BOTANY FOR LADIES;

OR,

A POPULAR INTRODUCTION

TO THE

ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF DE CANDOLLE.

BY

MRS. LOUDON,

Author of “Instructions in Gardening for Ladies,” “Year-Book of Natural History,” &c. &c.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

MDCCCXLII.

LONDON:
BRADBURY AND EVANS, PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS

PREFACE.

When I was a child, I never could learn Botany. There was something in the Linnean system (the only one then taught) excessively repugnant to me; I never could remember the different classes and orders, and after several attempts the study was given up as one too difficult for me to master. When I married, however, I soon found the necessity of knowing something of Botany, as well as of Gardening. I always accompanied my husband in his visits to different gardens; and when we saw beautiful flowers, I was continually asking the names, though alas! these names, when I heard them, conveyed no ideas to my mind, and I was not any wiser than before. Still the natural wish to know something of what we admire, impelled me to repeat my fruitless questions; till at last, vexed at my ignorance, and ashamed of not being able to answer the appeals which gardeners often made to me in doubtful cases, (supposing that Mr. Loudon’s wife must know everything about plants,) I determined to learn Botany if possible; and as my old repugnance remained to the Linnean system, I resolved to study the Natural one. Accordingly I began; but when I heard that plants were divided into the two great classes, the Vasculares and the Cellulares, and again into the Dicotyledons or Exogens, the Monocotyledons or Endogens, and the Acotyledons or Acrogens, and that the Dicotyledons were re-divided into the Dichlamydeæ and Monochlamydeæ, and again into three sub-classes, Thalamifloræ, Calycifloræ, and Corollifloræ, I was in despair, for I thought it quite impossible that I ever could remember all the hard names that seemed to stand on the very threshold of the science, as if to forbid the entrance of any but the initiated.

Some time afterwards, as I was walking through the gardens of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, my attention was attracted by a mass of the beautiful crimson flowers of Malope grandiflora. I had never seen the plant before, and I eagerly asked the name. “It is some Malvaceous plant,” answered Mr. Loudon, carelessly; and immediately afterwards he left me to look at some trees which he was about to have drawn for his Arboretum Britannicum. “Some Malvaceous plant,” thought I, as I continued looking at the splendid bed before me; and then I remembered how much the form of these beautiful flowers resembled that of the flowers of the crimson Mallow, the botanical name of which I recollected was Malva. “I wish I could find out some other Malvaceous plant,” I thought to myself; and when we soon afterwards walked through the hothouses, I continued to ask if the Chinese Hibiscus, which I saw in flower there, did not belong to Malvaceæ. I was answered in the affirmative; and I was so pleased with my newly-acquired knowledge, that I was not satisfied till I had discovered every Malvaceous plant that was in flower in the garden. I next learned to know the Cruciferous and Umbelliferous plants; and thus I acquired a general knowledge of three extensive orders with very little trouble to myself. My attention was more fairly aroused, and by learning one order after another, I soon attained a sufficient knowledge of Botany to answer all the purposes for which I wished to learn it, without recurring to the hard words which had so much alarmed me at the outset. One great obstacle to my advancement was the difficulty I had in understanding botanical works. With the exception of Dr. Lindley’s Ladies’ Botany, they were all sealed books to me; and even that did not tell half I wanted to know, though it contained a great deal I could not understand. It is so difficult for men whose knowledge has grown with their growth, and strengthened with their strength, to imagine the state of profound ignorance in which a beginner is, that even their elementary books are like the old Eton Grammar when it was written in Latin—they require a master to explain them. It is the want that I have felt that has induced me to write the following pages; in which I have endeavoured to meet the wants of those who may be now in the same difficulties that I was in myself.

