A GRAMMAR
OF
COLLOQUIAL CHINESE,
AS EXHIBITED IN THE
SHANGHAI DIALECT

BY

J. EDKINS, B.A., Univ. Coll. Lond.

Of the London Missionary Society.

SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED.

SHANGHAI:

PRESBYTERIAN MISSION PRESS.

1868.

PREFACE

to first edition 1853.

Among works on Chinese Grammar, that of Prémare, written a century and a half ago, still stands preeminent. Besides a more extended knowledge, he possessed a better appreciation of the peculiar beauties of Chinese style, than any other writer on the subject. But it has been justly remarked that his work, abounding in good examples, is deficient in order, and the exhibition of principles. Remusat, in his accurate and learned work, has made great use of Prémare, but he has given less attention than his predecessor, to those numerous groups, in which ideas or sounds are repeated, and he says nothing on propositions. The deficiency that the reader of these works feels in the treatment of groups of words, has been pointed out by Bazin in his clever Essay on Colloquial Mandarin. He quotes the section on words, in Gutzlaff’s Notices on Chinese Grammar, containing a classification of compound words. Partly from the suggestion of that work, and more from his own researches, he has constructed a comprehensive system of grouped words (mots composés).

The little work now in the hands of the reader, is an attempt to elucidate colloquial Chinese, by taking a limited field of enquiry, that of the dialect of a single district. By this means it has been hoped, something might be done to help the causes of Chinese philology, by collecting facts, which writers having a wider scope, have overlooked.

There are aids for the study of the southern dialects of China, but no one has yet written on the speech of the rich and populous province of Kiáng-nán. On Missionary and Commercial grounds, it is time that some attempt should be made to supply this want.

The mandarin student will meet with scarcely any new idioms here. Of words, there are a few tens not used in the fashionable colloquial. It is in sounds that the greatest variation exists, and an attempt has therefore been made to form a correct nomenclature for tones, and for the alphabetic elements of spoken words. For the latter, Sir W. Jones’ system, as introduced by J. R. Morrison in the Chinese Repository, has, with a few necessary modifications, been adopted as by far the best.

For the tones, a new nomenclature is here proposed, based on their real character, as distinct from the arbitrary names, which, though they doubtless represented exactly the tones used by their author, are not applicable, except for convenience sake, to those of other dialects.

Upwards of twenty natural tones, from which each dialect chooses its own set, varying from four to eight, are here described. The early Roman Catholic Missionaries wrote much on this singular characteristic of spoken Chinese, but Bayer in his abstract of their system, in the Museum Sinicum, has not given a very intelligible account of it.

Attention has been paid throughout to the mode of grouping words, as a subject second to none in interest and importance. Some similarity, though an independent one, will be found here to the system adopted by M. Bazin.

The grammars of Morrison and Marshman, beside the excellent works already alluded to, have been of occasional service, especially the latter, which with all its diffuseness, is a useful and suggestive book.

The assistance of friends has been kindly afforded. To Dr. Medhurst special thanks are due, for revising the sheets as they passed through the press, thus adding much to the correctness of the work; and to Rev. T. M’Clatchie, for material assistance in regard to the laws of Shanghai tones.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

RULES FOR USING THE ORTHOGRAPHY HERE ADOPTED.

1. The accent marks long vowels í, é, á, ó, ú, pronounced as the vowel in feel, fail, father, foal, fool.
2. Vowels not accented are the five short vowels corresponding to these; e.g. in fin, fen, fan, fop, fun.
3. The remaining vowels are ö, ü, au, û, eu, pronounced as in könig, une, auburn, 書, 頭.
4. The initial consonants k, t, p, f, s, are pronounced high and with the English and Scotch sound. When k, t, p, take an aspirate as in the pronunciation of some parts of Ireland and the United States, they are written k’, t’, p’. These with the vowels and h’ a strong aspirate, constitute the upper series.
5. The initials g, d, b, y, z with ng, n, m, l, rh, a soft aspirate h, and vowel initials form the lower series. The italic k, t, etc., are to be pronounced two full musical notes lower than the roman k, t, etc., and are counted as the same with g, d, &c.
6. The nasals m, ng, n, without a vowel are italicised.
7. Final n when italicised is pronounced very indistinctly.
8. The superior commas on the left and right of a word, mark the second and third tones. Final h, k and g, indicate the short tone. Words not thus marked are all in the first tone.

The series is known by the initial as in the native mode of spelling, 反切, Fan-t’sih. The capital letters denote dialects as—

A GRAMMAR

OF THE

SHANGHAI DIALECT,

PART 1.
ON SOUND.

Section 1. Alphabet.

1. The alphabetical symbols we shall need to employ are the following:—

[ [1] When a native is asked whether k‘i‘ or c‘hi‘ is the more correct pronunciation of 去 he replies the former. Yet the orthography by c‘hi‘ seems to the foreigner more like the true sound. The fact is that the sound is in a state of transition from k‘i to c‘hi.

[ [2] This sound is better described as s and a peculiar vowel ï or t, s, and ï. The mark ï denotes a vowel peculiar to China but like e in castle.

[ [3] The further subdivision into upper and lower tones needs no mark, being indicated uniformly by the initial letter. Thus, b, g, d, z, l, m, n, r, and any letters italicized are in the lower tones; other initial letters denote upper tones. There are a few exceptions which will be noted afterwards. A final italic letter denotes a nasal.

2. Mandarin pronunciation wants several of these sounds. Among the vowels, the short a and e together with û are omitted, and au, eu, are lengthened into aú, eú. Among the consonants, b, d, g, dj, m ng, n, dz, dzz, v and z are wanting.

3. The Shánghái dialect is deficient in the sh, ch and soft j of mandarin and of Sú-cheú pronunciation.

4. Of the above sounds, those foreign to the English, language, and therefore needing particular attention, are the following:—

Of vowels, eu as in 口 ’k’eu, mouth; ö as in 安 ön, rest. û as in 鑽 tsûn, to bore. A final r should be carefully avoided in these three sounds. Oe is not so common in this dialect as in that of Sú-cheú, where it occurs in 船 jön, boat, 滿 ’mön, full, etc., etc. The vowel ü, (French u), is often convertible with û. Thus 書 sû, book is pronounced sü at Súng-kiáng and to the east of the Hwáng-p’ú, while it becomes sz in Paú-shán district.

