. Heat the iron to cherry-red, sprinkle thoroughly with the powder and then plunge into cold water.

Another Mode.—Make a solution by dissolving in 10 gallons of soft water, salt, 1 peck; oil vitriol, ½ pint; saltpetre, ½ lb.; prussiate of potash, ¼ lb., and cyanide of potassium, ½ lb. Heat the iron to cherry-red and plunge at once into the cold solution. This makes cast iron hard enough to cut glass, and is the method usually resorted to for hardening the cheap cast-iron glass cutters, now so common on the market.

To Soften Wrought Iron.—Heat the iron with a slow blast to a dark-red, then pour upon the burning coals half a pint of fluoric acid. Keep up the blast gently, without increasing the degree of heat, until all sign of the acid has disappeared, then lay out the iron to cool gradually of itself.

Alloy for Filling Holes in Iron.—Melt together nine parts lead, two parts antimony and one part bismuth. Pour into the hole while in a molten state, or drive in while the iron is somewhat hot. This alloy possesses the peculiarity of expanding as it cools, consequently the plug tightens as its temperature falls.

To Harden Iron for Polishing.—Pulverize and dissolve the following-named articles in one quart of boiling water: blue vitriol, 1 ounce; borax, 1 ounce; prussiate of potash, 1 ounce; charcoal, 1 ounce, and common salt, ½ pint. Add to this 1 gallon raw linseed oil. Having finished up the article ready for polishing, heat it to a cherry-red, and plunge into the mixture; a rapid stirring of the mixture should be going on at the time when the plunge is made.

This preparation hardens the iron to such a degree that it takes and retains polish almost equal to the best of steel.

CHAPTER XI.
ON WORKING IN STEEL.

Hand-Forging Steel.—In the main this does not differ materially from the same work in iron. Special care must be exercised to have the fire clear of sulphur, hence charcoal is the best fuel to use. In cases where the use of bituminous coal cannot be avoided, the fire should be blowed up for several minutes before putting in the steel, to drive off the sulphur.

Steel to be forged should not be heated to so high a degree as is employed for iron; for ordinary light work a little above a cherry-red is enough. It does not work well under a high degree of heat; and, to make amends, it can be worked much colder than iron. In fact, it is always best to hammer it with light blows until the red color of the heat has entirely disappeared, as this improves its texture by adding decidedly to the closeness of the grain.

Welding Steel.—The common method employed for welding iron to iron is often resorted to for welding steel to steel, but a great deal more care is necessary to success in the latter than in the former case. There must be much precision so far as relates to the rate of heat, as the margin for variation is extremely small. If the temperature is not high enough there will be no adhesion, of course; and if it attains to only a few degrees above what is actually necessary, the steel either “runs” and is ruined, or is ruined by going into an unworkable condition known as “burnt.” It sometimes becomes necessary to weld steel and iron together; this may be effected by the same process as that employed in welding steel to steel. None but workmen of thorough experience would be apt to succeed in either case, on the old plan of proceeding the same as in welding iron to iron.

But steel may be more easily welded than on the old plan by the employment of certain welding compositions. One of them consists of half a pound of saltpetre dissolved in half a pound of oil of vitriol, and afterwards added to two gallons of soft water. Heat the pieces to a cherry-red, then plunge them into this composition; after which proceed to reheat and weld in the usual way. At the welding the strokes of the hammer should be quick and light.

Another composition is made by pulverizing together ten parts of borax and one part of sal-ammoniac. Thoroughly melt the composition so made in an iron pot, then pour out upon some level surface to cool. When cooled grind to a fine powder. Heat the pieces of steel and sprinkle this welding powder over them; then return to the fire, and again heat up, and it is ready to go together under the hammer.

Some smiths claim to weld steel successfully by dusting over the heated pieces a powder composed of clear white sand, 2 lbs., and plaster of Paris, 1 lb.; then reheating and proceeding in the usual way.

In welding steel to iron the foregoing processes are employed the same as if both pieces were steel.

