Transcriber's Note

This book was transcribed from a scan of the original found at Google Books. I have rotated some images. Some of the more elaborate tables are treated as images.

Curtiss Type JN4D Biplane Used by The United States Air Mail Service

AEROPLANE

CONSTRUCTION AND

OPERATION

Including Notes On Aeroplane Design

And Aerodynamic Calculation,

Materials, Etc.

A Comprehensive Illustrated Manual of Instruction for

Aeroplane Constructors, Aviators, Aero-Mechanics,

Flight Officers and Students. Adapted

Either for Schools or Home Study.

BY

JOHN B. RATHBUN

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEER

Consulting Aeronautical Engineer, Chicago Aero Works; Chief Engineer,

Automotive Engineering Company. Formerly Instructor in

Aviation and Machine Design, Chicago Technical College.

CHICAGO

JOHN B. RATHBUN

STANTON and VAN VLIET CO.

PUBLISHERS

1919

Copyrighted, 1918

By STANTON AND VAN VLIET CO.

AEROPLANE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

INTRODUCTION

Many aeronautical books of a purely descriptive nature have been written for the average man, but as a rule they contain little of interest for the more serious student of the subject. Other books of a highly technical and mathematical class have also been published, but their contents are all but unintelligible to anyone but a trained engineer. It is the purpose of the author to compromise between these two extremes, and give only that part of the theory and description that will be of practical use for the builder and flyer. The scope of the subjects covered in this volume has been suggested by the questions asked by students and clients, and is the result of many years' correspondence with beginner aviators and amateur aeroplane builders.

I have endeavored to explain the principles of the aeroplane in simple, concise language, starting with the most elementary ideas of flight and finishing with the complete calculations for the surfaces, power, weight, etc. When mathematical operations are necessary they are simple in form, and are accompanied by practical problems worked out numerically, so that a man with even the most elementary mathematical knowledge will have no difficulty in applying the principle to his own work. In cases where the calculations would necessarily be complicated, I have substituted tables of dimensions for the mathematical operations, these dimensions being taken from a number of representative machines.

While flying cannot be taught by books, and is only the result of actual experience, the chapter devoted to the use of controls under different flight conditions will be of great benefit to the prospective aviator. The portion of the book devoted to operation will be of use in flying schools and training camps since both training methods and control manipulation are covered in detail. In addition I have presented considerable data on the requirements of the modern aeronautical motor.

So many new firms are now entering the aeroplane industry that there is an ever increasing demand for trained mechanics, designers and flyers, and many technical men now working along other lines are taking a keen interest in aeronautical engineering. If the contents of this book will serve to inspire the technical reader to deeper interest and practical research in the fascinating subject of aeronautics, the author will be more than satisfied with the result of his labor. The aeroplane is rapidly assuming a great commercial importance, and there is no doubt but what it will develop into an industry rivaling that of the automobile.

To keep fully abreast of the times in aeronautic development, one should be a constant reader of the excellent aeronautical magazines. Too much praise cannot be given to the aeronautical press in its effort to maintain an interest in this subject, and as with all pioneering movements, these magazines have met with many discouragements and financial setbacks in the earlier days of flying. To the American magazines, "Aerial Age" and "Flying" (New York), the author owes a debt of gratitude for the use of several of the cuts appearing in this book. The English magazines, "Flight," "Aeronautics" and the "Aeroplane," have been similarly drawn on. "Aviation and Aeronautical Engineering" (New York) has suggested the arrangement of several of the tables included herein. All of these papers are of the greatest interest and importance to the engineer, aviator and aero-mechanic.

JOHN B. RATHBUN.

AERONAUTICAL MAGAZINES

The following list of American and English aeronautic publications will be of interest to those who wish to keep in touch with the latest developments in aeronautics:

  • AVIATION AND AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING (two issues per month). A technical magazine published by The Gardner-Moffat Co., Inc., 120 W. 32d St., New York.
  • AERIAL AGE (weekly). Popular and technical. The Aerial Age Co., Foster Bldg., Madison Ave. and 40th St., New York.
  • AIR SERVICE MAGAZINE (weekly). Military and popular subjects. Gardner-Moffat Co., Inc., 120 W. 32d St., New York.
  • FLYING (monthly). Popular and military subjects. Published by Flying Association, Inc., 280 Madison Ave., New York.
  • AIR TRAVEL (weekly). Popular subjects. Published by Air Travel, New York.

ENGLISH MAGAZINES.

  • FLIGHT AND THE AIRCRAFT ENGINEER (weekly). Technical and popular. Published by Flight and Aircraft Engineer, 36 Great Queen St., Kingsway, W.C.2, London, England.
  • AERONAUTICS (weekly). Technical and industrial. Published by Aeronautics, 6-8 Bouverie St., London, E.C.4, or may be had from 1790 Broadway, New York.
  • THE AEROPLANE (weekly). Technical and popular. Published by "The Aeroplane," 166 Piccadilly, London, W.1.

CHAPTER I. PRINCIPLES OF THE AEROPLANE.

Mechanical Flight. Although the elementary principles of mechanical flight are not of recent origin, the practical development of the flying machine is confined almost entirely to the present century. Gravity propelled gliders and small models have been flown with success from a comparatively early date, but the first actual sustained flight with a power driven machine was performed by the Wright Brothers in 1903. There was no single element on this first successful machine that had not been proposed many years before by Langley, Chanute, Montgomery, Henson, Mouillard, and others, but this first flight must be attributed principally to the fact that the Wrights started carefully and painstakingly to learn how to operate (By practicing with gliders) before starting on the first power machine. If Langley had studied the operation of his machine as carefully as he did its theory and design, he would have been flying long before the Wrights as his original machine was afterwards successfully flown by Curtiss.

When once actual flight was achieved, and the success of the Wright Brothers became generally known, the development proceeded with leaps and bounds. All the resources of science and engineering skill were at once applied to the new device until our present scientific knowledge of the aeroplane compares very favorably with the older engineering sciences. In the few years that have elapsed since the first flight, the aeroplane holds all records for speed, endurance, and radius of action. A great deal of the success so rapidly acquired can be credited to the automobile and motorcycle industries, since it was the development of the light internal combustion motors used on these machines that paved the way for the still lighter aeronautic motor. Again, the automobile industry was responsible for the light and powerful materials of construction, such as alloy steel, aluminum alloys, and also for the highly important constructional details, such as ball bearings, pneumatic tires, carburetors, magnetos, steel tubing, etc. The special methods developed in automobile work have helped to make the aeroplane an immediate commercial proposition.

Curtiss Type JN4-B Primary Trainer

Types of Flying Machines. In general, flight apparatus may be divided into two classes, (1) The Lighter Than Air Type, such as the balloon and dirigible, and (2) The Heavier Than Air Machine, represented by the aeroplane, helicopter and ornithopter. The lighter than air machine is supported in flight by "buoyancy" in much the same manner that a piece of wood floats in water. When a balloon or dirigible, because of its large volume, displaces a volume of air equal to its own weight, the device will float. When the weight of air displaced exceeds the weight of the balloon or dirigible, it will continue to rise until it reaches an altitude where the diminished air density again results in an equality between the weight of the device and the air displaced. At this point it rests, or is in equilibrium. The flotation of such a device is entirely due to static forces and hence (1) is often called an "aerostat."

The sustenation of a Heavier Than Air Machine is due to an entirely different application of forces. Forces in motion (Dynamic Forces) are essential to the support of a heavier than air machine, and it is the resultant of these forces that performs the actual lifting operation, this resultant corresponding to the buoyant force of the aerostat. "Dynamic" flight is obtained by an apparatus in which an arrangement of surfaces are moved in such a way as to cause an upward component of the forces generated by the impact of the air on the surfaces. The surfaces drive the air down and when the force necessary for the continuous downward deflection of air becomes equal to the weight of the machine it is sustained in flight. Dynamic flight therefore depends on the continuous downward deflection of masses of air, and when this motion ceases, sustentation also ceases.

An aeroplane is provided with a deflecting surface that is fixed rigidly in regard to the body of the machine, and the motion necessary for its support is provided by driving the machine forward, the forward motion being produced by the horizontal pull of air screws or propellers. It is at once evident that the forward horizontal motion of the aeroplane must be maintained for its support, for the surfaces are fixed and there is no other possible way of producing a relative motion between the wings and the air.

To overcome the objection of forward motion, several other machines have been proposed in which the surfaces are moved in relation to the body, as well as the air, thus making it possible for the device to stand stationary while the revolving or reciprocating surfaces still continue in motion in regard to the air. One type of the moving surface machine, the "Helicopter," is provided with revolving surfaces arranged in the form of vertical air screws or propellers, the blades of the propellers being inclined so that they drive down a continuous stream of air and produce the continuous upward reaction that supports the machine. While such machines have succeeded in raising themselves off the ground they are not yet practical flying devices. The "ornithopter" or "orthopter" is a flapping wing machine that maintains flight after the manner of the bird (Ornis). Like the helicopter, the ornithopter has not yet proved successful.

Fig. 1. Comparison Between the Kite and Aeroplane; Fig. 2, Showing the Lift and Drag Forces Produced by the Air Stream. The Propeller (P), Acts in a Manner Similar to the Kite String (S) in Producing Relative Motion Between the Air and the Lifting Surfaces.

Principles of the Aeroplane. In its elementary principles, the aeroplane can be compared with the kite, as both are supported by the impact of a horizontal stream of air. In Diagram 1, the kite surface is indicated by X-X with the relative air stream W-W-W-W moving from left to the right as indicated by the arrow heads. On striking the surface, the air stream is deflected vertically, and in a downward direction, as shown by the streams lines R-R-R-R. The reaction of the air deflection produces the lift shown vertically and upwards by the arrow L. The kite surface is held against the impact of the air stream by the string S so that there is relative motion between the air and the kite, and so that the surface will not be carried along with the air current toward the right. If the kite were allowed to drift with the wind there could be no relative motion between the surface and the air stream, hence the kite would fall as soon as it attained the velocity of the wind. The horizontal force exerted by the wind tending to carry the kite toward the right is indicated by the arrow D and is known as the "drag" or "drift" force. There are thus three forces, the lift (L), the drag (D), and the resultant of the two forces indicated by the string (S). The forces of lift and drag are nearly at right angles to one another. The kite tail T is simply a stabilizing device whose purpose is to maintain a constant angle between the surface and the wind and it performs an almost negligible amount of lift.

A few more words in regard to the "relative velocity" between the surface and wind. In the figure, the kite is assumed as being stationary, while the wind moves from left to right. With a thirty mile per hour wind, the relative air velocity in regard to the surface would be 30 M. P. H. If the air particles are now considered stationary, and if the kite is towed toward the left (opposite to figure) at 30 miles per hour, the relative velocity between the surface and air would still be 30 M. P. H. In other words, the kite may be stationary, or may move in regard to the earth, but its lift is unaffected as long as the relative motion between the surface and air remains constant. The motion between an aeroplane and the earth depends upon the difference of the aeroplane and wind velocities. For example, a aeroplane with a relative speed of 60 miles per hour, flying against a headwind of 30 miles per hour, moves 60-30 = 30 miles per hour in regard to the earth. The same aeroplane flying with the above wind would have a velocity of 60+30=90 miles per hour past a fixed point on the earth's surface, yet in both cases, the relative velocity of the surface in regard to the air would be the same.

Fig. 2 is a diagram of an aeroplane that shows the connection between the kite and aeroplane principles. In this figure, the wing surface of the aeroplane, X-X corresponds to the kite surface X-X. The relative air W-WW-W striking the wing from the left is deflected down along the arrows R-R-R-R and results in an equivalent lift force L, and a drag force D as in the case of the kite. The resultant force required to maintain the relative velocity between the air and wings is indicated by D¹, opposite and equal to the drag force D. The resultant required for overcoming the drag is provided by the screw propeller P instead of the string S shown in Fig. 1. The propeller thrust (D¹) is parallel to the air stream instead of being inclined as in the case of the string, but the total effect is the same since both are "Resultants of the lift and drag." To sustain the aeroplane, the lift (L) must be equal and opposite to the weight shown by M. The fact that M and L are opposite and equal makes it only necessary for the propeller to overcome the horizontal drag, and hence the thrust can be made parallel to the air flow—or nearly so. The aeroplane is provided with a small tail surface (T) that corresponds to the kite tail (T). It maintains the lifting surfaces X-X at a given angle with the air stream. The tail may, or may not aid in supporting the machine, but in modern machines it is common to employ a tail surface that is non-lifting under ordinary conditions of normal flight. The body (B) contains the pilot, motive power, fuel, and such useful load as it may be necessary to carry.

Fig. 3. Caudron Monoplane. Side Elevation.

Fig. 3 shows a Caudron monoplane in side elevation. This view illustrates the application of the principles shown by Fig. 2, except for the vertical rudder at the rear. The latter is used for steering in a horizontal direction. Fig. 4 shows the construction even more clearly since it is a perspective view. The machine is a Morane "Parasol" monoplane with the wing placed over the body. This location of the main lifting surface is for the purpose of improving the view of the pilot and in no way affects the principles just described. The wires shown above the wing are bracing stays. The tail is hinged near the rear so that the angle of the rear portion can be changed (Elevator flaps), and permits the angle of the main wings to be altered in regard to the air stream, thus causing the machine to ascend or descend. The tail also damps out oscillations or vibrations due to irregularities in the air current. The wheels and running gear (Chassis) allow the machine to be run over the ground until the relative air speed is sufficient to support the machine in flight.

Fig. 4. Morane Umbrella Type Monoplane. Courtesy of "Flight."

Multiplanes. In order to support a heavy load, and at the same time have a small compact machine, it is necessary to have more than one "layer" of wing surface. It is evident that the wing length or "span" can be made much less than that of the monoplane surface shown, if the total area could be divided into two or more parts. A machine having its main lifting surface divided into two or more separate sections is known as a "multiplane," this term becoming "Biplane," "Triplane," or "Quadraplane," depending on whether there are two, three or four independent lifting surfaces. There is almost a limitless variety of arrangements possible, but the most common arrangement by far is that of the biplane, in which there are two superposed surfaces as shown by Fig. 5. In this type, the two lifting surfaces are placed over one another with a considerable "gap" or space between. The body is placed between the wings and the tail surfaces and chassis remain the same as in the monoplane. This is known as a "Tractor" biplane since the propeller is in front and pulls the machine along while Fig.6 shows a "Pusher" type biplane in which the propeller is mounted behind the wings and therefore pushes the machine.

