Textiles and Clothing

BY

KATE HEINTZ WATSON

GRADUATE ARMOUR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR IN DOMESTIC ART
LEWIS INSTITUTE
LECTURER UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
1907

COPYRIGHT 1906, 1907, BY
HOME ECONOMICS ASSOCIATION

THE LIBRARY

OF

HOME ECONOMICS

A COMPLETE HOME-STUDY COURSE

ON THE NEW PROFESSION OF HOME-MAKING AND ART OF RIGHT LIVING;
THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE MOST RECENT ADVANCES
IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES TO HOME AND HEALTH

PREPARED BY TEACHERS OF
RECOGNIZED AUTHORITY

FOR HOME-MAKERS, MOTHERS, TEACHERS, PHYSICIANS, NURSES, DIETITIANS,
PROFESSIONAL HOUSE MANAGERS, AND ALL INTERESTED
IN HOME, HEALTH, ECONOMY AND CHILDREN

TWELVE VOLUMES

NEARLY THREE THOUSAND PAGES, ONE THOUSAND ILLUSTRATIONS
TESTED BY USE IN CORRESPONDENCE INSTRUCTION
REVISED AND SUPPLEMENTED

CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS
1907

Copyright, 1907
by
Home Economics Association

AUTHORS

ISABEL BEVIER, Ph. M.

Professor of Household Science, University of Illinois. Author U. S. Government Bulletins, "Development of The Home Economics Movement in America," etc.

ALICE PELOUBET NORTON, M. A.

Assistant Professor of Home Economics, School of Eduction, University of Chicago; Director of the Chautauqua School of Domestic Science.

S. MARIA ELLIOTT

Instructor in Home Economics, Simmons College; Formerly Instructor School of Housekeeping, Boston.

ANNA BARROWS

Director Chautauqua School of Cookery; Lecturer Teachers' College, Columbia University, and Simmons College; formerly Editor "American Kitchen Magazine;" Author "Home Science Cook Book."

ALFRED CLEVELAND COTTON, A. M., M. D.

Professor Diseases of Children, Rush Medical College, University of Chicago; Visiting Physician Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago; Author of "Diseases of Children."

BERTHA M. TERRILL, A. B.

Professor in Home Economics in Hartford School of Pedagogy; Author of U. S. Government Bulletins.

KATE HEINTZ WATSON

Formerly Instructor in Domestic Economy, Lewis Institute; Lecturer University of Chicago.

MARION FOSTER WASHBURNE

Editor "The Mothers' Magazine;" Lecturer Chicago Froebel Association; Author "Everyday Essays," "Family Secrets," etc.

MARGARET E. DODD

Graduate Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Teacher of Science, Woodard Institute.

AMY ELIZABETH POPE

With the Panama Canal Commission; Formerly Instructor in Practical and Theoretical Nursing, Training School for Nurses, Presbyterian Hospital, New York City.

MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.

Director American School of Home Economics; Member American Public Health Association and American Chemical Society.

CONTRIBUTORS AND EDITORS

ELLEN H. RICHARDS

Author "Cost of Food," "Cost of Living," "Cost of Shelter," "Food Materials and Their Adulteration," etc., etc.; Chairman Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics.

MARY HINMAN ABEL

Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking," "Sale Food," etc.

THOMAS D. WOOD, M. D.

Professor of Physical Education, Columbia University.

H. M. LUFKIN, M. D.

Professor of Physical Diagnosis and Clinical Medicine, University of Minnesota.

OTTO FOLIN, Ph. D.

Special Investigator, McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass.

T. MITCHELL PRUDDEN, M. D., LL. D.

Author "Dust and Its Dangers," "The Story of the Bacteria," "Drinking Water and Ice Supplies," etc.

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

Architect, Boston, Mass.; Author of "The Five Orders of Architecture," "Letters and Lettering."

MRS. MELVIL DEWEY

Secretar Lake Placid Conference on Home Economics.

HELEN LOUISE JOHNSON

Professor of Home Economics, James Millikan University, Decatur.

FRANK W. ALLIN, M. D.

Instructor Rush Medical College, University of Chicago.

MANAGING EDITOR

MAURICE LE BOSQUET, S. B.

Director American School of Home Economics.

BOARD OF TRUSTEES

OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF HOME ECONOMICS

MRS. ARTHUR COURTENAY NEVILLE

President of the Board.

MISS MARIA PARLOA

Founder of the first Cooking School in Boston; Author of "Home Economics," "Young Housekeeper," U. S. Government Bulletins, etc.

MRS. MARY HINMAN ABEL

Co-worker in the "New England Kitchen," and the "Rumford Food Laboratory;" Author of U. S. Government Bulletins, "Practical Sanitary and Economic Cooking," etc.