Of consonants, note well the sibilants sz, tsz, dzz, with rh, and the nasals m, n, ng, also the strong aspirate h’; also the three aspirated mutes p’, k’, t’, and ng at the beginning of a syllable.

5. The native arrangement of the alphabet, as found in the tables prefixed to K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, is borrowed from the Sanscrit.[1] The natural order of the letters as formed by the organs of speech, is as far as possible preserved, and the system adopted contrasts advantageously with the irregularity of the English and other alphabets. The pronunciation there registered is what Chinese authors call the 南音 Nán yin, Southern pronunciation, as it was early in the Christian era. It probably agrees in the main with the modern speech of Sú-cheú, Háng-chú and the surrounding cities. That the pronunciation of Sháng-hiá is one of its dialects, appears from the slightest examination of the tables in question. It is characterized by the same division into Yin and Yáng, i.e. hard and soft, or thin and broad consonants, which form the basis of arrangement, in those tables, and agrees in many of the details. Vide Appendix on K’áng-hí’s tables of Initials and Finals.

[ [1] Vide Preface to Morrison’s Dictionary, and Marshman’s Clavis Sinica. None of the western alphabets appear to have been so scientifically arranged as the Sanscrit.

6. In the native system, while the consonants are accurately distinguished, the initial vowels are placed together, under only two heads. In this respect therefore, we depart from it in the following table. The initials sh, zh, ch, f’, and some others are also omitted as not applicable to our dialect. The imperfect nasal consonants are inserted, though as local variations they have no place in the native tables. In naming the classes, western terms have been adopted.

Tabular view of the alphabetic sounds of the Shánghái dialect.

If from these consonants, we subtract the combinations of t and d, with s and z, the aspirated mutes, and ní, as capable of resolution, there remain twenty three in all. Of those that are left, sz and zz may also be supposed to be made up of s, z, and an indistinct vowel ï, heard in English after the l of beetle, needle, etc.

Section 2. On the Tones.

7. In order to determine the position of the Shánghái patois among the dialects of China, something must be said on tones generally. Chinese pronunciation may for our present purpose, be considered in three or more general divisions, according to the number of tones.

(1.) The first of these is the Northern mandarin. 北音 Pih yin, where four or five tones are in use. It is the pronunciation of the Emperor’s court, and professedly of the government officers throughout the empire. It is also spoken in considerable purity in the parts north of the Yáng tsz Kiáng (hence its name), and in the provinces of Sz-ch’uen, Kwei-cheú, Yün-nán, and parts of Kwangsi and Hunan.

(2.) The second in the Southern pronunciation, 南音 Nán yin, spoken in the part of Kiáng-sú, that is south of the Yáng-tsz’-kiáng, in Cheh-kiáng and part of Kiáng-sí. This is mainly the pronunciation out of which the mandarin grew and which is followed in the Dictionaries, from K’ang-hí upwards, nearly to the Hán dynasty.[1] The tones are four in number, each subdivided into kaú and tí, upper and lower, or as they are also denominated yin and yáng, feminine and masculine. These upper and lower series of tones are also distinguished, by different initial consonants, the one taking g, d, b, v, z, etc., and the other k, t, p, f, s, etc. The variations that exist even between contiguous districts, are very numerous, a circumstance which furnishes a mark of distinction between this part of China and the mandarin provinces, where orthographical differences are few.

(3.) The pronunciation of the other provinces presents many extensive departures from the true mandarin. The tones are seven or eight in number, and are often found inverted in position, as well as contradictory in nature to the names they bear. The Fúh-kien and Canton dialects have long been the subject of foreign study, and have received abundant illustration. Ngán-hwei and Kiangsi have also many eccentricities of pronunciation.

[ [1] Vide in K’áng-hí, the Fán-ts’eih spelling, quoted from the previously existing Dictionaries. In K’áng-hí’s table of sounds, the former model is to some extent departed from, in favour of the Northern mandarin. The terms 北音南音 are common both in books, and in the conversation of the natives. Mandarin pronunciation has also its dictionaries, such as 五方元音, but it is the old tonic dictionaries and new works founded on them to which reference is here made.

8. The tones may be partially described according to their natural character. In attempting this, we intentionally avoid for the present, the usual Chinese terms 平上去入 ping, even, záng, rising, k’ü‘, going, zeh, entering, because, being the same in all dialects, they do not in the majority of cases, represent the actual effect of the sounds on the ear. When first adopted in the reign of Liang wu ti, A.D. 402 to 450, they must have represented the tones of the dialect, spoken by Shen yoh[1] the writer who selected them a native of Hu cheu only 100 miles from Sháng-hái. But when applied according to universal practice, to the sounds given to the same characters in other parts of the empire, these four names convey no idea of the actual pronunciation. The descriptions given of the tones by native authors, are consequently often incomprehensible.

A. Upper acute tone. We pronounce monosyllabic words, when speaking with moderate emphasis, in a quick descending tone. It is heard in commands as Gó, Fíre, Go at ônce. In naming any object, English speakers usually adopt this intonation for a monosyllable, or the penultimate of a dissyllable. It might be called the affirmative tone. It represents the 上平 záng‘ bing, or upper first tone at Sháng-hái and Sú-cheú, as 天 t’íen heaven; while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the second, and in the mandarin of Pe-king, the first tone.

B. Upper even tone. This is a sound without deflection like a long note in music, and is not so common in English conversation as the former. When high in key, it is in Sháng-hái the upper second tone, as in 水 sz; water; 火 hú, fire, 土 t’ú, earth. In Sz-ch’uen mandarin, and in the Fúh-kien of Amoy, it is the upper first tone.

C. Upper quick rising tone. This is nearly like the staccato of musical notation, and is usually heard in interjections of surprise and indignation, and frequently in questions. If quick and high, it is in Sháng-háe the upper third tone, as 信 sing, a letter, 菜 ts’é, vegetables. In Pe-king mandarin. It is the lower first tone.

D. Upper slow rising tone. This is a prolonged intonation rising more slowly than the last, and is not needed for the Sháng-háe dialect.