Fig. 4-A. Deperdussin Monoplane with Monocoque Body. Gordon-Bennett Racer.

Biplanes. Besides the advantages of size, the biplane has a number of other good features. The deep spacing of the upper and lower surfaces permits of a powerful and light system of trussing being placed in the gap, and therefore the biplane can be made stronger (weight for weight) than the monoplane in which no such trussing can be economically applied. The vertical "struts" of the bracing can be clearly seen in the figure. The efficiency of this interplane trussing greatly increases the possible size and capacity of the aeroplane. With monoplanes it is seldom possible to exceed a wing span of 36 feet without running into almost unsurmountable structural difficulties. The weight of the large monoplane also increases is leaps and bounds when this critical span is once exceeded. To maintain an equal degree of strength the monoplane requires very careful attention in regard to the design and construction, and is correspondingly more expensive and difficult to build than the biplane, although the latter has by far the greater number of parts. By suitable arrangements in the location of the biplane surfaces a very fair degree of stability can be obtained, an advantage which is impossible with the monoplane.

Fig. 5. S. P. A. D. Tractor Biplane Speed Scout.

A distinct disadvantage of the two superposed surfaces of the biplane is due to the fact that there is "interference" between the upper and lower wings, and that the lift for equal areas is less than in the case of the monoplane. With a given form of wing, 100 square feet of monoplane surface will lift considerably more than the same area applied in biplane form. The amount of the "drag" for the support of a given load is increased, and with it the amount of power required. The greater the separation or "gap" between the wings, the greater will be the lift, but when the gap is unduly increased to obtain a great lift the length of the interplane bracing is increased to such an extent that the resistance of the bracing will more than overcome the advantages due to the large gap. There is a fixed limit to the gap beyond which it is not practical to go. The bracing has a very material effect on the air resistance, no matter how small the gap.

Fig. 6. Pusher Type Biplane in Which the Propeller Is Placed Behind the Wings.

Triplanes. Of late the triplane has been rapidly increasing in use, and in certain respects has many advantages over either the monoplane or biplane. This type has three superposed surfaces which still further diminishes the size for a given area. The interference between the surfaces is even greater than with the biplane, and hence the lift is less for a given area and aspect ratio. This latter defect is partly, or wholly overcome by the possibility of using long narrow wings, and because of the reduced span there is a corresponding reduction in the bracing resistance. It should be noted at this point that the efficiency of a lifting surface is greatly increased when the ratio of the length to the width is increased, that is, a long, narrow wing will be more efficient than a short, wide shape. The relation of the length to the width is called "aspect ratio," and will be described in more detail in a following chapter.

Fig. 6-A. Farman Type Pusher Biplane.... Note the Propeller At the Rear of Body, and the Position of the Pilot and Passenger.

Fig. 6-B. The Mann Two-Propeller Pusher Biplane. The Propellers Are Mounted on Either Side of the Body, and Are Driven by a Single Motor Through a Chain Transmission. This Drive Is Similar to the Early Wright Machines.

Fig. 7 is a sketch of a Sopwith Triplane Scout and shows clearly the three superposed wings. The small amount of interplane bracing, and the great aspect ratio, makes this type very suitable for high speed. The body, tail and chassis arrangements are practically the same as those of a biplane. The Curtiss Triplane Scout is the pioneer of this type of machine, although experimental work on the triplane had been performed in England by A. V. Roe many years ago. The Roe triplane was lightly powered and for its time was successful in a way, but the Curtiss is the first to enter into active competition against the biplane scout. Owing to the small span required for a given area, and the possibilities of very light and simple bracing, the triplane is an ideal type for heavy duty machines of the "bombing" species. Enormous triplanes have been made that are capable of a useful load running up into the tons, the large Curtiss and Caproni’s being notable examples. As the triplane is much higher than the biplane of equal area, the interplane bracing is deeper and more effective without causing proportionately higher resistance.

Fig. 7. Sopwith Triplane Speed Scout.

Quadraplane. The use of four superposed surfaces has not been extended, there probably being only one or two of these machines that can be said to be successful. The small "quad" built by Matthew B. Sellers is probably the best known. The power required to maintain this machine in flight was surprisingly small, the machine getting off the ground with a 4 horsepower motor, although an 8 horsepower was afterwards installed to maintain continuous flight. The empty weight was 110 pounds with the 8 horsepower motor. The span of the wings was 18' 0" and the width or "chord" 3’ 0", giving a total area of about 200 square feet.

Fig. 7-A. Curtiss Triplane Speed Scout. Courtesy "Aerial Age."

Tandem Aeroplanes. A tandem aeroplane may be described as being one in which the surfaces are arranged "fore and aft." The Langley "Aerodrome" was of the tandem monoplane type and consisted of two sets of monoplane wings arranged in tandem. This pioneer machine is shown in Fig. 8, and is the first power driven model to achieve a continuous flight of any length. Instead of two monoplane surfaces, two biplane units or triplane units can be arranged fore and aft in the same manner.

While there have been a number of tandem machines built, they have not come into extensive use. Successful flight was obtained with a full size Langley Aerodrome, and this machine flew with a fair degree of stability. The failure of other tandem machines to make good was due, in the writer's opinion, to poor construction and design rather than to a failure of the tandem principle. The Montgomery glider, famed for its stability, was a tandem type but the machine was never successfully built as a powered machine.

The wings must be separated by a sufficient distance so that the rear set will not be greatly influenced by the downward trend of the air caused by the leading wings. As the rear surfaces always work on disturbed air they should be changed in angle, increased in area, or be equipped with a different wing curvature if they are to carry an equal proportion of the load. Usually, however, the areas of the front and rear wings are equal, and the difference in lift is made by changes in the wing form or angle at which they are set. In some cases the wings are approximately the same, the difference in lift being compensated for by moving the load further forward, thus throwing more of the weight on the front wings.

Fig. 8. Langley’s "Aerodrome," An Early Type of Tandem Monoplane.

The Aeroplane in Flight. Up to the present we have only considered horizontal flight at a continuous speed. In actual flight the altitude is frequently varied and the speed is changed to meet different conditions. Again, the load is not an absolutely constant quantity owing to variations in the weight of passengers, and variations in the weight of fuel, the weight of the latter diminishing directly with the length of the time of flight. To meet these variations, the lift of the wings must be altered to suit the loading and speed—generally by altering the angle of the wings made with the line of flight.

Fig.9 shows an aeroplane in horizontal flight and lightly loaded, the machine traveling along the horizontal flight path F-F. With the light load, the angle made by the wings with the flight path is shown by (i), the tail and body remaining horizontal, or parallel to the flight path. With an increased load it is necessary to increase the angle of the wings with the flight line, since within certain limits the lift increases with an increase in the angle of incidence (i). Fig. 10 shows the adjustment for a heavier load (W₂), the angle of incidence being increased to (i'), and the body is turned down through a corresponding angle. The increased angle is obtained by turning the elevator flaps (T) up, thus causing a downward force (t) on the tail. The force (t) acts through the body as a lever arm, and turns the machine into its new position. It will be noted that when the angle of incidence is great that the rear of the body drags down and causes a heavy resistance. This position of a dragging tail is known to the French as flying "Cabré." With high angles cabré flight is dangerous, for should the propeller thrust cease for an instant the machine would be likely to "tail dive" before the pilot could regain control. This sort of flight is also wasteful of power. Cabré flight is unnecessary in a variable incidence machine, the wing being turned to the required angle independently of the body, so that the body follows the flight line in a horizontal position, no matter what the angle of incidence may be. In this type of machine the wings are pivoted to the body, and are operated by some form of manual control.

Figs. 9-10-11-12. Showing the Use of Elevators in Changing Angle of Incidence. - Machine Shown in Four Principal Attitudes of Flight. As the Body and Wings Are in a Single Unit, the Body Must Be Turned for Each Different Wing Angle.

In Fig. 11, the large angle (i’) is still maintained, but the load is reduced to the value given in Fig. 9. With an equal load, an increased angle of incidence causes the machine to climb, as along the new flight line f-f. With the load (W) equal to that in Fig. 9, the angle of incidence will still be (i) but this will be along a new flight line if the large angle (i’) is maintained with the horizontal as shown by Fig. 11. With the wings making an angle of (i') with the horizontal, and angle of incidence (i) with the flight line, it is evident from Fig. 11 that the new flight line f-f must make an angle (c) with the original horizontal flight line F-F. This shows how an increased angle with a constant load causes climbing, providing, of course, that the speed and power are maintained. With a given wing and load there is a definite angle of incidence if the speed is kept constant. Should a load be dropped, such as a bomb, with the wing angle kept constant, the new path of travel will be changed from F-F to f-f.

Fig. 12 shows the condition when the rear end of the body is elevated by depressing the elevator flap T. This occasions an upward tail force that turns the wings down through the total angle (i'). With the former loading and speed, the angle of incidence is still (i) degrees with the new flight path f-f, the new flight path being at an angle (c) with the horizontal F-F. The body is turned through angle (i'), but the angle (i) with the flight path f-f is still constant with equal loads and speeds.

To cause an aeroplane to climb, or to carry a heavier load, the elevator "flap" is pointed up. To descend, or care for a lighter load, the elevator is turned down. In normal horizontal flight the machine should be balanced so that the tail is horizontal and thus creates no drag. When the elevator must be used to keep the tail up in horizontal flight, the machine is said to be "tail heavy."

Longitudinal Stability. In Figs. 9-10-11-12 the machine was assumed to be flying in still air, the attitudes of the machine being simply due to changes in the loading or to a change in altitude. The actual case is more complicated than this, for the reason that the machine is never operating in still air but encounters sudden gusts, whorls, and other erratic variations in the density and velocity of the air. Each variation in the surrounding air causes a change in the lift of the wings, or in the effect of the tail surfaces, and hence tends to upset the machine. If such wind gusts would always strike the wings, body, and tail simultaneously, there would be no trouble, but, unfortunately, the air gust strikes one portion of the machine and an appreciable length of time elapses before it travels far enough to strike another. Though this may seem to be a small fraction of time, it is in reality of sufficient duration to have a material effect on the poise of the aeroplane. Vertical gusts due to the wind passing over buildings, hills, cliffs, etc., not only tend to upset the machine, but also tend to change the altitude since the machine rises with an up gust and sinks with a down trend in the Stream.

Assume a machine as in Fig. 9 to be traveling steadily along a horizontal path in still air. A sudden horizontal gust now strikes the machine from the front, thus causing a sudden lift in the main wings. As this gust strikes the wings before the tail, the tail will stand at the old altitude while the wings are lifted, thus giving the position shown by Fig. 10. After passing over the wings it lifts the tail, this effect probably not being sufficient to restore the wing and the tail to their old relative attitude since the gust generally loses velocity after passing the wings. A head gust of this type often strikes the front wings diagonally so that it never reaches the tail at all. To remedy this upsetting action of the gust, the pilot must move his rear elevator so that the elevator is in the position shown by Fig. 12, that is, the flap must be turned down so as to raise the tail.

A gust striking from behind may, or may not affect the elevator flaps, this depending on their position at the time that the gust strikes. If the flaps are turned up, the rear end will be raised by the gust and the machine will head dive: if turned down, the gust will depress the tail, raise the head and tend to "stall" the machine. If the tail is of the lifting type, the rear entering gust will reduce the relative velocity, and the lift, and cause the tail to drop. On passing over the tail and striking the wings, the rear gust will reduce the velocity and cause a loss in lift. This will either cause the machine to head dive or drop vertically through a certain distance until it again assumes its normal velocity.

All of these variations cause a continually fore and aft upsetting movement that must be continually corrected by raising and lowering the elevator flaps, and in very gusty weather this is a very tedious and wearing job. It requires the continual attention of the pilot unless the action is performed automatically by some mechanical device, such as the Sperry Gyroscopic, or else by some arrangement of the surfaces that give "inherent" stability. Control by means of the elevator flaps (which raise and lower the body in a fore and aft direction, as shown) is known as "longitudinal control," and when the machine is so built that correction for the longitudinal attitude is obtained "inherently," the machine is said to be "longitudinally stable." Modern machines can be made very nearly longitudinally stable, and are comparatively unaffected by any than the heaviest gusts.

Lateral Stability. The gusts also affect the side to side, or "lateral" balance by causing a difference in lift on either end of the wings. Should the gust strike one tip before the other, or should it strike one tip harder than the other, the tendency will be to turn the machine over sidewise. This is a more difficult problem to solve than the longitudinal moment, although perfect inherent stability has been attained in one or two machines without the use of additional automatic control mechanism. Inherent lateral stability has always been attended by a considerable loss in the efficiency of the aeroplane and speed due to the peculiar arrangements in the main lifting surfaces. At present we must make a decision between efficiency and stability, for one feature must be attained at a sacrifice in the other. Contrary to the general opinion, perfect stability is not desirable, for almost invariably it affects the control of a machine and makes it difficult to maneuver. Should the stability appliances be arranged so that they can be cut out of action at will, as in the case of the Sperry Gyroscopic Stabilizer, they will fulfill the needs of the aviator much more fully than those of the fixed inherent type. The first thoroughly stable machine, both longitudinally and laterally, was that designed by Lieutenant Dunne, and this obtained its distinctive feature by a very peculiar arrangement of the wing surfaces. It was excessively stable, and as with all very stable machines, was difficult to steer in a straight line in windy weather, and was correspondingly difficult to land.

Fig. 12.A. Diagram of the Tractor Biplane

The first machine of the ordinary biplane type that proved inherently stable was the R. E.-1 designed in England by Edward Busk. This machine was flown from Farnborough to Salisbury Plain, and during this flight the only control touched was the vertical rudder used in steering. Since then, all English machines have been made at least partially stable, the degree depending upon the service for which it was intended. It has been found that in fighting, a very controllable machine is necessary, hence stability must be sacrificed, or the control surfaces must be made sufficiently powerful to overcome the stable tendency of the machine. War machines are made to be just comfortably stable over the range of ordinary flight speeds, and with controls powerful enough so that the inherent stability can be overcome when maneuvering in battle. The present war machine always contains an element of danger for the unskilled pilot.