The course I pursued is also that which I shall point out to my readers. I shall first endeavour to explain to them as clearly as I can the botanical characteristics of the orders which contain plants commonly grown in British gardens; and at the end of my work I shall lay before them a slight outline of all the orders scientifically arranged, which they may study or not as they like. Most ladies will, however, probably be satisfied with knowing the orders containing popular plants; and these, I am confident, they will never repent having studied. Indeed, I do not think that I could form a kinder wish for them, than to hope that they may find as much pleasure in the pursuit as I have derived from it myself. Whenever I go into any country I have formerly visited, I feel as though I were endowed with a new sense. Even the very banks by the sides of the roads, which I before thought dull and uninteresting, now appear fraught with beauty. A new charm seems thrown over the face of nature, and a degree of interest is given to even the commonest weeds. I have often heard that knowledge is power, and I am quite sure that it contributes greatly to enjoyment. A man knowing nothing of natural history, and of course not caring for anything relating to it, may travel from one extremity of a country to the other, without finding anything to interest, or even amuse him; but the man of science, and particularly the Botanist, cannot walk a dozen yards along a beaten turnpike-road without finding something to excite his attention. A wild plant in a hedge, a tuft of moss on a wall, and even the Lichens which discolour the stones, all present objects of interest, and of admiration for that Almighty Power whose care has provided the flower to shelter the infant germ, and has laid up a stock of nourishment in the seed to supply the first wants of the tender plant. It has been often said that the study of nature has a tendency to elevate and ameliorate the mind; and there is perhaps no branch of Natural History which more fully illustrates the truth of this remark than Botany.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

PART II.

MODERN BOTANY FOR LADIES.

PART I.

INTRODUCTION.

The following pages are intended to enable my readers to acquire a knowledge of Botany with as little trouble to themselves as possible.

As, however, Botany is a “wide word,” I must here premise that I only propose to treat of that part of the science which relates to the classification of plants, according to the natural system of Jussieu, as improved by the late Professor De Candolle; and that the grand object I have in view is to enable my readers to find out the name of a plant when they see it for the first time; or, if they hear or read the name of a plant, to make that name intelligible to them. Nothing is more natural than to ask the name of every pretty flower we see; but unless the inquirer knows something of botany, the name, if it be a scientific one, will seem only a collection of barbarous sounds, and will convey no ideas to the mind. Half the interest of new greenhouse plants is thus destroyed, as few of them have English names, and strangers will soon cease to make any inquiries respecting them when they find they can obtain no answers that they can understand. Now, a very slight knowledge of botany will take away this mortifying feeling; and the name of a new plant, and the ascertaining the order to which it belongs, will recall a variety of recollections that will open up a new source of interest and enjoyment even in such interesting and enjoyable things as flowers—for we never can enjoy thoroughly anything that we do not understand.

It now only remains for me to say why I have divided my work into two parts. My reason is my belief that a student will always remember more easily a few strongly marked divisions than a number of smaller ones, the differences between which are only faintly perceptible. In a more advanced state of knowledge, it is delightful to trace the minute shades of difference by which the numerous orders are united, so as to form one great whole; but these gentle gradations confuse a beginner. On this account I have thought it best to devote the first part of my work to a few of the more important orders, which differ most widely from each other, and which I have described at a greater length than my space will allow me to bestow upon the whole; and in the second part of my work, I shall give a short account of the whole natural system, introducing the orders described in the first part, in their proper places, so that my readers may see how they are connected with the others.

MISCELLANEOUS ORDERS.

PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS.

In this first part I shall endeavour to familiarise my readers with botanical details, as all the orders I shall describe contain a great number of genera; and to begin at the beginning, I must first tell them what is here meant by an order, and what by a genus of plants. A genus then may be compared to a family of children, all the plants in it being known by one common or generic name, in addition to their particular or specific one. Thus, if Rosa alba be spoken of, Rosa is the generic name which is common to all roses, but alba is the specific name which is only applied to the white rose.

An order includes many genera, and bears the same affinity to a nation as a genus does to a family. In many cases the resemblance which the plants in each order bear to each other is sufficiently strong to enable the student to recognise them at first sight; in the same manner as you may generally know a Frenchman or a German from an Englishman, even before you hear him speak. But unfortunately this general outward resemblance does not always exist, and it is necessary for the student to become acquainted with the general construction of flowers before the points of resemblance which have occasioned certain genera to be linked together to form orders, can be understood.

It is thus evident that the first step towards a knowledge of systematic botany is to study flowers thoroughly, and few objects of study can be more interesting, whether we regard the elegance of their forms or the beauty and brilliancy of their colours. My readers may perhaps, however, be as much surprised as I was, to learn that the beautifully coloured parts of flowers are the least important; and that, as they only serve as a covering to the stamens and pistil, which are designed for the production of seed, they may be, and indeed actually are, wanting in a great many of what are considered perfect flowers. In examining a flower, therefore, it must be remembered that the production of seed is the object, for which all the curi ous contrivances we discover are designed. The germen or ovary (a in fig. 1) is protected by a thick fleshy substance (b), called the receptacle or disk, which serves as a bed or foundation on which the other parts of the flower rest, and which is thence frequently called a thalamus or torus, both words signifying a bed. The ovary