E. Upper short tone. This is the intonation of syllables short in quantity. Long and short quantity may be predicated of vowels or of syllables. In Latin, the short ă of m-ă-gis, becomes long by position in magnus. The converse of this example takes place in Sháng-hái pronunciation, where the long and short a and o are all found in a short tone.[2] In such cases, we write them all with a final h; the presence or absence of the accent marking the quantity of the vowel, while that of h marks the quantity of the syllable; as in 濕 sáh, wet; 薩 sah, in Pú sah, disciple of Buddha; 哭 k’óh weep; 悪 oh, wicked. This tone might be divided into two, as it ascends or descends; but as only the former occurs in Sháng-hái sounds, we count but one of these, to avoid too great subdivision.

F. Lower acute tone. In proceeding to tones in a lower pitch of voice, we enumerate them in an order corresponding to that followed above; thus the same natural description, except as regards key, will readily apply to them. The lower acute tone is not needed for the Shánghái sounds, except in cases of combination. In the Sú-cheú dialect, it represents the lower second tone, while in Fúh-kien, if set very low, it will be the upper third tone.

G. Lower even tone. A low musical sound without deflection. It is the lower first tone at Sháng-hái, as in 能 nung, can. 埋, má, bury. In the mandarin of Nán-king, it is the upper first tone, while in the dialect of Amoy, it is the lower third tone.

H. Lower quick rising tone. This intonation is nearly that of any common word, when spoken interrogatively, as I? Yes? Indeed? It is the lower third tone of Sháng-hái, and the lower first of Nán-king and Amoy.

I. Lower slow rising tone. This is the intonation of remonstrance as in “Et tù Brute,” if tù were spoken in a deep and rather lengthened tone. So in many antithetical sentences, as “We seek not yoùrs but yoú,” the former accented word is in a low slow rising tone, and the latter in a quick falling tone. Writers on Elocution mark them with the grave and acute, accents respectively.

J. Lower short tone. The remarks appended to the corresponding upper tone apply also to this. 學習 hoh dzih, to learn and practice.

K. Upper circumflex. This is an intonation high in key and having two deflections, apparently ascending and descending. It may be quick or slow in time. It is not used in Sháng-hái pronunciation. When slow it is the second tone of Nán-king.

L. Lower circumflex. This corresponds to the preceding in character and time, but differs from it in key. When, quick, it is the lower first tone of the district east of Sú-cheú.

[ [1] Shen yoh 沈約 was high in favour with the emperor Liang wu ti whose capital was Nanking. Nan shï 南史 c. 57.

[ [2] If different symbols were invented for the long and short vowels, so that syllables only should be considered long and short, this anomaly would disappear. All alphabets are deficient in vowel marks.

9. While selecting most of their tones from those thus described, some dialects would require a more minute subdivision, and perhaps two high and two low divisions of each series might be found necessary. The preceding arrangement however, will be sufficient to give some conception of the variety of tonic effects, whether harmonious or discordant the listener must judge, existing in the speech of China. If it be recollected that independently of these differences in tones, there are also numberless variations in the alphabetic form of the sounds, an accurate knowledge of so Protean a language might seem unattainable, were it not that the characters are everywhere the same. What one pronounces in a high shrill accent, and another in a prolonged whine, and another in a low musical intonation, they all write in the same form; and if asked what is its tone, they give the same reply.

The Chinese have themselves described the tones according to their natural character. We quote the following translation of some verses in K’áng-hí’s Dictionary, from Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.

“The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor depressed.
“The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and strong.
“The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to a distance.
“The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gathered up.”[1]

This description must be taken as answering to the tones spoken by the native writer from whom it is taken.

[ [1] 平聲平道莫低昂
上聲高呼猛烈强
去聲分明哀遠道
入聲短促急收藏

10. The terms used by the Chinese to describe sounds in reference to tones, are such as—

高 低, kau tí, high and low (key of the tone).

陰 陽, yun yáng, high and low (key of the tone).

緩 急, wén‘ kih, slow and quick (time of the tone).

平 仄 ping tsáh, even, deflected. 仄 is further divided into 上 去 入 záng‘, k’ü‘, zeh, rising, departing, entering.

To these we add to express quantity apart from tone:—

長 短 dzáng, ’dön,[1] long and short (time in reference to the syllables).

These terms include all the principles, on which our arrangement of natural tones has been made: thus—

The first two pairs define the upper and lower tones.

The third pair embraces differences in time, the quick and slow tones.

The fourth pair includes even tones and those having deflections, which may rise or fall, and be one or two in number.

The fifth pair distinguishes the three first tones from the fourth.

In an article in the Chinese Repository on the Birmese and Shán languages (Vol. V. page 71), there are some facts respecting tones as employed in those countries. The Sháns, inhabiting the country that separates Birmah from China, have two deflected tones rising and falling respectively, two tones short in quantity also rising and falling, and a low even tone.

The Birmese have the two deflected tones, and one short tone.

The Shán language is fundamentally the same as the Siamese, which also has tones.

[ [1] This is one of the words where d is heard in the upper series instead of t. Other cases of departures from the usual law will be subsequently pointed out.

11. TABLE OF TONES IN SEVERAL DIALECTS.[1]

[ [1] u, upper. l, lower. r, rising. f, falling. q, quick. s, slow. e, even. c, circumflex. sh, short.

12. Nán-king is here placed among those that belong to the 北音 or Northern Mandarin division. A native author[1] says, that this city and two others 淮陽 Hwái yáng and 徐海 Sü hái use the northern pronunciation.

The large Dictionaries are uniform in the adoption of the pronunciation in our (ii.) division, as their basis of spelling. They usually speak of only four tones, distinguishing the upper from the lower by the initial letter. This is also the universal practice among the educated class vivâ voce. They do not speak of 帝 ti‘ emperor and 地 di‘ earth, as different in tone, the one the upper third tone, the other the lower, but as different in the alphabetical form tí, dí.

The division into eight tones is preferable for a foreign reader, because (1) there is a difference in elevation of voice, 帝 tí‘ being at an interval of a fourth in the musical scale more or less, higher than 地 dí‘. (2) Although the third and fourth tones, upper and lower, are deflected at Sháng-hái in a similar way, so that they may be regarded as the same tones, this is not the case with the first and second, which differ decidedly in character.