Dihedral Angle. This was the first lateral stability arrangement to be applied to an aeroplane, but is only effective in still air. In rough weather its general tendency is to destroy stability by allowing dangerous oscillations to take place. Fig. 13 is a front view of a monoplane in which the wings (w) and (w') are set at an angle (d), this angle being known as the "dihedral angle." The dotted line (m-m) shows the line of a pair of perfectly horizontal wings and aids in illustrating the dihedral. Assuming the center of lift at CL on the wings, it will be seen that an increase in the dihedral raises the center of lift above the center of gravity line C. G. by the amount (h). With the center of gravity below the center of lift it is evident that the weight of the machine would tend to keep it on a level keel, although the same effect could, of course, be attained in another way. The principal righting effect of the dihedral is shown by Fig. 14 in which the wings (w) and (w') are set as before. The machine is tipped or "listed" toward the left (seen from aviator's seat) so that wing (w') is down. By drawing vertical lines down until they intersect the horizontal line X-X (the line of equilibrium), it will be seen that wing (w') presents more horizontal lift surface than (w) since the projected or effective wing length (C) is greater than (b). Since (w') presents the greater surface, the lift (L) tends to restore the machine to its original level position. If the wings were both set on the same straight line, the projected lengths (b) and (c) would be the same and there would be no restoring effect.

The dihedral would be very effective in still air, but in turbulent air, and with the body swinging back and forth, the dihedral would act in the nature of a circular guiding path, and thus tend to allow the swinging to persist or increase rather than to damp it down, as would be the case with level straight wings. Again, with the wing bent up at a considerable angle, a side gust as at (S) would tend to throw the machine still further over, and thus increase rather than diminish the difficulty. In practical machines, the dihedral is usually made very small (d = 176 degrees), the angle of each wing with the horizontal being about 2 degrees, or even less. I think the advantage of such a small angle is rather more imaginary than actual, and at present the greater number of war machines have no dihedral at all. In the older monoplanes the angle was very pronounced.

Fig. 15 shows the dihedral applied both to the upper wing (U) and the lower wing (L), the usual method of applying dihedral to large biplanes. Fig. 16 shows the method of applying the dihedral to small, fast machines, such as speed scouts, the dihedral in this case being used only on the lower wing. The dihedral on the bottom wing is usually for the purpose of clearing the wing tips when turning on the ground rather than for stability. A lower wing with a dihedral is less likely to strike the ground or to become fouled when it encounters a side gust in landing or "getting off." The use of straight upper wings makes the construction much simpler, especially on the small machines where it is possible to make the wing in one continuous length.

Ailerons and Wing Warping. Since the dihedral is not effective in producing lateral stability, some other method must be used that is powerful enough to overcome both the upsetting movements and the lateral oscillations caused by the pendulum effect of a low center of gravity. In the ordinary type of aeroplane this righting effect is performed by movable surfaces that increase the lift on the lower wing tip, and decrease the lift on the high side. In Some cases the lateral control surfaces are separate from the wing proper (Ailerons), and in some the tip of the wing is twisted or "warped" so as to produce the same effect. These control surfaces may be operated manually by the pilot or by some type of mechanism, such as the gyroscope, although the former is the method most used. The lateral control, or side to side balancing of an aeroplane, can be compared to the side to side balancing of a bicycle in which the unbalance is continually, being corrected by the movement of the handle bars.

Fig. 17 shows the control surfaces or "Ailerons" (A-A’), mounted near the tips, and at the rear edge of the wing W. As shown, they are cut into and hinged to the main wings so that they are free to move up and down through a total angle of about 60 degrees. In a biplane they may be fitted to the upper wing alone or to both top and bottom wings, according to conditions. For simplicity we will consider only the monoplane in the present instance.

In Fig. 18, a front view of the monoplane, the machine is shown "heeled over" so that the wing tip (w) is low. To correct this displacement, the aileron (A) on the low side, is pulled down and the aileron (A') on the opposite end is pulled up. This, of course, increases the lift on the low end (w) and decreases the lift on the high side (w'). The righting forces exerted are shown by L-L’. The increased angles made by A-A’ with the wind stream affects the forces acting on the wings, although in opposite directions, causing a left hand rotation of the whole machine. In Fig. 19, conditions are normal with the machine on an even keel and with both ailerons brought back to a point where they are level with the surface of the wing, or in "neutral." Fig. 20 shows the machine canted in the opposite direction with (w') low and (w) high. This is corrected by bringing down aileron (A') and raising (A), the forces L-L' showing the rotation direction. By alternately raising and lowering the ailerons we can correspondingly raise or lower the wing tips. It should be noted here that in some machines the ailerons are only single acting, that is, the aileron on the low side can be pulled down to increase the lift, but the opposite aileron remains in the plane of the wings, and does not tend to "push down" the high side. Since all of the aileron resistance in a horizontal direction is now confined to the low side, it turns the machine from its path, the high wing swinging about the lower tip with the latter as a pivot. In the double acting control as shown in Figs. 17 to 23, the resistance is nearly equal at both tips and hence there is no tendency to disturb the flight direction. With single acting ailerons, the directional disturbance is corrected with the rudder so that when the aileron is pulled down it is necessary to set the rudder to oppose the turn. On early Wright machines the rudder and lateral controls were interconnected so that the rudder automatically responded to the action of the ailerons.

Fig. 21 is a detailed front elevation of the machine and shows the control wheel (C) and cable connections between the wheel and the ailerons A-A’. When the wheel C is turned in the direction of the arrow K, the aileron A' is pulled down by the flexible cable (i), and a corresponding amount of cable (h) is paid off the wheel to the rising aileron A. Aileron A is pulled up by the connecting cable (e) which is attached to A' at one end and to A at the other. Pulleys (f) and (g) guide the interconnection cable. On turning the wheel in the opposite direction, aileron A is pulled down and A’ is elevated. In flight, especially in rough weather, there is almost continuous operation of the control wheel. Figs. 22 and 23 are sections taken through the wing W and the ailerons, showing the method of hinging and travel. Fig. 22 shows the aileron depressed for raising the wing in the direction of L, while Fig. 23 shows the aileron lifted to lower the wing. In normal flight, with the machine level, the aileron forms a part of the wing outline (in neutral position).

In the original Wright aeroplane, and in the majority of monoplanes, no ailerons are used, the rear of main wing tip being bent down bodily to increase the lift. This is known as "wing warping," and is practically a single acting process since the depressing force on the high tip is seldom as effective as the lift on the low. Warping is not generally used on modern biplanes since it is impossible to maintain a strong rigid structure with flexible tips. The control warping and twisting of such wings soon loosens them up and destroys what remaining strength they may have had.

Figs. 17-23. Showing Use of Ailerons in Maintaining Lateral Balance.

Banking and Turning. In making a sharp turn the outer wing tip must be elevated to prevent slipping sidewise through the effects of the centrifugal force (side slip). This is known as "banking." The faster and sharper the turn, the steeper must be the "bank," or the angle of the wings, until in some cases of "stunt" flying the wings stand almost straight up and down. Should the bank be too steep there will be an equal tendency to slip down, and inwardly, since the end resistance against side slip is very slight. Some aeroplanes assume the correct angle of bank automatically without attention from the pilot since the extra lift due to the rapid motion of the outer tip causes it to rise. On other machines the natural banking effort of the machine is not sufficient, and this must be increased by pulling down the aileron on the outer wing tip. Machines that have a tendency to "over-bank" must have the ailerons applied in the reverse direction so as to depress the outer tip. In cases of under, or overbanking machines it formerly required experience and judgment on the part of the pilot to obtain the correct banking angle. There are now "banking indicators" on the market that show whether the machine is correctly banked or is side-slipping.

Fig. 24. A Deperdussin Monoplane Banking Around a Sharp Turn at High Speed. Note the Elevation of the Outer Wing Tip and the Angle Made with the Horizontal by the Wings. Speed, 105 Miles Per Hour.

Standard "H-3" Training Biplane.

CHAPTER II. TYPES OF MILITARY AEROPLANES.

Divisions of Service. In the army and navy, aeroplanes are used both for offensive and defensive operations. They must carry out their own work and intentions and prevent hostile craft from carrying out theirs. In offensive operations the machines fly continuously over the enemy's country and attack every hostile craft sighted, thus creating a danger zone within the enemy's lines where no opposing machine can work without being threatened with an overwhelming attack. The offensive also includes bombing operations and the destruction of supply depots and transportation centers. Defensive aerial operation consists in driving out the enemy craft from our own lines, and in protecting working machines when on photographing or observation trips. With a powerful offensive there is of course little need for defense. The former method is a costly one, and is productive of severe material and personal losses.

At the present time there are eight principle functions performed by military aeroplanes:

  1. Offensive operations against enemy machines.
  2. Reconnaissance, observation, special missions.
  3. Bombing supply centers, railways, etc.
  4. Photography.
  5. Spotting for the artillery.
  6. Signalling for infantry operations.
  7. Submarine hunting.
  8. Patrol and barrage.

Fig. 1. Curtiss "Baby". Biplane Speed Scout. Equipped with 100 Horsepower Water Cooled Motor.

Probably the most important service of all is performed by machines under heading (1). If a successful offensive can be maintained over the enemy's lines he is unable to intelligently direct his artillery fire, and can obtain no information regarding reinforcements, or troop concentrations for an impending attack. With fighting aeroplanes clearing the way for our own observation machines and artillery spotters, the enemy is not only blinded, but is blocked in any attempt to attack or concentrate his forces. The fact that the French aerial offensive at Verdun was so efficiently and well maintained accounts for the failure of the heavy German artillery. Driven far back over their own lines, the German aviators were seldom able to observe the placing of the shells, and as a result their gunners were practically trusting to luck in reaching their target. An immediate and accurate bombardment always followed one of the very infrequent German air raids over the French lines. Whenever the French, partially abandoned their aerial offensive in favor of a defensive campaign, they soon lost their mastery of the air. As long as enemy machines can be kept back of their own lines, new trench systems can be constructed, transportation lines can be extended and ammunition dumps arranged, undertakings that would be highly precarious with enemy observation machines continually passing overhead.

Fig. 1. Italian "Pomilio" Two Seater Biplane. Courtesy "Flying."

To maintain an effective offensive places a tremendous strain on both the men and the machines, for though the aeroplanes do not penetrate far beyond the lines they usually meet with superior numbers, and in addition are continually in range of the anti-aircraft guns. In an attack over hostile country a slight mishap may cause the loss of a 'plane, for usually the distance from its base is so great as to prevent a gliding return. Over its own lines an engine failure is usually only a temporary inconvenience. Fighting aeroplanes, for the offensive, are small high powered machines generally of the single seater type, and are capable of high horizontal and climbing speeds. The armament consists of a machine gun of the Lewis type, and occasionally a few light bombs may be included in the equipment. As they do not carry out operations far to the rear of the enemy's lines they are provided with fuel for only two or three hours, and this reduced fuel load is necessary for the high speeds that must necessarily be attained. The area is limited to permit of quick maneuvers in attack and escape, and at the same time to reduce the head resistance and weight. The horizontal speed may run up to 150 miles per hour, with a climbing velocity that may exceed 1,000 feet per minute. Such machines are variously known as "Speed Scouts," "Chasers," or "Pursuit Type" (French "DeChasse"). At the beginning of the war the chasers were largely of the monoplane type, but at present the biplane is in almost exclusive use.

Fig. 2. Machine Gun Mounting on Morane Monoplane. Gun Fires Directly Through the Propeller Disc. The Deflecting Plate Attached to the Root of the Propeller Blade Protects the Propeller When in Line of Fire. Ammunition in This Gun Is Furnished in Straight Strips or "Clips."

The aeroplane employed for surveys of the enemy country and battle front (2) are of an entirely different type and are much larger and slower. These "Reconnaissance" machines are generally of the two-seater type, the personnel consisting of an observer and the pilot, although in some cases a third man is carried as an assistant to the observer, or to handle a machine gun against an attack. Since their speed is comparatively low, they are generally provided with an escort of chasers, especially when employed on distant missions, this escort repelling attacks while the observations are being made.

Fig. 2-a. Machine Gun Mounting on S. P. A. D. Biplane. Gun Is Rigidly Attached to Fuselage Top in Front of Pilot.

For accurate observation and mapping, the speed of an observation machine must be necessarily low, and as they are additionally burdened with a wireless set, an observer, a large fuel reserve, and other impedimenta, they have a comparatively great area and are therefore lacking in the maneuvering qualities of the chaser. The span will average about 40 feet, and the weight carried per horsepower is greatly in excess of that of the chaser. From a number of examples, the reconnaissance type will average from 16 to 18 pounds per horsepower, while the loading of the scout is from 8 to 12. This means that the former has comparatively little reserve power for rapid climbing. The present reconnaissance type is always armed, and must not be confused with the early machine by that name, which, in fact, was merely an enlarged training machine and had neither offensive nor defensive powers. The Observer acts as gunner, and is located at a point where he has the greatest possible range of vision, and where the angle of fire is as little obstructed as possible.

The radius of action, or the distance traveled per tank of fuel, is greater with the reconnaissance than with the chaser, present machines having a capacity of from 10 to 12 hours on a single filling at normal flight speed.

In bombing operations (3), the loading is very heavy and consequently a "Bomber" must be a weight lifter to the exclusion of all other qualities. Not only is the bomb load requirement severe, but the fuel load is also of great importance, since bombing is usually carried out at considerable distances from the base. Such machines may carry from three to six men. All this calls for a tremendous area and a large power plant. The Handley-Page "Giant," and the Caproni Triplane are examples of Allied machines of this type while the German "Gotha," used in the London air raids, is an equivalent enemy machine. As an example of the weight carrying capacity of a typical bomber, the Handley-Page has carried a test crew of 21 men, or a personnel load of 3,570 pounds. The total weight, fully loaded, has been given as 11,500 pounds with a power plant of 540 horsepower. The maximum speed is 90 miles per hour with a climbing velocity of about 330 feet per minute. Duration is about 5% hours at normal speed and full load.