MISS ALICE RAVENHILL

Special Commissioner sent by the British Government to report on the Schools of Home Economics in the United States; Fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute, London.

MRS. ELLEN M. HENROTIN

Honorary President General Federation of Woman's Clubs.

MRS. FREDERIC W. SCHOFF

President National Congress of Mothers.

MRS. LINDA HULL LARNED

Past President National Household Economics Association; Author of "Hostess of To-day."

MRS. WALTER McNAB MILLER

Chairman of the Pure Food Committee of the General Federation of Woman's Clubs.

MRS. J. A. KIMBERLY

Vice President of National Household Economics Association.

MRS. JOHN HOODLESS

Government Superintendent of Domestic Science for the province of Ontario; Founder Ontario Normal School of Domestic Science, now the MacDonald Institute.

DRESS MAKING IN MEXICO

CONTENTS

"THE THREAD OF LIFE"

Spinning with the Distaff and Spindle. From a Painting.

TEXTILES AND CLOTHING

Origin of Textile Arts

Spinning and weaving are among the earliest arts. In the twisting of fibers, hairs, grasses, and sinews by rolling them between the thumb and fingers, palms of the hands, or palms and naked thigh, we have the original of the spinning wheel and the steam-driven cotton spindle; in the roughest plaiting we have the first hint of the finest woven cloth. The need of securing things or otherwise strengthening them then led to binding, fastening, and sewing. The wattle-work hut with its roof of interlaced boughs, the skins sewn by fine needles with entrails or sinews, the matted twigs, grasses, and rushes are all the crude beginnings of an art which tells of the settled life of to-day.

Primitive Methods

Nothing is definitely known of the origin of these arts; all is conjecture. They doubtless had their beginning long before mention is made of them in history, but these crafts—spinning and weaving—modified and complicated by inventions and, in modern times transferred largely from man to machine, were distinctively woman's employment.

The very primitive type of spinning, where no spindle was used, was to fasten the strands of goats' hair or wool to a stone which was twirled round until the yarn was sufficiently twisted when it was wound upon the stone and the process repeated over and over.

ITALIAN WOMAN SPINNING FLAX

Spindle and Distaff.
From Hull House Museum. (In This Series of Pictures the Spinners and Weavers Are in Native Costume.)

RUSSIAN SPINNING

Flax Held on Frame, Leaving Both Hands Free to Manage the Thread and Spindle.
From Hull House Museum.

Spinning with the Spindle

The next method of twisting yarn was with the spindle, a straight stick eight to twelve inches long on which the thread was wound after twisting. At first it had a cleft or split in the top in which the thread was fixed; later a hook of bone was added to the upper end. The spindle is yet used by the North American Indians, the Italians, and in the Orient. The bunch of wool or flax fibers is held in the left hand; with the right hand the fibers are drawn out several inches and the end fastened securely in the slit or hook on the top of the spindle. A whirling motion is given to the spindle on the thigh or any convenient part of the body; the spindle is then dropped, twisting the yarn, which is wound on the upper part of the spindle. Another bunch of fibers is drawn out, the spindle is given another twirl, the yarn is wound on the spindle, and so on.

Spindle Whorl

A spindle containing a quantity of yarn was found to rotate more easily, steadily and continue longer than an empty one, hence the next improvement was the addition of a whorl at the bottom of the spindle. These whorls are discs of wood, stone, clay, or metal which keep the spindle steady and promote its rotation. The process in effect is precisely the same as the spinning done by our grandmothers, only the spinning wheel did the twisting and reduced the time required for the operation.

SPINNING WITH CRUDE WHEEL AND DISTAFF

Distaff Thrust Into the Belt.

"GOSSIP" IN THE OLDEN TIMES

COLONIAL WOOL WHEEL

The Large Wheel Revolved by Hand Thus Turning the Spindle and Twisting the Yarn, Which Is Then Wound on the Spindle; Intermittent in Action.

COLONIAL FLAX WHEEL

Worked by a Foot Treddle; Distaff on the Frame of the Wheel; "Fliers" on the Spindle, Continuous in Action; Capacity Seven Times That of Hand Spindle.

DUTCH WHEEL

Spinner Sits in Front of the Wheel—Spinning Flax at Hull House.

Distaff

Later the distaff was used for holding the bunch of wool, flax, or other fibers. It was a short stick on one end of which was loosely wound the raw material. The other end of the distaff was held in the hand, under the arm or thrust in the girdle of the spinner. When held thus, one hand was left free for drawing out the fibers.

Graphic Diagram Showing Time During which Different Methods of Spinning Has Been Used.