The fourth tone in the 北音 Póh yun, class (i.) is in the Northern provinces, long in quantity. The words included under it are distributed among the other tones, and must be learnt separately, in order that they may be correctly pronounced; e.g. of words written chúh, some such as 竹, 竺, 燭 are at K’ai-fóng-fú in the upper first tone, while 軸, 祝, 昨 are in the lower first tone.[2]

[ [1] Vide 李氐音鑑. The author was a native of Peking.

[ [2] The analogy between the Chinese tones and the Greek accents probably led the Catholic Missionaries to call the former accentus. The distinction between accent and quantity which existed in Greek, has been found also in Sanscrit in the Vedas. (Vide Bopp’s Sanscrit Grammar, section 80.) In both, there were three accents, acute, grave and circumflex. The grave is described as the negation of the acute and to be understood where that mark is not written. The acute was a rising in tone; while the circumflex is said to have raised and depressed the tone on the same syllable. (Vide Valpy’s, Greek Grammar.) Taking accent and quantity together, we obtain four distinctions of sound, which is the nominal number of tones in Chinese. The fundamental difference in the structure of polysyllabic and monosyllabic languages prevents the analogy from being carried far; the tones in one case being fixed to syllables, and in the other to words. But when it is remembered that those two branches of the great Indo-European stem are among the most ancient of languages, not much later in origin than the Chinese itself, and one of them its geographical neighbour, the fact of these delicate differences of sound existing till now in that language, becomes interesting as throwing light on some of the most precious remains of the literature of the past. Grammarians would not speak with such hesitation, as they do, when describing these peculiar intonations of the civilized races of the old world, if they had heard and could discriminate the Chinese tones. Late speculations on the change in language-forming power that has taken place in modern times, have referred to the gradual diminution of inflexions in new languages, and to other circumstances, as instances of it. From these has been argued the decay of a certain faculty once possessed by the human race. The limited use of accents fixed to words in newly-formed languages, may be viewed as another illustration of it. Clearly-marked alphabetical differences, as now preferred to those nicer distinctions of sounds, which perhaps were familiar alike to the most cultivated branches of the Great Arian family, and to the ancient and modern Chinese. It may be added that the use of many of the Hebrew accents is but imperfectly known in modern times.

Section 3. On the Shanghai tones.

13. We shall illustrate the tones one by one with numerous examples, adding a translation for the use of those who wish to acquire at the same time, a vocabulary of common phrases. We have hitherto regarded tones as they are heard, when the sound is enunciated emphatically and single. But there are certain changes which occur in combinations of two or more words in rapid conversation, which can be only explained by examples of such groups arranged in separate columns. In the observations appended to each table, the more prominent of these variations will be pointed out, and the place of the accent determined.[1] ]

The vowel marks employed in this work are repeated here, that the eye of the reader may be familiarized with them:—

In writing mandarin, the following will also be used:—

The accents denote long vowels, and a symbol is never used for more than one sound. This is the principle of the orthography usually called Sir W. Jones’ system. It was proposed by the Hon. J. R. Morrison in 1836, in the Chinese Repository, (vol, 5, page 22), for application to the Chinese language. For this part of China, modifications are needed in the details, and hence the differences in the system here adopted, from that described by the writer of that article, and in Williams’ Chinese Vocabulary, etc.

The long vowels all have, what is called in England, the Italian pronunciation.

The sound eu is something like the French eu in douleur, or the common short English u as in bun prolonged ’or the corresponding mandarin sound eú as in 口 ’k’eú, Premare uses eou, and Klaproth eu; from them we have borrowed it. In the lengthened form, it is a diphthong eú or uú, as in English cloud. The shorter form eu has no exact English equivalent.

[ [1] In an Essay on the Hok-kien tones by the Rev. S. Dyer of Malacca, descriptions of them with a musical notation are given. Tables of examples for groups of two like those we now give, but without the Chinese characters, are annexed.

14. The upper first tone. This is the common quick falling sound, usually given in. English pronunciation, to any monosyllable when standing alone, and spoken with emphasis.

That it may be readily compared with the other tones, by such as have a native assistant at hand, some examples are here given of the same alphabetical sound, varied according to the four upper tones.

In the fourth word of each series, the vowels change, í into i, and ú into ó. The Chinese regard them as different only in tone; to a foreign ear, the difference is one both of time, as the syllables are long and short, and of vowels sound, as the long i becomes short i, and long u becomes long o.

15. As examples of combination, take first those which have the upper first tone in the penultimate, (p, s, k, j, in roman type, represent the four upper tones in their order; in italic type, the lower).

Obs. In this table, the tone preserves its natural character throughout, but when followed by the quick rising tones, as in p, k, and p, k, or by the short tones, or by a word hurried over without emphasis on account of its unimportance, it is heard with a more distinct accent than in other cases. When the accent is upon the other word, this tone needs to have the voice rest upon it for a time, to prevent its becoming the third tone.

The tone which is the same as this in the Amoy dialect, undergoes a regular change, in combinations such as those in this table. When standing first of two words, it becomes an upper quick rising tone. Thus though a tone be identical when pronounced alone in two dialects, it does not follow that its laws of combination are also the same. For much important information on the Hok-kien tones, and the laws of combination in that dialect, the writer is indebted to Rev. J. Stronach of Amoy.

16. Examples of the upper first tone in the antepenultimate or when first in a group of three.

Obs. i. In the example standing last but two, if 經 is accented, it preserves its proper character, but if, as is often the case, 三 is accented, 經 becomes even and falls in pitch.

Obs. ii. The accent often varies between the first and the last syllable. In regard to position, it is the latter that should receive it. But in reference to tone, that now under illustration admitting emphasis freely, overbears the accent of position.

17. Examples of upper first tone standing last in a combination of two or three.

Obs. In the groups p.p., s.p., and p.p. in this table, the tone of the last word falls and becomes even. In such cases, the initial consonants remain unaffected. Thus, 工夫 kúng fú cannot become kúng vú, though, fú falls in key. The same change may sometimes be observed after the third and fourth tones.

18. Examples of this tone, as the second in a group, of three.

Obs. i. There is a secondary accent on some other syllable in groups of three, which sometimes predominates over the other. We have not attempted to record more than one. E.g. 讀 the antepenultimate of the last example is often heard with a decided accent.