Fig. 3. Handley-Page "Giant" Bombing Type Biplane. Courtesy "The Aeroplane."

Fig. 4. Curtiss Twin Motor Biplane-Type JN.

Bombing is of great importance, not only because of the damage caused to munition factories, transportation lines, store houses, etc., but also because of the moral effect on both the enemy troops and the civil population. A well-timed bombing raid will do more to disorganize an army than almost any other form of attack, and this is attended with a much less loss of life, and with less cost and equipment. Points in enemy territory that could be reached in no other way are readily attacked by bombing planes with all the disastrous effects of heavy artillery fire. The aeroplane is better adapted for this service than dirigibles of the Zeppelin type, for they require fewer men for their operation, and in addition cost less to operate and build.

Fig. 4a. Curtiss "Wireless" Speed Scouts (S-2). By an Ingenious Arrangement of the Interplane Struts There Is No Exposed Wire or Cable.

Bombing operations against well protected objectives are best made at night since there is less chance of loss through anti-aircraft gun fire, and also because of the difficulty that the defense machines have in locating the raiders. Even when well equipped with searchlights and listening stations, it is not the easiest thing in the world to pick out and hold the location of an attacking squadron, for the searchlights immediately betray themselves and can then be put out of action by fire from the invaders. With the searchlights out of commission, it is almost impossible for the defending chasers to locate and engage the raiders, even before the bombs have been dropped. After the bomb dropping has been accomplished (and with comparative accuracy because of the flares dropped by the bombing party), the raiders are lightened of a considerable portion of their load, and are correspondingly increased in their ability to climb and to evade the enemy chasers.

Fig. 5. Sopwith Speed Scout or "Chaser."

Fig. 6. Nieuport Biplane Scout with Machine Gun Pivoted Above the Upper Wing. This Gun Fires Above the Propeller.

Night flying in squadrons always introduces the danger of collision, and to minimize this danger, by decreasing the number of machines, the size and carrying capacity of the bombers has been continually increased. Again, bombing requires the steady platform that only a large machine can give, and for accuracy the span and area must be greater than that of the reconnaissance type. In night flying a large machine is safer to handle owing to its lower landing speed and ability to come to rest quickly after landing, and this is of the greatest importance when landing outside of the aerodrome. For daylight work at comparatively short distances the smaller bomb carrier used at the beginning of the war is probably preferable as it has better maneuvering qualities, and as the bombs are divided among a greater number of machines they are not so likely to be defeated before accomplishing their object. Because of their great size, these bombing aeroplanes are nearly always of the "twin motor" type with two, or even three, independent power plants. The use of a twin power plant is an added insurance against forced landings in hostile country, or over unsuitable ground, and even with one dead engine the machine can be flown home at a fair speed.

Fig. 8. Fokker Synchronized Machine Gun. The Gun Is Driven by the Motor in Such a Way That the Bullets Pass Between the Propeller Blades. "L’Aerophile."

"Spotting" for the guidance of the artillery is a duty usually performed by the reconnaissance type, or small bombing type, and is usually done under the escort of chasers. Their duty is to direct the battery as to the placing of shots. The ideal machine for such a purpose would be the direct lift type similar to a helicopter which could hover over one particular spot until its object had been accomplished in making measurements, and plotting enemy positions. Since no such machine is at present available, the duty must be performed by a low speed aeroplane, that is large enough to provide a fairly steady platform and at the same time has sufficient speed for a quick getaway. A dirigible has the necessary hovering qualities but lacks the speed necessary for avoiding attack from even the slowest of aeroplanes, and in addition is a magnificent target for anti-craft guns if kept at an altitude low enough for accurate observation. A large speed range is a desirable characteristic in such service.

Photography is of the greatest importance in reconnaissance, since the camera distinctly records objects on the terrain, so small and obscure that they may entirely escape the eye of the observer. Again, the photograph is a permanent record that may be studied at leisure in headquarters, or may be used in comparisons with photographs taken at an earlier date in the same territory. Thus changes in the disposition of enemy batteries, trenches, and troops can be quickly identified. With modern aeroplane photographic equipment, a vast territory may be investigated and mapped out by a single machine in a few hours. Camouflage has but few terrors for the camera, and the photographs often clearly reveal that which has been passed over time and time again by the observers. When sent out on a specific mission, the aeroplane returns the films in an amazingly short length of time, and within a few minutes they are developed and are ready for the inspection of the officers in charge. The analysis of these photographs has rapidly developed into a science well worthy of a Sherlock Holmes. Changes in the position of shadows, suspiciously sudden growths of underbrush, changes in the direction of paths, and fresh mounds of earth all have a definite meaning to the photographic expert.

Fig. 9. Types of Aeroplane Bombs. The Tail Surfaces Guide the Bomb So That It Strikes on the Firing Pin and at the Same Time "Safeties" the Bomb So That it Will Not Explode Until it Has Fallen for Some Distance. In Falling, the Tail Blades Rotate and Release the Firing Mechanism After the Bomb Has Fallen Clear of the Aeroplane. Courtesy of "Flying."

Fig. 9-a. Curtiss "JN" Twin Motor Biplane. Observer Is Seated in Front.

In the navy the aeroplane has proved of much value in scouting and particularly in defense against the submarine. Because of its great speed it has a daily radius of action many times that of a torpedo boat, and because of its altitude the effective range of vision is still further increased. At a fair height the observer can easily detect a submarine even when submerged to a considerable depth, a feat impossible when near the sea level. For disclosing the conditions existing in an enemy harbor the aeroplane is fully the equal of the dirigible since it can approach and retreat rapidly, and without much danger at comparatively low altitudes. While the dirigible can float indefinitely at one point, it must be done at an altitude that is safely out of range of the enemy guns, and this is usually at a point where observation is a difficult proposition. It does not take long to get the range of such a target as a hovering dirigible, yet at a much lower altitude it is difficult to handle naval anti-aircraft guns effectively against a speeding aeroplane. The smaller scouting seaplanes can report the position of a submarine to a torpedo boat or "sub-chaser," while the larger machines are perfectly capable of dealing with the submarine at first hand. On the large bombing type, a three-pounder gun and a number of large bombs can be carried, either of which would be sufficient for the purpose.

Fig. 10. Explosion of a German Aeroplane Bomb Near Mesopotamia. Courtesy of "Flying."

In land defense chasers and fighters are used for patrol, and to maintain a barrage against the entrance of enemy machines into our lines. The patrol machines work along the front line trenches, while the machines maintaining the barrage are generally arranged in two parallel lines back of the trenches, the first being about five miles, and the second about ten miles from the front. All three lines are generally placed between the enemy and the principal stations and railroad centers to insure protection from enemy bombers and reconnaissance machines. Should the first line patrol fail to keep raiders from crossing the first line trenches, they will have to pass through at least two more zones of organized fighting squadrons before reaching a vulnerable spot in our lines. The machines used for patrol and barrage are of the high speed and fast climbing chaser type. The response to an attack involves rapid climbing, and a high degree of maneuvering.

Fig. 11. Caproni Triplane with Three Independent Power Plants. The Motor in the Central Body Drives a Pusher Propeller, While the Other Power Plants Are Mounted in the Two Outer Bodies and Drive Tractor Screws. This is an Example of the Larger Bombing Aeroplanes. The Gun Is Mounted in the Front of the Center Body. Courtesy "The Aeroplane."

Except for the bombers and battle planes, the machine gun or "Mitraleuse" has been the only form of arm in common use on aeroplanes. These use ammunition approximating service rifle caliber and are furnished in bands, strips or drums according to the type of gun. With larger guns, the weight of the ammunition has been found excessive with all but the largest bombing machines, and the recoil of a large caliber gun has also been difficult to overcome. In a modern American aeroplane gun of large caliber the recoil has been reduced to almost a negligible degree, even up to the four-pounder size, by a system of balanced projectile reactions. This gun has met successful tests, but whether it has met with general adoption would be difficult to say at the present time. In Europe, large caliber aeroplane guns have been used on large "battle planes" or "gun planes" for shelling dirigibles, or in destroying searchlight stations in bombing raids. The battle planes are nearly always of the "Twin" type with the gun mounted in the front end of the fuselage.

Summary of Types. To sum up the types required in military operations, we have: (1) High speed "Chaser" or "Scout" (Single seater), (2) High speed "Chaser" (Two-seat type), (3) Reconnaissance type, (4) Bombing type, (5) Gun or Battle Planes. This does not include the training machines of the two place and "Penguin" types, but as these are simply unarmed modifications of the two place reconnaissance and single seat machine, respectively, we will not go into further details at this point regarding their construction.

The Chaser or Pursuit Type. The most important factors in the design of a chaser are speed and maneuvering ability. The speed must be at a maximum in both the horizontal and vertical directions, for climbing ability is fully of as much importance as horizontal speed. Second in importance is the maximum altitude or "Height of ceiling" to which the machine can ascend. This maximum "Ceiling" generally goes hand in hand with the climbing speed, since a fast climber generally has a correspondingly high maximum altitude. The combination of weight and head resistance must be such that the climb interferes as little as possible with the forward velocity.

De Havilland. V. Single Seat "Chaser" or "Speed Scout" with a Single Rigidly Mounted Machine Gun on Top of Hood (To Left). It will Be Noted That the Top Wing is Staggered Back Instead of Forward as in the Usual Type, Thus Allowing the Pilot to Look Directly Up and in Front of the Top Wing. Dimensions Are in Millimeters.

Great climbing ability means a large power reserve, hence the weight carried per horsepower is reduced to from 8 to 12 pounds on the fastest machines, against the 16 to 18 pounds carried on the larger and slower reconnaissance types. Strength must be sacrificed to meet these conditions, so that instead of having a safety factor of from 8 to 12 as in the larger machines, it is cut to about 5.5, or in other words, the strength is relatively only half that of the usual type of aeroplane. This great reduction in strength calls for careful handling, especially in landing, and also painstaking care in the design and choice of materials.

High speeds and maneuvering ability both call for small wing areas and short spans, the areas being so adjusted that the resistance is at a minimum at the highest speeds. The short spans have a minimum of exposed interplane bracing and thus indirectly reduce both the head resistance and the weight. Unfortunately, the most favorable areas at high speeds are too small for safe landing speeds. With a fixed area, the minimum landing speed is only a little less than one-half of the maximum flying speed, hence with a maximum of 150 miles per hour the minimum will probably be little less than 70 miles per hour. The most efficient wing sections, and the greatest refinement in the body design, bracing, and chassis are necessary at speeds of over 100 miles per hour. All other conditions being equal, the resistance varies as the square of the velocity, hence at 150 miles per hour, the resistance is 2.25 times that at 100 miles per hour.

The following table gives approximately the apportionment of the head resistance producing items in a typical speed scout or chaser.

Body (Fuselage) 68 per cent
Chassis, wheels, struts, etc. 15 per cent
Tail, rudder, fin, elevator 5 per cent
Wing structure, struts, wire, fittings. 12 per cent

The aerodynamic drag due to the lift of the wings is not included in the above, the useless or parasitic resistance alone being considered. It will be noted that the body causes by far the greater part of the resistance, and as a result, the body of the speed scout requires the most careful attention in regard to streamline form. Fortunately this is possible with the short stumpy body of the chaser, since a true streamline form approximates the average body dimensions of the scout. In the larger machines, the body resistance is not as great in proportion to the other items since there are more struts and stay wires, the chassis is larger, and the tail surfaces are of greater area. The chassis is the next largest item and is one of the most difficult items to reduce. It has been suggested by several people that the chassis could be stored away in the body while in flight, but this adds additional mechanism and weight, and any automatic mechanism for folding up the chassis members would likely prove unreliable.

Chaser Armament. A single seat chaser is provided with one or two machine guns mounted on top of the fuselage, and directly in front of the pilot, the length of the barrel being parallel with the fore and aft center line. They may either be fixed rigidly to the fuselage top, or so that they can be pointed up, and over the top of the upper wing. With the machine guns fixed rigidly to the body, as in the early chaser monoplanes used by Garros and Vedrines, it was necessary at all times to fire directly through the disc area swept out by the propeller.

Two plans were tried for preventing the propeller from being broken by the bullets. The first consisted of a device operated by the motor that stopped the gun whenever the propeller blade came within the path of the bullets. This early mechanism proved unreliable, since the frequent stopping, with the propellers running 1200 revolutions per minute, soon put the apparatus out of order. Soon after the failure of this method, designers mounted curved protective steel plates on the inner portions of the propeller blades at points where they were likely to be struck with bullets. According to calculations in probability and chance, only one bullet out of every eighteen will strike the protective plate on the propeller blade, and hence only one out of eighteen bullets will be wasted. This, however, was a makeshift, and on modern machines the gun is driven, or "Synchronized" with the motor so that the bullets pass between the blades.

Curtiss Biplane in Flight. Taken from Another Machine. Courtesy "Aerial Age."

Many modern single seat chasers have the gun pivoted to the top of the fuselage so that the pilot can fire above the top plane and to either side of the body. This does away with the difficulty of keeping the machine headed directly at the enemy when in action, a method that is imperative with the fixed type of gun. Two seater chasers are generally arranged so that the gunner is seated back of the pilot, and the gun is so pivoted and supported that it can be swung through a wide radius both toward the front and on either side. This freedom of gun action at least partly compensates for the slower maneuvering qualities of the two seater type, since the gun may be swung with the target through quite a range of field, and without changing the flight direction of the machine. A gun of this type is provided with stops which prevent the gunner from shooting into the outlying parts of his own machine. The gun mounting in many cases of two seater construction consists of a light circular track that runs around the edge of the cockpit opening. The gun standard runs on this track, and the gun is pivoted at the upper end of the standard so that the muzzle can be raised or lowered. The gun turns in a horizontal plane by sliding on the track, and can be followed around by the gunner who is seated in the center on a pivoted seat. With this mounting it is possible to guard against a rear attack, to shoot straight up, or nearly straight down over the sides of the fuselage.