Tempering.—Heat the steel to a bright cherry-red, and plunge it at once into cold water. It will then be as hard as fire and water could make it, and too hard for anything except hardened bearings for machinery, or for some kind of implements necessary to be extremely hard, as tools for cutting glass, and the like. In this condition it is almost as brittle as glass itself, and hence would not stand for most of the uses to which tempered steel is applied. Its great degree of hardness must, therefore, be reduced to the proper standard, depending upon what it is to be used for. This is done by heating and closely observing the resulting colors as they appear upon the metal. If the piece under process is an edge-tool of considerable bulk, only the cutting-edge, and a little back of it, is plunged into the water at the hardening, the rest of the implement being left still hot. It is then held into the light and observed closely, when the different colors, indicating the different degrees of hardness, will be seen moving slowly, one after the other, down towards the edge, driven by the heat still left in the part of the metal not plunged. When the color wanted has reached the edge, the entire piece is plunged into the slack-tub, which stops further action of the heat, and establishes the required degree of hardness exactly where it is desired. But very light articles and implements cannot be tempered in this way, as they will not retain sufficient heat to drive the colors; it will be necessary to reheat them gradually in some way to make the colors move. Very light pieces, as drills and the like, are best tempered in a spirit or alcohol lamp; after having been hardened they should be held in the flame of the lamp a little back of the point or cutting-edge, which will enable the operator to note the movement of the colors. In this case his actions, so far as the colors are concerned, will be governed the same as in the other. Small articles to be tempered alike all over may be placed upon a bit of sheet-iron, after hardening, and the iron held over the fire of the forge, or directly over the flame of the lamp, until the required color has appeared, when they must be quickly plunged into the water. On large articles the colors will be often so strongly marked as to be readily seen on the surface of the metal, rough, just as it came from the hammer, but in small articles they will be somewhat faint; hence it is best to give small articles a slight polish before exposing them to heat for drawing the temper. Nine shades of color will present themselves one after the other as a piece of thoroughly-hardened steel is exposed to gradually-increasing heat. They are:

1. Very faint yellow, appearing at a temperature of 430° Fahrenheit. If slacked at this color, the piece will be very hard, having a temper admirably suited to drills for working in hard metals or hard stone.

2. Pale straw-color—450°. Still very hard, suitable for the faces of hammers and anvils.

3. Full yellow—470°. Shears and scissors.

4. Brown—490°. Gravers and turning-tools for hard metals; also percussion-lock gun tubes.

5. Brown, with purple spots—510°. Wood-working tools and most of the steel parts in a gun-lock with the exception of the springs; also knives of all sorts for cutting wood.

6. Purple—538°. Butcher-knives and other flesh-cutting implements.

7. Dark blue—550°. Tools requiring strong cutting-edges without extreme hardness, as case-knives.

8. Full blue—560°. Chopping-axes.

9. Grayish blue, verging on black—600°. Springs, saws, swords, and the like.

Various other methods of tempering steel are sometimes recommended, as with oils, tallow, lead, mercury and divers solutions; but since the matter-of-fact gunsmith will find use for none of them, it is not deemed proper to encumber this book with anything further on the subject of tempering. It might be well to state, however, that the hardest degree to which steel can be brought is secured by heating the piece to a light yellow and instantly plunging it into cold mercury.

To Restore “Burnt” Steel.—Pulverize together two parts horn or hoof filings; one part sal ammoniac; one part charcoal, and one part common soda. When thoroughly ground together, work in tallow enough to make a kind of wax or paste. Bring the damaged steel to a bright cherry-red heat, and then cover with the paste, leaving it to cool gradually. The process may be repeated several times with profit if considered necessary. While a piece of badly-burnt steel may not be entirely restored by this process, it can be much improved. Entire restoration is scarcely possible.

Annealing Steel.—Heat the steel to a cherry-red in a charcoal fire, the last thing to be done before quitting work at the forge for the day or night; then smother the fire down with a thick layer of ashes or sawdust, leaving the steel in, just as heated. Let so remain until the fire is all out, and the steel entirely cool, which will require several hours. Some smiths use a piece of gas-pipe in which to heat small steel articles for annealing, claiming that it is very advantageous. They put the piece into the pipe and heat to a cherry red, looking in occasionally to ascertain when it has attained to that temperature; then they cover the fire, pipe and all, and leave it to cool as in the other case.

To Blue Steel.—Polish the article to be blued, then place it upon a strip of sheet iron and heat slowly over a forge fire or lamp, until the desired blue color appears. Let cool, and the color will remain permanent.

To Remove Blue Color from Steel.—Immerse for a few minutes in a liquid composed of equal parts muriatic acid and oil of vitriol. Rinse in pure water and rub dry with chamois skin or some kind of soft cloth.

Tempering Knife Blades.—To heat the blades lay them in a clear charcoal fire, with the cutting edge downwards, and heat very slowly. It is not particular if the back of the blade, which is uppermost, is so very hot or not. Harden in clean luke-warm water. If many blades are to be hardened at once, lay a number in the fire and remove one at a time as they are properly heated. To temper, brighten one side on a grindstone or emery wheel so that the temper color can be seen, and lay the blades in the fire, or on an iron plate heated over the fire, with the backs down and the cutting edges uppermost. On the plate place wood ashes or fine sand to help keep the blades in proper position, and also facilitate even drawing. When the proper color is seen on the brightened portion of the cutting edge, remove and cool in cold water.

When an extra tough blade is wanted, after it is hardened, handle it so that it will not draw any lower after removing from the fire, and let it cool without putting in water.