Obs. ii. An inspection of these tables will shew that the first tone attracts the accent to itself in many instances, and that through rapidity of pronunciation, or from the accent being placed on the word before, it tends to fall in key and become even.

Obs. iii. In regard to position the accent prefers the last syllable.

19. The upper second tone. It is a high even tone without deflection, and forms a principal element in producing that curious singing effect in many dialects, which the foreigner notices in first listening to Chinese pronunciation.

20. Examples of the upper second tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Obs. i. The last syllable, when preceded by a word in the upper first tone, is usually heard to fall in key, as in the first two of the above examples.

Obs. ii. In some examples, the tone under illustration often changes into a quick falling tone, as in 救火 kieu‘ ’hú, pronounced kieu‘ hú, and 勉强 pronounced míen‘ k’iáng.

21. Examples of the upper second tone in the antepenultimate.

Obs. For purposes of accentuation 下, 打, and 勿 in the above examples may be called enclitics or proclitics. As such they leave the emphasis to rest on the significant words.

22. Examples of the second tone in the penultimate of a group of two.

Obs. The accent is usually on the last word, and it is especially marked when that word is in the first or third tone. When the penultimate assumes the accent, it frequently changes to the upper rising tone, but this is apparently nothing more than an occasional irregularity, produced by rapid pronunciation. Native assistants generally deny the existence of these and all such changes; but on having their attention drawn more closely to the subject, they admit that there are exceptional cases.

23. Examples of the same tone standing second in a group of three.

Obs. i. The penultimate is heard higher in key than the others. The last falls, but retains the principal accent more or less distinctly.

Obs. ii. The secondary accent is usually on the first word, except in the example 做好日, where the penultimate word changes into an upper rising tone, and receives the accent.

24. The upper third tone. This tone being both high in key and deflected upwards, is difficult to imitate correctly.

Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Obs. i. It may be useful as an aid to memory, to notice that verbs are very numerous in this tone. The majority of the above examples will illustrate this remark.

Obs. ii. In the first example 意 í is irregular, and is pronounced in the first tone.

Obs. iii. When the accent is decidedly on the last word, as in most of the examples, the penultimate is very short and pronounced with the least possible emphasis.

Obs. iv. In the examples, k, k, penultimate word is in rapid pronunciation, heard even, like the second tone. Thus 照‘ 應‘ is pronounced ’tsau yung‘.

25. Examples of the same tone, as the antepenultimate of three words.

Obs. To keep the first word short in time, and deflected upwards, is the chief requisite in examples of this kind, If the voice were allowed to rest on it, it would necessarily become the first or second tone.

26. Examples of the upper third tone standing last of two or three words.

Obs. i. The almost unbroken regularity of the accent in these examples, arises partly from the last word being the proper place for it, and partly from the tone under illustration being naturally adapted to receive it.

Obs. ii. In the examples p, k, the last word falls in key, and its upward deflection and initial consonant remain unaffected.

Obs. iii. The examples k, k, follow the same law as in [Art. 24. Obs. iv]. In 打算 the former word being merely an auxiliary particle, is short in time as if it were táng‘.

27. Examples of the upper third tone as the penultimate in a group of three.

Obs. i. The middle word is always carefully shortened in tone.

Obs. ii. When the last word is one of less significance than the others, it frequently loses the accent.

28. The upper fourth tone. This tone is a short syllable, high and bent upwards. It has k final after the vowels á, ó, o, u, after other vowels k is not heard.

Ex. 角 kok, horn; 刻 k’uk, quarter of an hour; 法 fah, method.

Examples in which it is the first of a group of two.

Words of the fourth tone naturally short, are here in a position unfavourable for the accent. Even the few cases of exception marked, do not take it exclusively on the penultimate.

29. Examples of the same tone in the antepenultimate.

The secondary accent is on the first syllable in these examples.

30. Examples of this tone standing last of two or three words.

In the first two examples, the penultimate being in the upper first tone, the last word may be heard to fall in key.

In those marked k, j, the first word is lengthened in pronunciation, and thus passes into the lower second tone.

[ [1] The character 十 is read zeh The sound seh as heard in conversation is irregular.

31. Examples of the upper fourth tone standing second in a group of three.

The secondary accent may often be distinctly heard on the first word in these examples.

32. A few examples of large groups are here appended.

For analysing such groups as these, all that would seem to be necessary, is to divide them into smaller combinations. Dissyllables and trisyllables may thus be formed, and linked together by the hyphen as above. They then fall under the same laws as preceding examples, and the accent of position will be usually on the last word.

When a number of particles are collected, as in k’ön‘-kú‘-h‘ih-kú-’tsé, they are heard like a word of five syllables with an accent in the first and last syllables. The English words acceptableness, peremptorily, necessarily, may be compared with examples of this kind; without the last two words, the accent would be on the first and third.

In the last example, the first accent is on 聽 t’ing, the second on 拉 lá, which being in a long tone, attracts it.

When there is a string of substantives together, as in enumerating the five colours, the five elements, the five constant virtues, etc. more time is allowed for the pronunciation of each. The hyphen has therefore been omitted in such cases.

33. Collecting these results, the following general remarks may be made on the upper tones.

I. The principal accent prefers the last syllable, but enclitic particles often reject it, while it is attracted most readily by the first and third tones.

The reverse of this is true at Ch’á-p’ú and Hái-ning to the South-west of Sháng-hái, where the penultimate takes the accent.

II. A secondary accent occurs in groups of three, which rests on the most significant word, or on the tones naturally requiring most stress of voice, the first and third.

III. An interchange takes places between the second and third tones, when either of them stands before a word which is the same in tone.

IV. The first tone becomes the lower first, i e. even, low and rising at the end, when standing last, if the word preceding takes the accent. After the third tone, upper and lower, it does not vary.

V. The first tone is lengthened in time in the penultimate, when the stress of the voice is on the last word, and the third, when in that position, shortened.

VI. The upper tones tend to fall in key, where they come after the first tone, and when they do so, always preserve their initial consonants. After any other tone, they usually keep their proper elevation.

34. In entering on the lower tones we meet with new consonants, G, D, B, NG, N, M, L, R. The exceptions will be found noticed in [Art. 56].