In a few machines of the two seater type, two machine guns are provided, one pivoted gun in the rear, and one gun rigidly fastened to the fuselage in front of the pilot. It is very seldom that both guns can be brought into action at once unless engaged with a number of enemy machines, although the front gun is handy in pursuit, and at a time when the rear gun is ineffective because of the pilot in front of him. Even with the double equipment, the superior maneuvering qualities of the single seater makes matters more even than would commonly be supposed. An added advantage of the single seater is that it is smaller and therefore more difficult to hit.

English speed scouts have largely adopted the American Lewis gun. The cartridges in this gun are arranged radially in a circular drum, and are fed to the gun as the drum revolves. The drum is mounted on the barrel near the breech and is operated automatically by the successive explosions. This feeds the cartridges and rejects the empty shells without the attention of the pilot. It fires about 600 shots per minute. When one drum is exhausted, another drum of new cartridges can be quickly and easily inserted. The French use the belt system to a large extent. In this system the cartridges are attached side by side on a cotton web belt as in the older types of army machine guns. As in the Lewis gun, the cartridges are fed automatically by the recoil of the explosions, and the belt moves through the breech with a step by step movement until the ammunition is exhausted. This is not nearly as compact an arrangement as the Lewis gun, and is more difficult to pivot on account of the dangling belts.

On the right hand side of the Nieuport body there is a drum on which the belt with the loaded cartridges is wound. The empty end of the belt is wound on a drum at the left, this drum being provided with a spring to keep the belt taut. The empty cartridges are discharged through a tube that passes through the side of the body. On the 1916 Fokker the gun is of the Maxim type, and is immovably fastened above the engine cowl and slightly to the right. To fire the gun, the pilot presses down a small lever fastened to the control column, and from this lever the connecting Bowden wire closes the motor clutch and starts the gun. A cam is fixed to the motor shaft in relation to the propeller blades. When firing, the elevator control is locked fore and aft, while the lateral control movement is operated by the pilot's knees. Steering is by the action of his feet on the rudder bar. Thus the pilot can balance laterally, and steer with his hands free for the manipulation of the gun, but he cannot change his elevation.

Aeromarine Training Seaplane

Power Plant of the Chaser. In the smaller speed scouts, the motor is of the rotary air cooled type, the output ranging from 80 to 110 horsepower, but as the power demands increased the water-cooled motor came into use, and at the present time has found favor with a large number of builders. When the power exceeds about 120 horsepower it is difficult to thoroughly cool the rotary engine, and although the Gnome, Clerget and Le Rhone are extremely desirable on a chaser because of their light weight, they cannot be used profitably on the larger scouts. Up to the present time, the Nieuport and Sopwith use the Clerget and Le Rhone rotary motors, but the S. P. A. D. and several others have adopted the water-cooled type. Nearly all of the German chasers, such as the Roland and Albatros, are water-cooled. Such motors must weigh well below 3 pounds per horsepower if there is to be sufficient power reserve for fast climbing. The Curtiss scouts are also water-cooled, although the rating is only 100 horsepower. The French and German machines are very heavily powered, motors of 175 horsepower being very common, even on single seaters. The fuel capacity is very limited, probably not exceeding 2.5 to 3 hours in any case.

General Dimensions of Scouts. The following table will give a better idea of the principal characteristics of these machines. It gives the overall dimensions, power, speed, climb, etc. It will be noted that the Nieuport biplane scouts have a smaller lower chord (*). The speeds given are the sea level speeds since a great change in altitude affects the performance to a marked degree.

Reconnaissance Type Arrangement. These machines are almost invariably of the two seater type, and are equipped either with one machine gun for the observer, or with a rigidly fixed gun for the pilot and a pivoted gun at the rear for the observer. In the majority of cases the observer is seated in the rear cockpit (Tractor types), and at a point where he has a greater visual radius and field of fire. With the pusher type, the observer is, of course, seated in the extreme front of the body, where he has an extremely wide angle of vision. The pilot in the rear seat of the pusher is effectually screened from any gun action, either from the front, side or rear, as the propeller cuts off the field at the back and the observer and interplane bracing blocks the way at the front and sides. The observer's cock-pit is equipped with the signalling apparatus, photographic equipment, map boards, etc., as well as the ammunition for the gun. The pilot's compartment contains the navigating instruments and controls.

Armament. At the beginning of the war nearly all of the French two seaters were of the pusher type, this arrangement, of course, resulted in almost a completely dead angle of fire in the rear, and a front horizontal angle that was practically restricted to 160 degrees. Owing to the forward position of the gun the vertical angle was quite good, 230 degrees or even better. In the tractor two seater, with a single movable gun mounted "En barbette" at the rear, the horizontal angle is about 180 degrees, but the vertical angle is less than with the pusher type. When the rear gun is supplemented with a front rigidly mounted gun, there is some protection at the front, but the rigid gun is far from being as effective as the pivoted rear gun. The front gun of course fires through the propeller. This armament is used by the German machines "Aviatic," "Rumpler," "Albatros," and "L. V. G." The forward rigid gun is usually of the infantry type, while the movable rear gun is lighter. The latter is fed by drums, or rolled bands on spools, so that reloading can be performed in the wind stream.

With the two seater type used in reconnaissance, artillery spotting, or photography, the power is generally in the neighborhood of 220-260 horsepower, and the speed varies from 85 to 100 miles per hour. The area is approximately 400 to 480 square feet. A single engine is generally used.

General Dimensions and Speeds. Reconnaissance machines of various types and makes are listed in the following table. A pusher is indicated by (P) and a tractor by (T). The German aeroplanes (G), and the Allied aeroplanes (A), are both listed for comparison: It will be noted that several types of machines have been made by the same firms, and that in some cases the same machines have different power plants. The Albatros C-III has been furnished with both the 170 and 220 Mercedes motor. The Ago biplane has a tapering wing, and the chord width (*) given is taken at the body. While very recent machines cannot be described, because of certain restrictions, the horsepower of the latest two seaters will average about 240 horsepower. If the dates and power items are noted, it will be seen that the machines used in 1917 have much larger motors than those built in 1916. The weight per square foot of surface will average about 6.5 pounds. The loading per horsepower rarely exceeds 17.0 pounds.

Bombing Type Aeroplanes. These large aeroplanes are fitted with either two or three independent power plants. The German bombers are represented by the Gotha, A. E. G., Friedrichshafen, and Rumpler G, while the Allied bombers are the Caproni, Handley-Page, Farman, Voisin, etc. The speed is about that of the reconnaissance type, and will seat three or more men. The motors average 500 560 horsepower per power plant, and the wing area is usually well over 1,000 square feet. The small two seaters are generally equipped with two pivoted machine guns, while the three seaters have a third machine gun arranged so that it can be lowered and fired through a trap door in the bottom of the body. Defense may thus be had from the rear, or below. In some of the pusher types, a rapid fire gun of comparatively heavy caliber is mounted at the front of the body in place of the usual machine gun. This is usually the case with the sea planes used for submarine chasing.

In addition to bombing operations, these large machines are also used for the protection of "spotting" aeroplanes, or for the direct protection of the lines against land attacks. These heavily armed bombers are very difficult to attack, even for the smaller and more agile "Chasers," as they can fire from below as well as from the front, top, or sides. In the bombers which have only a single gun in the rear, the gunner is working at a disadvantage if his adversary forces him to continually raise and lower his gun from the top of the body to the lower trap door. This is very tiring to the rear gunner, and if the chaser's tactics are carried out for a sufficient length of time, it can wear out the gunner by continually rising and dropping at the tail of the bombing plane. In regard to the front gun, the twin motor type offers many of the advantages of the pusher, and as a whole, the twin arrangement will nearly double the field of fire of either the tractor or pusher.

The bombing planes must have a very large radius of action, particularly those that are used in night bombing operations. The Gothas in bombing London fly several hundred miles from their base, and recently a Handley-Page bombing plane flew from London to Constantinople, Turkey, making only a few stops on the way. Starting out from Hendon, England, the Handley-Page machine flew to Paris, down the Rhone valley to Lyons and Marseilles, and then to Pisa, and Rome (Italy), where they landed. From Rome the machine passed over Naples, over Oranto and then over the Albanian Alps to the base at Salonica. Making preparations at this base they flew the final stage of the trip to Constantinople, a distance of 250 miles over hostile country. The bombing of the Turkish capital was done at night after a flight of 2 1/2 hours from Salonica. When over the sea of Marmora, the ship "Goeben" was bombed, and in addition a hit was scored on the two submarines lying at her side. Four bombs struck the "Goeben" directly, from an altitude of 800 feet. Two more bombs were dropped on the German ship, "General," which was the headquarters of the German staff. Finally, after 30 minutes over the city of Constantinople, the Turkish War Office was the recipient of two more bombs. In the words of the Turkish communiqué this "Was not entirely destroyed." On its return to Salonica it was found that the machine had been struck by 26 shrapnel bullets. This disabled one of the power plants so that the greater part of the return journey was made on a single motor.

From London to Salonica five men were carried. In addition was their luggage, bedding, two tool boxes, spare parts equivalent in weight to one engine, and two 11'-6" spare propellers. Complete, the machine weighed over 6 tons, with a useful load of about 6,000 pounds. In crossing the Albanian Alps the machine frequently was at an altitude of 10,000 feet. The power plant consisted of two 275 horsepower Rolls-Royce motors, and even at this high altitude, and with the heavy loading, no trouble was experienced. During the bombing, only three men were carried, the remainder of the useful weight being made up of bombs and other ammunition. While this record will probably be beaten before this book goes to press, it will at least give an idea as to the requirements and capabilities of the bombing type aeroplane.

Military Training Machines. The military training machines used in the United States are generally of the two seater tractor type, similar in external appearance to the reconnaissance type machines already described. They are low powered, 90 to 125 horsepower, and will have an average span of 40'-0". The controls are in duplicate so that the student's controls move in unison with the instructor's.

CHAPTER III. ELEMENTARY AERODYNAMICS

Definition. Aerodynamics treats of the forces produced by air in motion, and is the basic subject in the study of the aeroplane. It is the purpose of this chapter to describe in detail the action of the wing in flight, and the aerodynamic behavior of the other bodies that enter into the construction of the aeroplane. At present, aerodynamic data is almost entirely based on experimental investigations. The motions and reactions produced by disturbed air are so complex and involved that no complete mathematical theory has yet been advanced that permits of direct calculation.

Properties of Air. Air being a material substance, possesses the properties of volume, weight, viscosity and compressibility. It is a mechanical mixture of the two elementary gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 23 per cent of oxygen to 77 per cent of nitrogen. It is the oxygen element that produces combustion, while the nitrogen is inert and does not readily enter into combination with other elements, its evident function being to act as a dilutant for the energetic oxygen. In combustion, the oxygen enters into a chemical combination with the fuel while the nitrogen passes off with the products of combustion unchanged.

Air is considered as a fluid since it is capable of flowing like water, but unlike water, it is highly compressible. Owing to the difference between air and water in regard to compressibility, they do not follow exactly the same laws, but at ordinary flight speeds and in the open air, the variations in the pressure are so slight as to cause little difference in the density. Hence for flight alone, air may be considered as incompressible. It should be noted that a compressible fluid is changed in density by variations in the pressure, that is, by applying pressure the weight of a cubic foot of a compressible fluid is greater than the same fluid under a lighter pressure. This is an important consideration since the density of the air greatly affects the forces that set it in motion, and for this reason the density (weight per cubic foot) is always specified in a test.

Every existing fluid resists the motion of a body, the opposition to the motion being commonly known as "resistance." This is due to the cohesion between the fluid particles and the resistance is the actual force required to break them apart and make room for the moving body. Fluids exhibiting resistance are said to have "viscosity." In early aerodynamic researches, and in the study of hydrodynamics, the mathematical theory is based on a "perfect fluid," that is, on a theoretical fluid possessing no viscosity, and while this conception is an aid in studying the reactions, the actual laboratory results are far from the computed values. Such theory would assume that a body could move in a fluid without encountering resistance, which in practice is, of course, impossible.

In regard to viscosity, it may be noted that air is highly viscuous—relatively much higher than water. Density for density, the viscosity of air is about 14 times that of water, and consequently the effects of viscosity in air are of the utmost importance in the calculation of resistance of moving parts.

Atmospheric air at sea level is about 1/800 of the density of water. Its density varies with the altitude and with various atmospheric conditions, and for this reason the density is usually specified "at sea level" as this altitude gives a constant base of measurement for all parts of the world. As the density is also affected by changes in temperature, a standard temperature is also specified. Experimental results, whatever the pressure and temperature at which they were made, are reduced to the corresponding values at standard temperature and at the normal sea level pressure, in order that these results may be readily comparable with other data. The normal (average) pressure at sea level is 14.7 pounds per square inch, or 2,119 pounds per square foot at a temperature of 60° Fahrenheit. At this temperature 1 pound of air occupies a volume of 13.141 cubic feet, while at 0° F. the volume shrinks to 11.58 cubic feet, the corresponding densities being 0.07610 and 0.08633 pounds per cubic foot, respectively. This refers to dry air only as the presence of water vapor makes a change in the density. With a reduction in temperature the pressure increases with the density increase so that the effect of heat is twofold in its effect.

With a constant temperature, the pressure and density both decrease as the altitude increases, a density at sea level of 0.07610 pounds per cubic foot is reduced to 0.0357 pounds per cubic foot at an altitude of 20,000 feet. During this increase in altitude, the pressure drops from 14.7 pounds per square inch to 6.87 pounds per square inch. This variation, of course, greatly affects the performance of aeroplanes flying at different altitudes, and still more affects the performance of the motor, since the latter cannot take in as much fuel per stroke at high altitudes as at low, and as a result the power is diminished as we gain in altitude. The following table gives the power variations at different heights above sea level.

This air table also gives the properties of air through the usual range of flight altitudes. The pressures corresponding to the altitudes are given both in pounds per square inch and in inches of mercury so that barometer and pressure readings can be compared. In the fourth column is the percentage of the horsepower available at different altitudes, the horsepower at sea level being taken as unity. For example, if an engine develops 100 horsepower at sea level, it will develop 100 × 0.66=66 horsepower at an altitude of 10,000 feet above sea level. The barometric pressure in pounds per square inch can be obtained by multiplying the pressure in inches of mercury by the factor 0.4905, this being the weight of a mercury column 1 inch high.