Wheel Spinning

On the small spinning wheel the distaff was placed in the end of the wheel bench in front of the "fillers"; this left both hands free to manage the spindle and to draw out the threads of the fibers.

SYRIAN SPINNING

Spinner Sits on the Floor, Wheel Turned by a Crank; Spindle Held in Place by Two Mutton Joints Which Contain Enough Oil for Lubrication. At Hull House.

The flax spinning wheel, worked by means of a treadle, was invented in the early part of the sixteenth century and was a great improvement upon the distaff and spindle. This it will be seen was a comparatively modern invention. The rude wheel used by the natives of Japan and India may have been the progenitor of the European wheel, as about this time intercourse between the East and Europe increased. These wheels were used for spinning flax, wool, and afterwards cotton, until Hargreaves' invention superseded it.

WEAVING

PUEBLO WOMAN WORKING HEDDLE IN WEAVING A BELT

Someone has said that "weaving is the climax of textile industry." It is an art practiced by all savage tribes and doubtless was known before the dawn of history. The art is but a development of mat-making and basketry, using threads formed or made by spinning in place of coarser filaments.

A NAVAJO BELT WEAVER

ZUNI WOMAN WEAVING CEREMONIAL BELT

The Heddle

In the beginning of the art the warp threads were stretched between convenient objects on the ground or from horizontal supports. At first the woof or filling threads were woven back and forth between the warp threads as in darning. An improvement was the device called the "heald" or "heddle," by means of which alternate warp threads could be drawn away from the others, making an opening through which the filling thread could be passed quickly. One form of the heddle was simply a straight stick having loops of cord or sinew through which certain of the warp threads were run. Another form was a slotted frame having openings or "eyes" in the slats. This was carved from one piece of wood or other material or made from many. Alternate warp threads passed through the eyes and the slots. By raising or lowering the heddle frame, an opening was formed through which the filling thread, wound on a rude shuttle, was thrown. The next movement of the heddle frame crossed the threads over the filling and made a new opening for the return of the shuttle. At first the filling thread was wound on a stick making a primitive bobbin. Later the shuttle to hold the bobbin was devised.

PRIMITIVE HEDDLES

NAVAJO LOOM

One on the Earliest Types of Looms. At Hull House.

SIMPLE COLONIAL LOOM

The Reed

Before the "reed" was invented, the filling threads were drawn evenly into place by means of a rude comb and driven home by sword-shaped piece of wood or "batten." The reed accomplished all this at one time.

A JAPANESE LOOM.

A FOUR HARNESS HAND LOOM

Weaving Linen in the Mountains of Virginia. (Photograph by C. R. Dodge).

TYPICAL COLONIAL HAND LOOM

Two Harnesses in Use; Weaving Wool at Hull House.

Definition of a Loom

It is probable that the European looms were derived from those of India as they seem to be made on the same principle. From crude beginnings, the hand loom of our grandmothers' time developed. A loom has been defined as a mechanism which affects the following necessary movements:

1. The lifting of the healds to form an opening, or shed, or race for the shuttle to pass through.

DIAGRAM OF A HAND LOOM

A—Warp Beam; B—Cloth Beam; DD—Lees Rods; H—Harness; T—Treddle.

2. The throwing of the weft or filling by means of a shuttle.

3. The beating up of the weft left in the shed by the shuttle to the cloth already formed. This thread may be adjusted by means of the batten, needle, comb, or any separate device like the reed.

4 & 5. The winding up or taking up of the cloth as it is woven and the letting off of the warp as the cloth is taken up.

SWEDISH HAND LOOM

Norwegian Woman Weaving Linen at Hull House.

DIAGRAM OF THE WORKING PARTS OF A LOOM.

S—Shuttle for carrying the woof; R—Reed for beating up the woof; H—Frame holding heddles, with pullies (P) making the harness; T—Treddles for moving the harness.

Colonial Loom

No essential changes have been made since our grandmothers made cloth a hundred years ago. The "harnesses" move part of the warp now up, now down, and the shuttle carries the weft from side to side to be driven home by the reeds to the woven cloth. Our grandmothers did all the work with swift movements of hands and feet. The modern weaver has her loom harnessed to the electric dynamo and moves her fingers only to keep the threads in order. If she wishes to weave a pattern in the cloth, no longer does she pick up threads of warp now here, now there, according to the designs. It is all worked out for her on the loom. Each thread with almost human intelligence settles automatically into its appointed place, and the weaver is only a machine tender.

FLY SHUTTLE HAND LOOM.

The Pulling of the Reed Automatically Throws the Shuttle Back and Forth and Works the Harness, Making a Shed at the Proper Time.