Lower first tone. This is a long low tone deflected upwards at the end. East of the Hwáng-p’ú river and in the city of Sháng-hái, this tone is as here described. But to the westward of that river, the quick low circumflex very soon takes its place, and is met with to the immediate neighbourhood of Sú-cheú and Háng-cheú. It appears to consist of a quick rising and quick falling tone pronounced rapidly together.

Ex. 篷 póng, sail; 龍 lóng, dragon; 門 mun, door.

35. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of a combination of two.

Obs. i. The accent is predominantly on the penultimate word, and the lower first tone is thus seen to be one of those, that attracts to itself the stress of the voice. In this combination the penultimate is always carefully enunciated in a low key.

Obs. ii. Where we have written t, k, p, the corresponding soft consonants d, g, b, if the ear only were consulted, might sometime be employed; but an orthography ought to be consistent, and it appears to us that the best imitation on the whole of the native sounds, will be secured by writing the latter symbols in the last word of a combination, and the former in the penultimate. The only case it is believed, where this method does not fully represent the true pronunciation, is in such words as 窮, 强, kióng, kiáng, and others whose initial is in mandarin k’ and which are in the lower first tone. There could be no objection to the use of g in those cases, except the want of uniformity among the mute consonants; keeping the letter k, it will be enough to inform the reader, that there is a peculiar thickness of sound, and a consonant difficult to write with any of our alphabetic symbols.

36. Examples of the lower first tone, as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

Obs. The first word in this table, as in the preceding, needs to be studiously kept low, even, and undeflected.

37. Examples of the lower first tone standing last in a group of two or three.

Obs. In the groups not marked p, p, and p, p, the last word changes to the upper quick falling tone. In the remaining instances it preserves its even character. The way is prepared for reciprocal changes between the upper and lower series, by the initial consonants being different. The alphabetical distinction prevents the confusion, that would arise from this intermingling of sounds.

38. Examples of the lower first tone, as the penultimate of three.

Obs. After the deep deflected tone preceding it in s, p, p, the penultimate in these examples is usually raised to the upper falling tone.

39. Lower second tone. This tone properly a low protracted tone rising at its close, contains in it a number of words whose pronunciation is not fixed. These words, sometimes counted in this tone, and at other times in the next in order, are in other parts of China in the third tone. It will be better to consider them under the heading to which they belong in other dialects, and present here such examples as are free from this uncertainty in tone.

Ex. 有 yeu, have; 五 ng, five; 里 lí, Chinese mile.

40. Examples of the lower second tone in the penultimate of two words.

Obs. i. The tone under illustration, keeps its natural character throughout. No initial letters occur but l, m, ng, n, r, and the vowels. Words beginning with mutes and sibilants that were originally in this tone, are in course of transition to the lower third tone. V from w in mandarin, remains in the second tone.

Obs. ii. The low deflected tone in the penultimate of s.p. and s.s. so affects the last words, that they are heard in the quick falling tone.

Obs. iii. This tone is difficult to describe as distinct from the preceding, from the fact that both tend upwards; the former deviates slightly, after beginning even; the latter begins low and ascends through its whole time. The first is in its general character even, but when compared with the pure monotone in the Amoy dialect, to which it is most nearly allied, there is a difference perceptible that needs to be specified. It is heard we believe with this peculiarity when pronounced alone, and when standing last in a binary combination, if it does not then change to the upper first tone. When first in order, it is even. It was before observed, that the first upper tone, when last in order, changes to the first lower. In the sound then heard, when enunciated with the true native drawl, the same may be noticed.

Obs. iv. There is nothing even in the second tone when alone, except when enunciated in a high key. When last in order it often rises to the upper second tone, and is then heard even.

For ready comparison of the sounds, a few examples of words in the lower tones are here appended:—

The last two words here marked as in the second tone will be shewn immediately to be so for this district.

41. Examples of the same tone as the antepenultimate in a group of three.

42. Examples of this tone as the last in a group of two or three words.

Obs. In 情理 and 盡禮 where a difference of accent might have been expected, the distinction is kept in the native pronunciation, entirely by means of the tones. In many of these cases, the last word rises and becomes even, i.e. passes into the upper second tone. Thus, 眼 ngan and 理 lí, become high and even.

43. Examples of the same tone, as the penultimate in a group of three.

44. Before proceeding to those words whose tone is undecided, it may be first observed, that in the Tonic Dictionaries,[1] there is a large class of characters ranged under the second tone, not found there, either in the dialects of the Southern provinces, or in the Northern mandarin as registered by Prémare. These words have for their initials, only the sibilant and mute consonants z, dz, zh, b, d, g, with the vowels, and v from f. In the modern pronunciation of Háng-cheú and Sú-cheú, they are also found as in other parts of the empire in the third tone. It follows that they must have made the transition, since the Dictionary system was completed. The earliest works containing it, quoted in K’áng-hí, are said in the preface to have been written in the Liáng and Táng dynasties,[2] and must consequently be regarded as the tradition of at least a thousand years. While this change has taken place in the sound of a large class of very common words, through the greater part of China, it is curious to notice, that the older pronunciation still lingers in the colloquial practice of one part at least of central China.

Even if the inventors of the syllabic spelling confined themselves in the first instance to the usage of the Kiáng provinces, whik north and south of them a different pronunciation prevailed, still this change has taken place in the large cities of Cheh-kiáng and Kiáng-nán, which are now one with their neighbours. In our own dialect it has not yet been completed. After a sufficient time perhaps, this anomaly will have its term, and the boundaries of the tones be as sharply defined, as according to the laws of Chinese pronunciation they ought to be. There are moreover other illustrations that may be drawn from the Dictionaries, of secular changes (to adopt the phraseology employed in sciences of higher mark) occurring in the tones of China.

[ [1] The names of some of the most commonly used are 詩韻集成, 詩韻含英.

[ [2] 自說文以後, 字書善者, 於粱則玉篇, 於唐則廣韻. “From the Shwóh-wun downward, the best Dictionaries, were Yúh-p’ien in the Liáng, and Kwáng Yün in the Táng dynasties,” etc. Liáng A.D. 502 to 560, T’áng 617 to 917.