NOTE.-Densities marked * are interpolated from a graph, but are close enough for all ordinary purposes.

In aerodynamic laboratory reports, the standard density of air is 0.07608 pounds per cubic foot at sea level, the temperature being 15 degrees Centigrade (59 degrees Fahrenheit). This standard density will be assumed throughout the book, and hence for any other altitude or density the corresponding corrections must be made. Owing to the fact that the temperature decreases as we gain altitude, further corrections must be made in the tabular values, but as the changes are rather difficult to make and are relatively small we will not take the matter up at this point.

Fig. 1. Air Flow About a Flat Normal Plate. Pressure Zone at Front and .#. Turbulent Zone at Rear (H). Arrows Show Direction O OW.

Air Pressure on Normal Flat Plates. When a flat plate or "plane" is held at right angles or "normal" to an air stream, it obstructs the flow and a force is produced that tends to move it with the stream. The stream divides,as shown in Fig. 1 and passes all around the edges of the plate (P-R), the stream reuniting at a point (M) far in the rear. Assuming the air flow from left to right, as in the figure, it will be noted that the rear of the plate at (H) is under a slight vacuum, and that it is filled with a complicated whirling mass of air. The general trend of the eddy paths are indicated by the arrows. At the front where the air current first strikes the plate there is a considerable pressure due to the impact of the air particles. In the figure, pressure above the atmospheric is indicated by *, while the vacuous space at the rear is indicated by fine dots. As the pressure in front, and the vacuum in the rear, both tend to move the surface to the right in the direction of the air stream, the total force tending to move the plate will be the difference of pressure on the front and rear faces multiplied by the area of the plate. Thus if F is the force due to the impact pressure at the front, and G is the force due to the vacuum at the rear, then the total resistance (D) or "Drag" is the sum of the two forces.

Contrary to the common opinion, the vacuous part of the drag is by far the greater, say in the neighborhood of from 60 to 75 per cent of the total. When a body experiences pressure due to the breaking up of an air stream, as in the present case, the pressure is said to be due to "turbulence," and the body is said to produce "turbulent flow." This is to distinguish the forces due to impact and suction, from the forces due to the frictional drag produced by the air stream rubbing over the surface.

Forces due to turbulent flow do not vary directly as the velocity of the air past the plate, but at a much higher rate. If the velocity is doubled, the plate not only meets with twice the volume of air, but it also meets it twice as fast. The total effect is four times as great as in the first place. The forces due to turbulent flow therefore vary as the square of the velocity, and the pressure increases very rapidly with a small increase in the velocity. The force exerted on a plate also increases directly with the area, and to a lesser extent the drag is also affected by the shape and proportions. Expressed as a formula, the total resistance (D) becomes: D = KAV², where K = co-efficient of resistance determined by experiment, A = area of plate in square feet, and V= velocity in miles per hour. The value of K takes the shape and proportion of the plate into consideration, and also the air density.

Example. If the area of a flat plate is 6 square feet, the co-efficient K = 0.003, and the velocity is 60 miles per hour, what is the drag of the plate in pounds? Solution. D = KAV² = 0.003 × 6 × (60 X 60) = 64.80 pounds drag. For a square flat plate, the co-efficient K can be taken as 0.003.

Aspect Ratio. The aspect ratio of a plate is the ratio of the length to the width. Thus, with an aspect ratio of 2.0, we understand that the plate is twice as long as it is wide. The ratio of the length to the width has a very considerable influence of the resistance or drag, this increasing as the ratio is made greater. If the resistance of a square plate is taken as 1.00, the resistance of a plate with an aspect ratio of 20 will be about 1.34 times as great. The following table will give the effects of aspect ratio on the resistance of a flat plane.

Aspect Ratio. Length/Width Resistance K as a Multiple of a Square Plate.
1.00 (square) 1.00
1.50 1.04
2.00 1.05
3.00 1.07
4.00 1.08
5.00 1.09
6.00 1.10
7.00 1.12
9.00 1.14
10.00 1.15
15.00 1.26
20.00 1.34
30.00 1.40

To convert the values of a square plate into a flat plate of given aspect ratio, multiply the resistance of the square plate by the factor under the "K" heading. For example: The resistance of a certain square plate is 20 pounds, find the resistance of a plate of the same area, but with an aspect ratio of 15. Solution. The factor for a ratio of 15 will be found to be 1.26, hence the resistance of the required plate will be 20 × 1.26=25.2 pounds.

Fig. 2. Air Flow About a Streamline Body Showing an Almost Complete Absence of Turbulence Except at the Extreme Rear Edge. Resistance Is Principally Due to Skin Friction.

Streamline Forms. When a body is of such form that it does not cause turbulence when moved through the air, the drag is entirely due to skin friction. Such a body is known as a "streamline form" and approximations are used for the exposed structural parts of aeroplanes in order to reduce the resistance. Streamline bodies are fishlike or torpedo-shaped, as shown by Fig. 2, and it will be noted that the air stream hangs closely to the outline through nearly its entire length. The drag is therefore entirely due to the friction of the air on the sides of the body since there is no turbulence or "discontinuity." In practical bodies it is impossible to prevent the small turbulence (I), but in well-designed forms its effect is almost negligible.

In poor attempts at streamline form, the flow discontinues its adherence to the body at a point near the tail. The poorer the streamline, and the higher the resistance, the sooner the stream starts to break away from the body and cause a turbulent region. The resistance now becomes partly turbulent and partly frictional, with the resistance increasing rapidly as the percentage of the turbulent region is increased.

The fact that the resistance is due to two factors, makes the resistance of an approximate streamline body very difficult to calculate, as the frictional drag and the turbulent drag do not increase at the same rate for different speeds. The drag due to turbulence varies as V squared while the frictional resistance only varies at the rate of V to the 1.86th power, hence the drag due to turbulence increases much faster with the velocity than the frictional component. If we could foretell the percentage of friction, it would be fairly easy to calculate the total effect, but this percentage is exactly what we do not know. The only sure method is to take the results of a full size test.

Fig. 2 gives the approximate section through a streamline strut such as used in the interplane bracing of a biplane. The length is (L) and the width is (d), the latter being measured at the widest point. The relation of the length to the width is known as the "fineness ratio" and in interplane struts this may vary from 2.5 to 4.5, that is, the length of the section ranges from 2.5 to 4.5 times the width. The ideal streamline form has a ratio of from 5. to 5.75. Such large ratios are difficult to obtain with economy on practical struts as the small width would result in a weak strut unless the weight were unduly increased. Interplane struts reach a maximum fineness ratio at about 3.5 to 4.5. Fig. 3 shows the result of a small fineness ratio, the short, stubby body causing the stream to break away near the front and form a large turbulent region in the rear.

An approximate formula showing the relation of fineness ratio and resistance (curvature equal) was developed by A. E. Berriman, and published in "Flight" Nov. 12, 1915. Let D = resistance of a flat plate at a given speed, and R = resistance of a strut at the same speed and of the same area, then the relation between the resistance of the flat plate, and the strut will be expressed by the formula R/D=4L/300d, where L = length of section and d = width as in Fig. 2. This can be transposed for convenience, by assuming the drag of a flat plate as D = 0.003AV², where A = area in square feet, and V = velocity in miles per hour. The ratio of the strut resistance to the flat plate resistance, given by Berriman's formula, can now be multiplied by the flat plate resistance, or strut resistance = R = 0.003AV² X 4L/300d. = 0.012LAV²/300d. It should be understood that the area mentioned above is the greatest area presented to the wind in square feet, and hence is equal to the length of the strut (not section) multiplied by the width (d).

Fig. 3. Imperfect Streamline Body with a Considerable Turbulence Due to the Short, Stubby Form. Fig. 4 Shows the Flow About a Circular Rod or Cylinder.

Assuming the length (L) of the section as 7.5 inches, and the width (d) as one inch, the fineness ratio will be 7.5. Using the Berriman formula in its original form, the relative resistance of the strut and flat plate of same area will be found as R/D=4L/3000 = 0.1, that is, the resistance of a streamline form strut of above fineness ratio will be about 0.1 of a flat plate of the same area. It should be understood that this is only an approximate formula since even struts of the same fineness vary among themselves according to the outline. Results published by the National Physical Laboratory show streamline sections giving 0.07 of the resistance of a flat plate of the same area, with fineness ratio = 6.5. In Fig. 4 the effects of flow about a circular rod is shown, a case where the fineness ratio is 1. The stream follows the body through less than one-half of its circumference, and the turbulent region is very large; almost as great as with the flat plate. A circular rod is far from being even an approach to a perfect form.

In all the cases shown, Figs. 1-2-3-4, it will be noticed that the air is affected for a considerable distance in front of the plane, as it rises to pass over the obstruction before it actually reaches it. The front compression may be perceptible for 6 diameters of the object. From the examination of several good low-resistance streamline forms it seems that the best results are obtained with the blunt nose forward and the thin end aft. The best position for the point of greatest thickness lies from 0.25 to 0.33 per cent of the length from the front end. From the thickest part it tapers out gradually to nothing at the rear end. That portion to the rear of the maximum width is the most important from the standpoint of resistance, for any irregularity in this region causes the stream to break away into a turbulent space. From experiments it has been found that as much as one-half of the entering nose can be cut away without materially increasing the resistance. The cut-off nose may be left flat, and still the loss is only in the neighborhood of 5 per cent.

Resistance Calculations (Turbulency). In any plate or body where the resistance is principally due to turbulent action, as in the flat plate, sphere, cone, etc., the resistance can be computed from the formula R = KAV², where R is the resistance in pounds and K, A, and V are as before. The resistance co-efficient (K) depends upon the shape of the object under standard air conditions, and differs greatly with flat plates, cones, sphere, etc. The area (A) is the area presented to the wind, or is the greatest area that faces the wind, and is taken at right angles to its direction. The following table gives the value of K for the more common forms of objects. See Figs. 4 to 12, inclusive:

There are almost an infinite number of different forms, but for the present the above examples will fill our purpose. As an example in showing how greatly the form of an object influences its resistance, we will work out the resistance of a flat plate and a spherical ended cone, both having the same presented diameter. The cone is placed so that the spherical end will face the air stream. The area A of both objects will be: 0.7854 × 2 × 2 = 3.1416 square feet. With an assumed wind velocity of 100 miles per hour, the resistance of the circular flat disc will be: R= KAV²=000282 × 3.1416 × (100×100) = 87.96 lbs. For the cone, R = KAV²=0.000222 × 3.1416 × (100 × 100) = 6.97 lbs. From this calculation it will be seen that it is advisable to surround the object with a spherical cone shaped body rather than to present the flat surface to the wind. In the above table the value of K is given for two positions of the spherical based cone, the first is with the apex toward the wind, and the second condition gives the value with the base to the wind. With the blunt end forward, the resistance is about one-half that when the pointed apex enters the air stream. This is due to the taper closing up the stream without causing turbulence.

Figs. 4a-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12. The Values of the Resistance Co-efficient K for Different Forms and Positions of Solid Objects. Arrows Indicate the Direction of the Relative Wind. (Eiffel.)

With the apex forward there is nothing to fill up the vacuous space when the air passes over the large diameter of the base as the curve of the spherical end is too short to accomplish much in this direction.

Skin Friction. The air in rubbing over a surface experiences a frictional resistance similar to water. At the present time the accepted experiments are those of Dr. Zahm but these are still in some question as to accuracy. It was found in these experiments that there was practically no difference caused by the material of the surfaces, as long as they were equally smooth. Linen or cotton gave the same results as smooth wood or zinc as long as there was no nap or lint upon the surface. With a fuzzy surface the friction increased rapidly. This is undoubtedly due to a minute turbulence caused by the uneven surface, and hence the increase was not purely frictional, but also due to turbulence. In the tests, the air current was led parallel to the surface in such a way that only the friction could move the surface. The surface was freely suspended, and as the wind moved it edgewise, the movement was measured by a sharp pointer. End shields prevented impact of the air on the end of the test piece so that there was no error from this source. The complete formula given by Dr. Zahm is rather complicated for ordinary use, especially for those not used to mathematical computations. If Rf = resistance due to friction on one side of surface, L= length in direction of wind in feet, b = width of surface in feet, and V= velocity in feet per second, then

Rf = 0.00000778L⁰.⁹³V¹.⁸⁶b.

It will be noted that the resistance increases at a lower rate than the velocity squared, and at a less rate than the area. That is to say, that doubling the area will not double the resistance, but will be less than twice the amount. Giving the formula in terms of area and miles per hour units, we have: Rf = 0.0000167A⁰.⁹³V¹.⁸⁶. Where A = area in square feet and V = miles per hour. The area is for one side of the surface only. A rough approximation to Zahm's equation has been proposed by a writer in "Flight," the intention being to avoid the complicated formula and yet come close enough to the original for practical purposes. The latter formula reads: Rf = 0.000009V² where Rf and V are as above. Up to 40 miles per hour the results are very close to Zahm's formula, and are fairly close from 60 to 90 miles per hour. This approximation is only justified when the length in the direction of the wind is nearly equal to the length. If the length is much greater, there is a serious error introduced.

This formula is applied to surfaces parallel to the wind such as the sides of the body, rudder, stabilizer, and elevator surfaces (when in neutral). A second important feature of the friction formula is that it illustrates the law of "similitude" or the results of a change in scale and velocity, hence it outlines what we must expect when we compute a full size aeroplane from the results of a model test.

The Inclined Plane. When a flat plate is inclined with the wind, the resistance or drag will be broken up into two components, one at right angles to the air stream, and one parallel to it. If the plate is properly inclined, the right angled component can be utilized in obtaining lift as with an aeroplane wing. This is shown in Fig. 13 where L is the vertical lift force at right angles to the air stream and D is the horizontal drag acting in the direction of the wind. As in the case of the plate placed normal to the wind, there is pressure at the front of the plate and a partial vacuum behind. The resultant force will be determined by the difference in pressure between the front and the back of the plate. The forces will vary as V² since the reaction is caused by turbulent flow. Both the lift and drag will vary with the angle made with the stream, and there will be a different value for the co-efficient K for each change in the angle. The angle made with the air stream is known as the "Angle of incidence" or the "Angle of attack." The change of drag and lift does not vary at a regular rate with the angle.