Long blades, when they are being drawn, can be straightened, if necessary, by putting them between two pins in the anvil or pins fixed in an iron block and bending between these until straight, wetting the blade with a cloth or sponge saturated with water, when the blade is thus straightened. Surprising as it may seem, when hardened steel is being drawn, it can be bent to quite an extent, and when cooled will remain as bent. File makers straighten files in this manner. Sword blades and blades of butchers’ knives undergo the same process of manipulation to be made straight.

The Lead Bath for Tempering.—Among the many secrets of tempering is the employment of the lead bath, which is simply a quantity of molten lead, contained in a suitable receptacle and kept hot over a fire. The uses of this bath are many. For instance, if it be desired to heat an article that is thick in one portion and thin in another, every one who has had experience in such work knows how difficult it is to heat the thick portion without overheating the thin part. If the lead bath be made and kept at a red heat, no matter how thick the article may be, provided sufficient time be given, both the thick and thin parts will be evenly and equally heated, and at the same time get no hotter than the bath in which they are immersed.

For heating thin cutting blades, springs, surgical instruments, softening the tangs of tools, etc., this bath is unequaled.

If a portion of an article be required to be left soft, as the end of a spring that is to be bent or riveted, the entire may be tempered, and the end to be soft may be safely drawn in the lead bath to the lowest point that steel can be annealed without disturbing in the least the temper of the part not plunged in the bath. Springs, or articles made of spring brass, may be treated in the same manner. One great advantage in using the lead bath is that there is no risk of breakage or shrinkage of the metal at the water line, as is often the case when tempered by the method of heating and chilling in cold water.

As lead slowly oxidizes at a red heat, two methods may be used to prevent it. One is to cover the surface of the lead with a layer of fine charcoal or even wood ashes. Another and a better plan, when the work will admit of its use, is to float on the top of the lead a thin iron plate, fitting the vessel in which the lead is contained, but having a hole in the centre or on one side, as most convenient, and large enough to readily admit the articles to be tempered or softened.

Test for Good Steel.—Break the bar of steel and observe the grain, which in good steel should be fine and present a silvery look, with sometimes an exfoliated or leaf-like appearance. One of the best tests of steel is to make a cold chisel from the bar to be tested, and when carefully tempered (be careful not to overheat), try it upon a piece of wrought iron bar. The blows given will pretty correctly tell its tenacity and capability of holding temper. Remember the temper you gave it, and if it proves tough and serviceable, take this temper as a guide and temper other tools in like manner. Inferior steel is easily broken, and the fracture presents a dull, even appearance, which may very appropriately be termed a lifeless look.

Etching on Steel.—Make an etching solution by pulverizing together sulphate of copper, one ounce; alum, one-quarter ounce, and common salt, one-half teaspoonful. Add one gill strong vinegar and twenty drops nitric acid. Stir till thoroughly dissolved. Polish up the metal to be etched, and then cover its polished surface with a thin coating of bees-wax. This can be accomplished with neatness by simply heating the metal till the wax flows evenly over its surface. Now draw upon the wax, cutting cleanly through to the steel the figure you wish to etch; then cover the figure so prepared with the etching solution, and let stand for a short time, depending upon the depth of cut desired. Finally rinse off with clear water, and then remove the bees-wax. It will be found that the solution has cut into the surface of the steel wherever exposed, leaving untouched all parts covered by the wax.

Very good etching can be done by applying, on the foregoing plan, nitric acid alone. Etching offers a good method of cutting a man’s name on his gun or pistol. It works on silver or brass the same.

CHAPTER XII.
ON WORKING IN SILVER, COPPER AND BRASS.

To Forge Silver.—The gunsmith will not have much to do with silver in the work of his trade, though instances may occur now and then when he will be called upon to make or repair mountings or ornaments for gun-stocks formed of this metal, and also foresights, particularly for the old fashioned Kentucky rifle.

In shaping silver under the hammer no heat will be necessary at the hammering—it would do no good. The metal is so malleable that it may be drawn into almost any shape by simply hammering cold. The only trouble liable to come up in this kind of work will be the hardening of the metal under the influence of the hammer; but this trouble may be pretty effectually removed by heating the silver to redness, and then letting it cool gradually of itself. Care must be taken not to heat it too much above the first appearance of red, as it melts quite easily.

To Polish Silver.—File it down to the shape desired, then dress with a fine file; then work over thoroughly with a burnisher. Next buff it off with rotten stone, and if a particularly fine finish is desired buff again with rouge.

Light Plate for Copper or Brass.—Dissolve silver in nitric acid by the assistance of heat; put some pieces of copper into the solution and immediately the silver will be precipitated. With fifteen or twenty grains of the precipitate thus obtained mix half a drachm of alum and two drachms each of tartar and common salt. Pulverize well together. Having thoroughly cleaned the surface to be plated, rub it well and hard with the mixture, using a bit of chamois skin, until it presents a white appearance. Next polish off with soft leather until bright.