45. Lower third tone. The words that were primarily in this tone, are always heard with the quick rising pronunciation that properly belongs to it. It is like “the tone given to some words, when spoken ironically, or to the word ‘indeed!’ when used as an exclamation.” (Medhurst’s Hok-kien Dictionary.)

The words referred to in the last article, are placed here rather than in the second tone, because the other dialects are unanimous in doing so. In fact, however, they are in Sháng-hái usage more in the last tone than in this. The following words for example, when pronounced alone, have the long sound.

⁂ In the department of 嘉興 Ka-hiung, occupying the space between those of Háng-cheú and Súng-kiáng, these words are never in the third tone.

Any of these words that occasionally become verbs in the books, being commonly in other parts of speech, are in that case always marked as belonging to the third tone in good editions of native works. E.e. 上꜄ 下꜄ 善꜄ 弟꜄ 後꜄ when they become verbs, change from the second to the third tone and are so marked. All the authorities are uniform in these matters; and the Dictionaries specify the tones by name, assigning the primary sense to the second tone, and the secondary sense, in all these cases a verb, to the third tone.

46. These words though when standing isolated, they keep the old dictionary tone, are liable to such frequent changes in combination, that teachers who have not studied the subject, are at a loss to affix their true tone. In the following examples, these variations will be indicated as they occur, by the apostrophe on the left, and inverted comma on the right, for the second and third tones respectively.

Obs. It will be seen that among these examples, there are nearly as many of the quick or third tone, as of the longer one. Taking the usage all in all, the balance in cases of grouping is however, in favour of the quicker form. When alone the original tone is used almost exclusively. In reading there is about the same amount of variation as in colloquial usage. The quicker tone usually, but not exclusively, prefers to stand last, leaving the penultimate of a combination to the longer tone.

47. In regard to the words that have always been in the lower third tone, there is as much regularity of pronunciation as in any other tone.

Ex. 病 ping, disease; 話 wó, words, to speak; 大 tú, great.

The following are examples where this tone occurs in the penultimate of a group of two.

48. Examples of this tone in the antepenultimate of three.

Obs. In the fourth example 子 being an enclitic, throws back the accent on the penultimate. In the last, the accent is on the first word for a similar reason.

49. Examples of the lower third tone standing last in a group of two or three.

In the first example, long is always in the third tone. With 街上 ká long or 山上 san long, compare the English convict, wisdom, darkness. If the last words however, were not a mere enclitic, the comparison of pronunciation would fail, the accent being on the ultimate.

50. Examples of the same tone in the penultimate of a group of three.

Obs. When an enclitic stands last, as in the 3rd, 5th, and 7th examples, the lower third tone preceding it takes the accent.

51. Lower fourth tone. While this may be described as the lower short rising tone, and represented as short in quantity, it should be observed, that two long vowels, and several diphthongs are also admitted to it. The same is true of the short tone in the upper scale. These vowels and diphthongs are á, ó, (vide art. 6,), and iák, iah, iók, iöh, iuk, wák, wah, weh, wok.

Ex. 賊 zuk, thief; 挾 káh, to press; 掘 kiöh, to dig.

52. Examples of this tone when standing last of two words.

Obs. The long tones preserve their character before the short tone with great accuracy.

53. Examples of this tone in the penultimate of two words.

Obs. The terminating consonants of the fourth tone, in some dialects are three, k, t, p, corresponding to the final ng, n, m, of words in the other tones. Only the first of these is audible in Shánghái pronunciation. It occurs after á, ó, o, u. It is heard k before consonants of the upper series, particularly s, t; and g before those of the lower series, particularly z, d. Both will be found exemplified in these two tables.

54. Examples of combinations of three.

Obs. The first of these may be compared to a trissyllable with an accent on the penultimate, as “convicted,” i.e. if 生 sáng be pronounced high. The syllables adjacent to the accent in English are so contracted in time as to sound more like words in short tones or enclitics, than in long tones. Should 生 fall to the lower first tone as it often does, the similarity would not hold.

55. Examples of larger groups in the lower tones.

• 男男女女 nén-nén ’nü-’nü, men and women
• 明明白白 ming-ming báh-báh, perfectly clear.
• 綾羅緞疋 ling-lú dön‘ p’ih, silks and satins.
• 風調雨順 fóng diau ’ü zun‘, wind and rain favourable.
• 日月星辰 zeh, yöh, sing, dzun, sun, moon, and stars.
• 仁義禮智 zun ní‘ ’lí tsz‘ sing‘, five cardinal virtues.
• 天地萬物 t’íen-dí‘ van‘-veh, heaven and earth and all things.
• 書裡有黃金 sû-’lí yeu-wong-kiun, there is gold in books.
• 家常白話 ká-dzáng páh-wó‘, household words
• 一眼大一眼 ih-’ngan-dú ih-’ngan, increase little by little.
• 謀衣謀食 meu-í meu-zuh, seek food and clothing.

56. General remarks on the lower tones.

I. The initial consonant is a test for any word being in the upper or lower series. Thus, all the broad mutes and sibilants, the weak aspirate, with the liquids and nasals are in the lower tones. The other consonants with the strong aspirate are in the upper series. The following in the higher tones are exceptions.

Ex. 端, 短, 斷, 對, 答, 鬥, 躭, dön, ’dön, dön‘, dé‘, deh, deu‘, dén. 拉, 咯, lá, lóh. Yet 對 is heard té‘ in té‘ deu, adversary. This is caused by the accent falling on 頭 deu.

This furnishes the principle of the orthography adopted in the present work. The initial letter being an index to the tone, it is needless to employ distinct tonal marks for the upper and lower series. In the same way, the Fan t‘sieh or native syllabic spelling marks the series by the first word, and the particular tone by the sound. Thus 夫 fú is spelt with 方徒 fang dú. The initial F of the first word combined with the U final of the second, gives the sound fu in the first tone. We add an example or two from K’áng-hí:—

• 正 is spelt with 章並 cháng ping‘, giving ching‘.
• 學 is spelt with 行酌 hing chóh, giving hióh.

The first word tells us, whether the sound required is high or low, and the second to which of the four tones it belongs. The pronunciation of the words borrowed for this purpose is supposed known.