Fig. 13. Flow About, Inclined Plane and Forces Produced by Stream. Fig. 14. Normal Plane with C.P. at center of Plate. Fig. 15.. C.P. Moves Toward Entering Edge When Plate Is Inclined to Wind.

A line OR is the resultant of the lift and drag forces L and D, this resultant being the force necessary to balance the two forces L-D. It is on the point of application O that the plate balances, and this point is sometimes known as the "Center of pressure." The center of pressure is therefore the point at which the resultant intersects the surface of the flat plate. The resultant OR is approximately at right angles to the surface at small incident angles, and the point O is nearer the front or "leading edge" (A) of the plane. The smaller the angle of incidence the nearer will the point O approach the leading edge A. By drawing OL to scale, representing the lift, and OD to scale representing the drag, we can find the resultant OR by drawing LR parallel to the drag OD and DR parallel to the lift line OL. All lines drawn through the intersection of LR and DR will give the resultant OR to scale. All of the lines must be started from the center of pressure at O.

The least resultant will, of course, occur when the plane is parallel to the air stream. The maximum resultant will occur when the angle of incidence is about 40 degrees, and on a further increase in the angle, the value of the resultant will gradually decrease. When the plane is parallel with the stream, the resultant is parallel to the plate, but rapidly approaches a position at right angles at about an incidence of 6 to 10 degrees. Beyond 10 degrees incidence the angle of the resultant increases past the normal.

The center of pressure (O), or the point where the resultant force intersects the plane, moves forward as the angle of incidence is decreased from 90°. When at right angles to the air current, the center of pressure is exactly in the center of the plane as shown by Fig. 14. In this case the drag (D) is the resultant, and acting in the center, exactly balances the air forces. In Fig. 15 the angle of incidence is reduced, consequently the center of pressure moves nearer the leading edge (A). As the angle continues to decrease, the C. P. moves still further forward until it lies directly on the front edge when the plate becomes parallel with the air stream. The center of pressure movement is due to the fact that more and more work is done by the front part of the surface as the angle is decreased. Consequently the point of support, or C. P., must move forward to come under the load. It should be understood that the plane will balance about the C. P. if a knife edge bearing were applied as at R in Fig. 15.

Calculation of Inclined Planes. We will now consider the inclined plane as a lifting surface for an aeroplane, and make the elementary calculations for such purpose. The lift will first be calculated for the support of the given load, at the given velocity, and then the drag. For several reasons, that will afterwards be explained, the flat plate or plane is not used for the main lifting surfaces, but the experience gained in computing the plate will be of great assistance when we start calculating actual wings.

Lift and Drag Co-efficients. The lift component (L) of the inclined flat plate depends on the velocity, area, aspect ratio and angle of incidence. Instead of using the co-efficient (K) formerly used for the total drag, we will use the lift co-efficient Ky. The formula for lift now becomes: L = KyAV² where A = area in square feet, and V = velocity in miles per hour. The lift co-efficient Ky, depends upon the angle of incidence. The horizontal drag D will be calculated from the drag co-efficient Kx, which is used in the same way as the co-efficient K in the case of the normal plate. The subscript (x) is used to distinguish it from the lift co-efficient. Both Ky and Kx must be corrected for aspect ratio. The drag can be calculated from the formula: D = KxAV² where the letters A and V are the same as above.

For the calculation of the drag, we will use a new expression—the "Lift-Drag Ratio"—or as more commonly given, "L/D." This shows the relation between the lift and drag, so that by knowing the lift and the ratio for any particular case, we can compute the drag without the necessity of going through the tedious calculation D = KxAV². The lift-drag ratio for a flat plate varies with the angle of incidence, and the aspect ratio, and hence a separate value must be used for every inclination and change in aspect. To obtain the drag, divide the lift by the lift-drag ratio. Hence if the lift is 1200 pounds, and the ratio equals 6.00, the drag will be: 1200/6=200 pounds, or in other words, the lift is 6 times the drag force. Changing the angle of incidence through angles ranging from 1 degree to 7 degrees, the lift-drag ratio of a flat plate will vary from 1.5 to 7.5. When the plane is parallel to the wind stream and gives no lift, the drag is computed from Zahm's skin friction formula.

The following tables give the values of Ky, Kx, L/D, and center of pressure movement for flat plates of various aspect ratios. The center of pressure (C. P.) for each angle is given as a decimal fraction of its distance from the leading edge, in terms of the width or "Chord."

Fig. 16. Plan View of Plate with Long Edge to Wind. Fig. 17. Plate with Narrow Edge to Wind, Showing Loss in Lift. 17a Shows Effect of Raked Tips.

Fig. 16 shows the top view or plan of a lifting surface, with the direction of the wind stream indicated by the arrows w-w-w = w. The longer side or "span" is indicated by S, while the width or chord is C. Main lifting surfaces, or wings, have the long side at right angles to the wind as shown. When in this position, the surface is said to be in "Pterygoid Aspect," and when the narrow edge is presented to the wind, the wing is in "Apteroid Aspect." The word "Pterygoid" means "Bird like," and was chosen for the condition in Fig. 16, as this is the method in which a bird's wing meets the air. Contrary to the case with true curved aeroplane wings, flat planes usually give better lift in apteroid than in pterygoid aspect at high angles. The aspect ratio will be the span (S) divided by the chord (C), or Aspect ratio = S/C.

It will be seen from the above that the lift coefficient Ky increases with the aspect ratio, and that it generally declines after an angle of 30 degrees. The center of pressure moves steadily back with an increase in angle.

Example for Lifts. A certain flat plane has an area of 200 square feet, and moves at 50 miles per hour. The angle of incidence is 10 degrees, and the aspect ratio is 6. Find the total lift and the drag in pounds. Also the location of the center of pressure in regard to the leading edge, if the chord is 5.8 feet.

Solution. Under the table headed, "Aspect Ratio = 6" we find that Ky at 10° = 0.00173, and that the lift drag ratio is 5.2. The center of pressure is 0.333 of the chord from the front edge. The total lift then becomes: L = KyAV² = 0.00173 x 200 x (50 x 50) = 865 pounds. Since the lift drag ratio is 5.2, the drag = D = 865/5.2 = 166.3 pounds. The center of pressure will be located 5.8 x 0.333 = 1.4 feet from the leading edge.

Under the same conditions, but with an aspect ratio of 3, the lift will become: L = KyAV² = 0.0014 x 200 x(50 x 50) = 700 pounds. In this case the lift drag ratio is 5.1, so that the drag will be 137.8 pounds. Even with the same area, the aspect ratio makes a difference of 865–700 = 165 pounds. If we were compelled to carry the original 865 pounds with aspect 3 wing, we would also be compelled to increase the area, angle, or speed. If the speed were to be kept constant, we would be limited to a change in area or angle. In the latter case it would be preferable to increase the area, since a sufficient increase in the angle would greatly increase the drag. It will be noted that the lift-drag ratio decreases rapidly with an increase in the angle.

Burgess Seaplane Scout.

Calculation of Area: Let us assume that we are confined to the use of an aspect ratio of 6, a speed of 50 miles per hour, weight = 2500 pounds, and wish to obtain the area that will give the most efficient surface (Least lift-drag ratio.) The equation can be now transposed so that the area = A = KyV². On examination of the table it will be seen that the greatest lift-drag ratio is 6.4 at 5 degrees, and that the Ky at this angle is 0.00103. Substituting these values in the equation for area, we have A = L/KyV² = 2500/000103 x (50 x 50) = 971 square feet.

Wind Tunnel at Washington Navy Yard in Which the Air Circulates Continuously Through a Closed Circuit

CHAPTER IV. EXPERIMENTAL LABORATORIES.

Test Methods in General. As already explained, the behavior of a body in an air stream cannot be predicted with any certainty by direct mathematical calculation, and for this reason, each and every aerodynamic body must be tested under conditions that are as nearly similar to the actual working conditions as possible. Prior to Professor Langley's first experiments in 1887, mechanical flight with a heavier than air machine was derided as an impossibility, even by such scientists as Navier, Von Helmotz, Gay-Lussac, and others, who proved by the most intricate calculations that a body larger than a bird could not be supported by its own energy. Such calculations were, of course, based on a wrong understanding of air flow, and as no experimental work had been done up to that time, the flow was assumed according to the individual taste and belief of the demonstrator. The presence of a vacuum on the back of a plate was not understood, and as this contributes full two-thirds of the lift, it is an easy matter to see why all of the early predictions fell short of the actual lifting forces. To quote one classic absurdity, the scientist Navier proved mathematically that if mechanical flight were possible, then 17 swallows would be capable of developing one horsepower.

In spite of these discouraging computations, Langley proceeded with a very carefully conducted series of experiments, first investigating the laws of surface sustenation on various forms of plates, and when the data collected was sufficient for his needs, he started to construct a number of model flyers with various wing arrangements and aerofoil forms. It was Langley's experiments upon aerofoils that cleared the way for the Wright Brothers, who started a further and more complete investigation in 1896. Experiments were made on the effect of curvature, aspect ratio and angle of incidence, and the results obtained in their "wind tunnel" were afterwards applied to their successful full size machine. During 1901 to 1902 the Wrights investigated the properties of at least 100 different aerofoil forms. Both Langley's and Wrights’ experiments were with models, although they were made in a different manner. It was in this way that experimental evidence gained precedence over theory.

Langley's specimens were mounted at the end of a revolving arm, so that with the arm revolving, a relative air stream of known velocity could be had. The aerofoil was mounted in such a way that the lift and drag could be measured. In the early experiments of the Wrights, the models were placed in an enclosed channel through which a stream of air was maintained by a fan. The model was attached to a balance system so that the lift and resistance could be measured. This is what is now known as a "wind tunnel," and at present is almost exclusively used in model tests. Several investigators immersed their model aerofoils in running water so that the direction of flow could be visibly observed. While this latter method is of great service in determining disturbances, stream line flow, and general characteristics, it is qualitative rather than quantitative, and cannot be used in obtaining accurate numerical results. A more accurate method of mapping out the direction of flow, eddies, etc., is to introduce smoke into the air stream.

Full Size Experiments. The old "rule of the thumb" method of building a full size machine without model test data or other experimental evidence to begin with has seen its day. It is not only exceedingly expensive, but is highly dangerous, and many a flyer has met his death in the endeavor to work out untried principles on a full size machine. The first cost of the machine, the continual breakage and operating expense, to say nothing of the damage suits and loss of time, make a preliminary full size tryout an absurdity at the present time. Again, the results of full size experiments are not always reliable, as so much depends upon the pilot and weather conditions. The instruments used on a large machine are far from being as accurate as those used in model tests. These are also likely to be thrown out of adjustment unknowingly by falls or collisions. The great number of variables that enter into such a test make it almost an impossibility to obtain accurate data on the result of minor alterations, and, in fact, it is almost impossible to get the same results twice without further alterations than changing the pilot. Full scale tests are necessary after sufficient data has been obtained and applied in a scientific manner to the design of the machine, but successful performance cannot be expected from a powered machine built by guess work.

When performed in connection with a wind tunnel, or based on dependable data from other sources, full size wing tests are very instructive and useful if care is taken to have the tests conducted under uniform and known conditions. Many full size experiments of this nature have been carried out by Saint-Cyr University in France, and by the Royal Aircraft Factory in Great Britain. Both of these institutions have a wind tunnel and an almost unlimited fund of performance data, and last but not least, have the services of skilled observers.

At Saint-Cyr, the full size wings, or the entire machine, are carried on an electric car or "chariot." The speed of the car, the lift and drag, can be determined at any moment during the run through suitable recording devices. Actual flying tests have also been made, the measurement of the propeller thrust giving the drag, while the lift is known as being equal to the weight of the machine. The R.A.F. have carried out a very extensive series of flight tests, the experiments on the old "B. E.-2" probably being the best known.

The greater part of the experiments performed with the car at Saint-Cyr differed considerably from the results obtained by model tests, and apparently these differences followed no specific law. According to theory, and the results obtained by different laboratories, the performance of a full size wing should be better than with a model, but the Saint-Cyr tests showed that such was not always the case. The center of pressure movement differed in almost every case, and as a direct result, the pressure distribution of the large wings was materially different than with the model. The lift-drag ratio results varied, sometimes being better for the model than for the large wing. These differences can probably be explained as being due to variation in air currents, side winds, etc.

Model Tests. Since lift and resistance are due to relative motion between a body and the air stream, a model can either be towed through the air, or it can be held stationary while the air is forced past it. There has been some controversy on the relation between the results obtained by the two methods, but for the present we will accept the common belief that the results obtained by either method are the same. In testing ship models, they are always towed through the tank, but in the case of aero-dynamic bodies this is complicated and not desirable. In towing models through the air a very high velocity is needed and this necessitates either a very long track or a short time length for making the observations. Again, it is almost impossible to avoid errors because of vibration, inequality of movement due to uneven track, or air eddies caused by differences in temperature and by the movement of the towing device. In fact, the same difficulties apply to towed model tests as to the full size "electric chariot."

The whirling arm method of testing as used by Langley, Maxim-Vickers, and others, is a form of "towed testing," but is also open to serious objections. Unless the arm is very long, every part of the model surface will not move at the same velocity, the outer portions moving the faster. As the forces produced by an air stream vary as the square of the velocity, this may introduce a serious error. The fact that the body passes repeatedly over the same path introduces error, as the body after the first revolution is always working in disturbed air. The centrifugal force, and the currents set up by the arm itself all reduce the accuracy of the method.

When a model is placed in a uniform current of air in a properly designed channel or tunnel, the greater part of the errors due to towed tests are eliminated. The measuring instruments can be placed on a firm foundation, the air stream can be maintained at a nearly uniform speed and with little error due to eddies, and the test may be continued under uniform conditions for an indefinite period. While there are minor errors due to wall friction and slight variations in the velocity at different points in the cross section of the tunnel, they are very small when compared to the errors of towing. For this reason the wind tunnel is the accepted means of testing.