Primitive Fabrics

No textiles of primitive people were ever woven in "pieces" or "bolts" of yards and yards in length to be cut into garments. The cloth was made of the size and shape to serve the particular purpose for which it was designed. The mat, robe, or blanket had tribal outlines and proportions and was made according to the materials and the use of common forms that prevailed among the tribes. The designs were always conventional and sometimes monotonous. The decoration never interfered with its use. "The first beauty of the savage woman was uniformity which belonged to the texture and shape of the product." The uniformity in textile, basketry, or pottery, after acquiring a family trait, was never lost sight of. Their designs were suggested by the natural objects with which they were familiar.

FIBERS

PICKING COTTON.

From Department of Agriculture Bulletin, "The Cotton Plant."

Both the animal and vegetable kingdoms furnish the materials for clothing as well as for all the textiles used in the home. The fleece of sheep, the hair of the goat and camel, silk, furs, and skins are the chief animal products. The principal vegetable fibers are cotton, flax, ramie, jute, and hemp.

Chief Fibers

Cotton linen, wool, and silk have heretofore formed the foundation of all textiles and are the principal fibers used for clothing materials. Ramie or China grass and pineapple fibers are sometimes used as adulterants in the manufacture of silk. When woven alone, they give soft silky textiles of great strength and beauty.

COTTON

PRODUCTION OF COTTON

Cotton is now our chief vegetable fiber, the yearly crop being over six billion pounds, of which the United States raises three-fourths. Texas is the largest producer, followed by Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. The remainder of the world supply comes chiefly from India, Egypt, Russia, and Brazil. The Hindoos were the first ancient people to make extensive use of the cotton fiber. Not until the invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1794 did the cotton begin to reach its present importance. Only four or five pounds of the fiber could be separated by hand from the seed by a week's labor. The modern saw gins turn out over five thousand pounds daily.

Native Home

Cotton is the white downy covering of the seed of several special of cotton of cotton plant. It is a native of many parts of the world, being found by Columbus growing in the West Indies and on the main land, by Cortez in Mexico, and Pizarro in Peru.

COTTON FIBER ATTACHED TO SEED

Sea Island Cotton

The value of cotton depends upon the strength, and evenness of the fiber. In ordinary cotton the individual fiber is about an inch in length. The sea island cotton grown chiefly on the islands off the coast of Georgia, Carolina, and Florida is the most valuable variety, having a fine fiber, one and one-half to two inches in length. Some of the Egyptian cotton belongs to this species. Sea island cotton is used chiefly for fine laces, thread and knit goods and for the finest lawns and muslins.

Upland Cotton

The short fiber or upland cotton is the most common and useful variety. It is grown in Georgia, North and South Carolina and Alabama. Texas cotton is similar to upland, but sometimes is harsh with shorter fiber. Gulf cotton occupies a position between upland and sea island cotton.

UPLAND COTTON PLANT WITH FULLY DEVELOPED BOLES

From Bulletin No. 31, Georgia Experiment Station.

COTTON BOLE FULLY DEVELOPED

From Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, 1903.

BOLE OPENED, COTTON READY FOR PICKING

Year Book of 1903.

The Brazilian and Peruvian cotton yields a long staple and is sometimes used to adulterate silk and other fibers. Some varieties of this cotton are harsh and wooly and are prized for use in mixing with wool.

Nankin Cotton

The Nankin cotton grown in China and India and in the southwestern part of Louisiana is characterized by its yellow color. It is used in weaving cloth of various kinds in the "fireside industries" which have become popular in the United States and England.

COTTON FIBERS

A A—Unripe Fibers; B B—Half-ripe Fibers; C C—Ripe Fibers.

Spinning Qualities

Very fine yarn can be spun from cotton because of the spiral character of the fibers. This twist of the fibers is peculiar to cotton, being present in no other animal or vegetable fiber. On account of this twist, cotton cloths are much more elastic in character than those woven from linen, the fibers of which are stiff and straight.

After the removal of the seed, no other fiber is so free from impurities—5 per cent is the loss sustained by cleaning and bleaching. In its natural condition, cotton will not dye readily because of a waxy substance on the surface of the fibers. This must be removed by washing.

Picking and Ginning

Cotton should be picked only when it is fully ripe when the pods are fully burst and the fibers expanded. The unripe fiber is glassy, does not attain its full strength and resists the dye. After picking, the cotton is sent to the ginning factory to have the seed removed. It is then pressed into bales by hydraulic presses, five hundred pounds being the standard bale in the United States.

COTTON BALES

Physical Characteristics

Purified bleached cotton is nearly pure cellulose. It resists the action of alkalis well, but is harmed by hot, strong acids, or if acid is allowed to dry on the fabric. It is not harmed by high temperature, and so may be ironed with a hot iron.