II. The orthography is in many instances not fixed. Words sometimes heard g, d, b, are at other times heard k, t, p. The sounds g, d, b, occur after a word in combination; while k, t, p occur when no word precedes. To indicate that they are always low in pitch, they are printed in italics. V, z, come partially under the same rule. The rest dz, dzz, are scarcely heard in the thin form at all, and are therefore spelt with d in this work. Another peculiarity is that z and dz are interchangeable. Z is more common in conversation; dz in reading.

III. There are many words having sibilants or mutes, or the weak aspirate for their initial consonants, of which the tone is uncertain, being sometimes in the second, and at other times in the third. The liquids and vowels have not this peculiarity, and it only belongs to words that were originally in the second tone.

IV. The first tone, when last in a binary combination, rises to the upper first, except when preceded by the first tone, upper or lower. The initial consonant remains broad as in other cases.

V. The other tones also frequently rise to the upper series when standing last, each to its corresponding tone, and the initial consonant is unaffected.

VI. The laws of accent are the same as in the upper tones. The last word of a combination being usually accented, affords the best opportunity for the discrimination of the tones.

57. Relation of Tones to Music. It is only when they are even, that a musical notation can fully and correctly represent the tones. For deflection, so essential to the latter, is not allowed in music, being destructive of harmony. The short and quick tones may however be described as staccato notes, and the violin may be made in passing from one note to another, to produce a continuous sound, which has been adduced in “The Chinese as they are,” to illustrate the deflections. In regard to time, so minutely subdivided in music, there do not appear be more than two classes of tones, the quick and the slow. Kircher supposed that the five tones were the first five notes in an octave do, re, mi, fa, sol; but in reality, differences of elevation are usually not more than two for one dialect. The interval between the two series varies, it being greater for example, in some parts of the north of China, than in Kiáng-nán, where it is about half an octave.

58. Relation of Tones to Accents in other languages. So far as accent only means the distinction of loud and soft, there seems no analogy. For the Chinese tones may be pronounced as gently or sonorously as the speaker pleases, and loudness in this language also constitutes accent as distinct from tone. In the common accents of English conversation however, there is usually a difference in deflection, or as it is called by some writers, modulation. There is one tone (1) for assertion and determination, and another (2) for asking questions; and these differ not in time, or in loudness, but in the fact that they are deflected downwards and upwards respectively. Again, the tone of interrogation (2) is commonly quick, while that of sarcasm (3) is often slow. Those who read aloud, too often confine themselves almost exclusively to the monotone, a fourth variation (4). Now it is these very distinctions of deflection and time that form the essence of the Chinese tones, and they are in daily use in our own language, as aids in expressing the feelings, as marks of emphasis, and as a means of relieving the voice by interchange. All that a foreigner has to do then in imitating the Chinese tones is to apply forms of utterance, to which he is already accustomed, to those words in which the Chinese employ them, and to treat the tone thus individualized, whichever it may be, as a part of the word, to be learned contemporaneously with the vowels and consonants. With regard to the doubly deflected tones, and those that are less familiar to us, the ancient Greeks would have had an advantage we do not possess. Their circumflex was made up of two tones, the acute and grave combined. (Buttman Gr. Gram. Sect. 9.) Every syllable had a tone, and the tones were placed on either long or short vowels. There seem also to have been dialectic and secular varieties. These four facts are all suggestive of a similarity in their enunciation to that of China. Mr. Lay in the work alluded to above, has pointed out to what tones the Greek accents appeared to him to correspond. But our data are so scanty on the subject of classical pronunciation, that nothing certain can be said, when we attempt to detail their individual differences.

59. Examples are here annexed of words, which differing slightly, as in a tone or an aspirate, may be mistaken for each other if mispronounced.

• 鏡子 kiung‘ ’tsz, a mirror.
• 景致 ’kiung tsz‘, beautiful scenery.
• 浪頭 long‘ deu, waves.
• 榔頭 ’long deu, a hammer.
• 此地 ’t’sz dí‘, here.
• 次第 t’sz‘ dí‘, regularity.
• 進教 tsing‘ kiau‘, enter a religious order.
• 請教 ’t’sing kiau‘, please inform me.
• 第頭 tí‘ deu, here.
• 剃頭 t’í‘ deu, shave.
• 最多 tsûe‘ tú, very many.
• 最大 tsûe‘ dú‘, very great.
• 第八 tí‘ pah, the eighth.
• 提拔 tí bah, to save.
• 大細 tú‘ sí‘, young son.
• 圖死 tú ’sí, wish to die.
• 勿通 veh t’óng, without reason or proof.
• 勿懂 veh ’tóng, not to understand.
• 勿同 veh dóng, not the same.
• 勿動 veh ’dóng, not moving.

Note. For some words of constant occurrence, the following contractions will in future be used. c. or s.c. Shánghái, colloquial form. m. Northern mandarin pronunciation, r. or s.r. Shánghái reading sound.

Section 4. Alphabetical form of the Shánghái sounds.

i. Initials.

60. In grammatical works on other languages, more or less is said on orthography, or orthography according as the alphabetical symbols are controlled by more or fewer laws. The Chinese sounds are few, and regulated by laws which are easily laid down. A section therefore may properly be devoted to the romanized form of the sounds.

From the time that the Buddhist priests introduced the Sanscrit system, and the initials and finals, the Chinese have had an imperfect method of spelling words. The division of each sound into two parts, represented by two characters, the initial 毋 ’mú, and the final 韻 yün‘, constitutes the method.

The 字彙 zz‘ we‘, a Dictionary of the Ming dynasty, says 韻學自沈 約始, 而釋神琪, 繼以等韻, 列爲三十六毋, 分爲平仄四聲, yün‘ yáh, zz‘ sun‘ yah ’sz, rh suh zun kóng, kí ’í ’tung yün‘, lih wé san seh lóh ’mú’, fun wé ping tsuh sz‘ sung. “The doctrine of arranging sounds by their rhymes began with Shin-yoh, and the Buddhist priests Shin-k’ong continued it, forming the rhymes into classes, and the initials into thirty six divisions, and placing them all under the four tones.”

61. From the sixth century of our era, the system whose origin is thus recorded, has been preserved in the Dictionaries successively made, with apparently few variations. The thirty six initials referred to are contained in the following table:—