Eiffel's Wind Tunnel. The Eiffel Laboratory at Auteuil, France, is probably one of the best known. The results in Chapters III and V were obtained in this laboratory and thousands of similar experiments have been carried out at this place. Two tunnels, a large and small, are placed side by side in the main laboratory room, the tunnels being supported midway between the floor and ceiling. The air is drawn from this room into an airtight experimental chamber through a bell-mouthed circular opening. A grill or honeycomb baffle is placed in the opening to straighten out the flow, and from this point the air passes across the chamber and exits through a circular duct to the suction side of a large fan. From the fan the air is discharged into the room. The same air thus circulates through the tunnel continuously. The test chamber is considerably wider than the openings so that the walls do not influence the flow around the model. A cylinder of air passes through the chamber at a remarkably uniform velocity, and without any appreciable eddies. Diameter of the stream approximates 6.6 feet in the large tunnel and 3 feet in the smaller. In the large tunnel the maximum velocity is 105 feet per second, and 131 feet per second is attained in the smaller. A 50-horsepower electric motor is used with a multiblade fan of the "Sirocco" type.

The observer and weighing mechanism are supported above the air stream on a sliding floor, and a standard extends from the model in the wind stream to the balances on the weighing floor. These balances determine the lift and drag of the models, the center of pressure, etc.

The N. P. L. Tunnel. The National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, England, has a remarkably complete and accurate aerodynamic equipment. This consists of a large tunnel of 7 square feet area, a small tunnel of 4 square feet, and a whirling table house. The large tunnel is 80 feet in length with an air flow of 60 feet per second, the air being circulated by a four-bladed propeller driven by an electric motor of 30 horsepower. The velocity is uniform within one-half per cent, and the most accurate of results have been obtained. The smaller tunnel is about 56 feet long and the wind velocity is about 40 miles per hour maximum. The propeller revolves at 600 revolutions and is driven by a 10-horsepower electric motor. There is no chamber and the models are suspended in the passage half way between the "Diffuser" in the entering end, and the baffles in the exit. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the Curtis Aeroplane Company both have similar tunnels.

United States Navy Tunnel. In this tunnel the air is confined in a closed circuit, the return tunnel being much larger than the section in which the tests are performed. The cross-sectional area is 8 square feet at the point of test, and the stream is uniform within 2 per cent. The balance and controls are mounted on the roof of the tunnel, with an arm extending down through the air stream to the model, as in the Eiffel tunnel. The balance is similar to Eiffel's and is sensitive to less than 2/1000 pound. A velocity of 75 miles per hour may be attained by the 500-horsepower motor, but on account of the heating of the air stream through skin friction, the tests are generally made at 40 miles per hour. Models up to 36-inch span can be tested, while the majority of models tested at M. I. T. are about 18 inches.

CHAPTER V. AERODYNAMICS OF LIFTING SURFACES (AEROFOILS).

General Wing Requirements. The performance of flat plates when used as lifting surfaces is very poor compared with curved sections or wing forms. It will be remembered that the greatest lift-drag ratio for the flat plate was 6.4, and the best Ky was 0.00294. Modern wing sections have a lift-drag ratio of over 20.0, and some sections have a lift coefficient of Ky–0.00364, or about 60 per cent higher than the lift obtained with a flat plate. In fact, this advantage made flight possible. To Langley, above all other men, we owe a debt of gratitude for his investigations into the value of curved wing surfaces.

Air Flow About an Aerofoil. To distinguish the curved wing from the flat plane, we will use the term "Aerofoil." Such wings are variously referred to as "Cambered surfaces," "Arched surfaces," etc., but the term "Aerofoil" is more applicable to curved sections. The variety of forms and curvatures is almost without limit, some aerofoils being curved top and bottom, while others are curved only on the upper surface. The curve on the bottom face may either be concave or convex, an aerofoil of the latter type being generally known as "Double cambered." The curves may be circular arcs, as in the Wright and Nieuport wings, or an approximation to a parabolic curve as with many of the modern wings.

Fig. 1-b shows the general trend of flow about an aerofoil at two different angles of incidence, the flow in the upper view being characteristic for angles up to about 6 degrees, while the lower view represents the flow at angles approximating 16°. At greater angles the air stream breaks away entirely from the top surface and produces a turbulence that greatly resembles the disturbance produced by a flat plate. It will be noted in the top figure (At small angles) that the flow is very similar to the flow about a streamline body, and that the air adheres very closely to the top surface. The flow at small angles is very steady and a minimum of turbulence is produced at the trailing edge.

Figs. 1a, 1b. Aerofoil Types and Flow at Different Angles.

When increased beyond 6°, turbulence begins, as shown in the lower figure, and a considerable change takes place in the lift-drag ratio. This is known as the "Lower Critical Angle." The turbulence, however, is confined to the after part of the wing, and little or no disturbance takes place in the locality of the lower surface. We observe that an increase in angle and lift produces an increased turbulent flow about the upper surface, and hence the upper surface is largely responsible for the lift. Below 10° the trend of the upper portion of the stream is still approximately parallel to the upper surface.

Fig. 2. Showing How Lift Is Obtained When an Aerofoil Is Inclined at a Negative Angle, the Line of Flight Being Along X-X.

From 16° to 18°, the stream suddenly breaks entirely away from the wing surface, and produces an exceedingly turbulent flow and mass of eddies. The lift falls off suddenly with the start of the discontinuous flow. The angle at which this drop in lift takes place is known variously as the "Second Critical Angle," the "Burble Point," or the "Stalling Angle." Any further increase in angle over the stalling angle causes a drop in lift as the discontinuity is increased. With the flat plane, the burble point occurs in the neighborhood of 30° and movement beyond this angle also decreases the lift. In flight, the burble point should not be approached, for a slight increase in the angle when near this point is likely to cause the machine to drop or "Stall." The fact that the maximum lift occurs at the critical angle makes the drop in lift at a slightly greater angle, doubly dangerous.

A peculiar feature of the aerofoil lies in the fact that lift is still obtained with a zero angle of incidence, and even with a negative angle. With the aerofoil shown in Fig. 2 there will be a considerable lift when the flat bottom is parallel with the direction of travel, and some lift will still be obtained with the front edge dipped down (Negative Angle). The curved upper surface causes the air stream to rise toward the front edge, as at E, hence the wing can be dipped down considerably in regard to the line of motion X-X, without going below the actual air stream.

Action in Producing Lift. At comparatively high angles of incidence, where there is turbulent flow, the lift and drag are due principally to the difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces as in the case of the flat plate.

There is a positive pressure below as in the front of a flat inclined plane, and a vacuous region above the upper surface. The drag with the plane below the burble point, and above the "Lower Critical Angle," is due both to skin friction and turbulence—principally to the latter. Below the first critical angle (6°), the skin friction effect increases, owing to the closeness with which the air stream hangs to the upper surface.

Since there is but little turbulence at the small angles below 6°, the theory of the lift at this point is difficult to explain. The best explanation of lift at small angles is given by Kutta's Vortex Hypothesis. This theory is based on the fact that a wing with a practically streamline flow produces a series of whirling vortices (Whirlpools) in the wake of the wings, and that the forward movement of the plane produces the energy that is stored in the vortices. The relation between these vortices is such, that when their motion is destroyed, they give up their energy and produce a lifting reaction by their downward momentum. The upward reaction on the wing is thus equal and opposite to the downward momentum of the air vortices.

Drag Components. At large angles of incidence where turbulence exists, the lift and also the drag are nearly proportional to the velocity squared (V²). Where little turbulence exists, and where the air stream hugs the surface closely, the drag is due largely to skin friction, and consequently this part of the drag varies according to Zahm's law of friction (V²). For this reason it is difficult to estimate the difference in drag produced by differences in velocity, since the two drag components vary at different rates, and there is no fixed proportion between them. Since the frictional drag does not increase in proportion to the area, but as A⁰.⁹⁸, difficulty is also experienced in estimating the drag of a full size wing from data furnished by model tests.

Incidence and Lift. Up to the burble point the lift increases with an increase in the angle; but not at a uniform rate for any one aerofoil, nor at the same rate for different aerofoils. The drag also increases with the angle, but more rapidly than the lift after an incidence of about 4° is passed, hence the lift-drag ratio is less at angles greater than 4°. Decreasing the angle below 4° also decreases the lift-drag, but not so rapidly as with the larger angles. At the angle of "No Lift" the drag is principally due to skin friction.

Fig. 3 shows a typical lift and incidence chart that gives the relation between the angle of incidence Ɵ and the lift coefficient. This curve varies greatly for different forms of aerofoils both in shape and numerical value, and it is only given to show the general form of such a graph. The curve lying to the left, and above the curve for the "Flat plate," is the curve for the particular aerofoil shown above the chart. The "Lift-Coefficients" at the left hand vertical edge correspond to the coefficient Ky, although these must be multiplied by a factor to convert them into values of Ky. As shown, they are in terms of the Absolute units used by the National Physical Laboratory and to convert them into the Ky unit they must be multiplied by 0.0051V² where V is in miles per hour, or 0.00236v² where v = feet per second. The incidence angle is in degrees.

Fig. 3. Chart Showing Relation Between Incidence And Lift.

It will be noted that the lift of the aerofoil is greater than that of the plate at every angle as with nearly every practical aerofoil. The aerofoil has a lift coefficient of 0.0025 at the negative angle of -3°, while the lift of the flat plate of course becomes zero at 0°. As the incidence of the aerofoil increases the lift coefficient also increases, until it reaches a maximum at the burble point (Stalling angle) of about 11.5°. An increase of angle from this point causes the lift coefficient to drop rapidly until it reaches a minimum lift coefficient of 0.46 at 17°. The flat plate as shown, reaches a maximum at the same angle, but the lift of the plate does not drop off as rapidly. The maximum coefficient of the aerofoil is 0.58 and of the plate 0.41. The rapid drop in pressure, due to the air stream breaking away at the burble point, is clearly shown by the sharp peak in the aerofoil curve. The sharpness of the drop varies among different aerofoils, the peaks in some forms being very flat and uniform for quite a distance in a horizontal direction, while others are even sharper than that shown. Everything else being equal, an aerofoil with a flat peak is the more desirable as the lift does not drop off so rapidly in cases where the aviator exceeds the critical angle, and hence the tendency to stall the machine is not as great. This form of chart is probably the simplest form to read. It contains only one quantity, the lift-coefficient, and it shows the small variations more clearly than other types of graphs in which the values of Kx, lift-drag, and the resultant force are all given on a single sheet.

Center of Pressure Movement. As in the case of the flat plate the center of pressure on an aerofoil surface varies with the angle of incidence, but unlike the plate the center of pressure (C. P.) moves backward with a decrease in angle. The rapidity of travel depends upon the form of aerofoil, in some types the movement is very great with a small change in the angle, while in others the movement is almost negligible through a wide range. In general, aerofoils are inherently unstable, since the C. P. moves toward the trailing edge with decreased angles, and tends to aggravate a deficiency in the angle. If the angle is too small, the backward movement tends to make it still smaller, and with an increasing angle the forward movement of the center of pressure tends to make the angle still greater.

Fig. 4 is a diagram showing the center of pressure movement for a typical aerofoil with the aerofoil at the top of the chart. The left side of the chart represents the leading edge of the aerofoil and the right side is the trailing edge, while the movement in percentages of the chord length is shown by the figures along the lower line. Thus figure ".3" indicates that the center of pressure is located 0.3 of the chord from the leading edge. In practice it is usual to measure the distance of the C. P. from the leading edge in this way.

Fig. 4. Chart Giving Relation Between Incidence and C.P. Movement.

For an example in the use of the chart, let us find the location of the C. P. at angles of 0°, 3° and 7°. Starting with the column of degrees at the left hand edge of the chart, find 0°, and follow along the dotted line to the right until the curve is reached. From this point follow down to the lower row of figures. It will be found that at 0° the C. P. lies about half way between 0.5 and 0.6, or more exactly at 0.55 of the chord from the leading edge. Similarly at 3° the C. P. is at 0.37 of the chord, and at 7° is at 0.3 of the chord. From 11° to 19°, the C. P. for this particular aerofoil moves very little, remaining almost constant at 0.25 of the chord. Reducing the angle from 3° causes the C. P. to retreat very rapidly to the rear, so that at –1° the C. P. is at 0.8 of the chord, or very near the trailing edge of the wing.

Other Forms of Charts. The arrangement of wing performance charts differs among the various investigators. Some charts show the lift, drag, lift-drag ratio, angle of incidence, center of pressure movement, and resultant pressure on a single curve. This is very convenient for the experienced engineer, but is somewhat complicated for the beginner. Whatever the form of chart, there should be an outline drawing of the aerofoil described in the chart.

Fig. 5 shows a chart of the "Polar" variety in which four of the factors are shown by a single curve. This type was originated by Eiffel and is generally excellent, except that the changes at small angles are not shown very clearly or sharply. The curve illustrates the properties of the "Kauffman" wing, or better known as the "Eiffel No. 37." A more complete description of this aerofoil will be found under the chapter "Practical Wing Sections." A single curve is marked at different points with the angle of incidence (0° to 12°). The column at the left gives the lift-coefficient Ky, while the row at the bottom of the sheet gives the drag-coefficients Kx. At the top of the chart are the lift-drag ratios, each figure being at the end of a diagonal line. In this way the lift, drag, liftdrag and angle of incidence are had from a single curve.

Take the characteristics at an angle of 10 degrees for example. Find the angle of 10° on the curve, and follow horizontally to the left for Ky. The lift-coefficient will be found to be 0.0026 in terms of miles per hour and pounds per square foot. Following down from 10°, it will be found that the drag-coefficient Kx = 0.00036. Note the diagonal lines, and that the 10° point lies nearest to the diagonal headed 7 at the top of the chart. (It is more nearly a lift-drag ratio of 7.33 than 7.) In the same way it will be found that an angle of 8 degrees lies almost exactly on the lift-drag diagonal marked 9. The best lift-drag is reached at about 2 degrees at which point it is shown as 17.0. The best lift-coefficient Ky is 0.00276 at 12 degrees.

Fig. 5. Polar Type Chart Originated By Eiffel.