Fig. 1.—Stamen and Pistil. itself is hollow, and it is sometimes divided into several cells, each inclosing a number of ovules, which are afterwards to become seeds; but sometimes there is only one cell, and sometimes only one seed in each cell. The ovary is juicy and succulent when young, and very different from what it afterwards becomes when the seeds are ripe. Rising from the ovary in most flowers, is a long and slender stalk called the style (c), which supports a kind of head, called the stigma (d). The ovary, the style, and the stigma, constitute what is called the pistil; but the style is not so essential as the other parts, and indeed it is wanting in many flowers. Sometimes there are many styles, each with a stigma at its summit, forming the pistil; and when this is the case, the ovary will have as many cells as there are stigmas, or each stigma will have a separate ovary to itself. There are generally several stamens in a flower, each perfect stamen consisting of three parts,—the Filament, the Anther, and the Pollen. The filament (e) is, however, often wanting, and it is only the anther (f), and the powder called the pollen which it contains, that are essential. The anther, when the flower first expands, appears like a little oblong case with a deep groove down the centre, or rather like two oblong cases stuck together. When these cases become ripe, they burst and let out the pollen which was inclosed within them. The pollen is generally very abundant, and it is often seen in the form of yellow dust descending from the catkins of the cedar of Lebanon, or the Scotch fir, or of orange powder, as on the stamens of the orange lily, when it sticks to everything it touches. About the time of the bursting of the anthers, the stigma becomes covered with a glutinous moisture, which absorbs the pollen that falls upon it. The pollen, when absorbed by the stigma, is conveyed down the style to the ovary, where it falls upon and fertilises the ovules or incipient seeds. Nothing can be more beautiful or more ingenious than the mechanism by which this process is effected. It is necessary that the grains of pollen should be separated before they reach the ovary, and they are so in their passage down the style in a manner more fine and delicate than could be done by any exertion of mere human skill. We know that we ourselves are “fearfully and wonderfully made,” but how few of us are aware that every flower we crush beneath our feet, or gather only to destroy, displays as much of the Divine care and wisdom in its construction, as the frame of the mightiest giant!

I have already mentioned that the most conspicuous part of the flower is merely a covering to protect the seed-producing organs from injury. In most flowers there are two of these coverings, which form together what is called the perianth; the inner one, when spoken of separately, being called the corolla, and the outer one the calyx. The corolla is generally of some brilliant colour, and in most cases it is divided into several leaf-like parts called petals, (see g in figs. 2 and 3); and the calyx, which is commonly green, is divided into similar portions called sepals (see h). Sometimes there is only one of these coverings, and when this is the case it is called by modern botanists the calyx, though it may be coloured like a corolla; and sometimes the calyx and corolla are of the same colour, and so mixed as hardly to be distinguished from each other, as in the crocus and the tulip; in which case the divisions are called the segments of the perianth.

CHAPTER I.

THE ORDER RANUNCULACEÆ: ILLUSTRATED BY THE RANUNCULUS, THE BUTTERCUP OR CROWFOOT, THE PEONY, THE ANEMONE, THE HEPATICA, THE CLEMATIS, THE CHRISTMAS ROSE, THE WINTER ACONITE, MONKSHOOD, THE LARKSPUR, AND THE COLUMBINE.

Such of my readers who may have formed their first ideas of the natural system from some order, the flowers of which bear a strong resemblance to each other, will be surprised at reading the names of the heterogeneous assemblage of plants at the head of this chapter; for surely no flowers can bear less resemblance to each other than the buttercup and the peony do to the columbine and the larkspur. There are, however, striking points of resemblance which link these flowers together; the principal of which are the number and disposition of the ovaries, or carpels as they are called in this case, which, though they grow close together, and sometimes even adhere to each other, are yet perfectly distinct; in the number and position of the stamens, which grow out of the receptacle from beneath the carpels; and in the leaves and young stems, when cut or pressed, yielding a thin yellowish juice, which is extremely acrid, and, in most cases, poisonous. The flowers of the plants belonging to Ranunculaceæ differ widely in their shapes; and all the incongruities that are only sparingly met with in other orders, are here gathered together. Some of the flowers have only a coloured calyx, as in the clematis; in others the calyx and corolla are of the same colour, as in the globe-flower, or so intermingled as to seem all one, as in the columbine; and in others the calyx forms the most ornamental part of the flower, as in monkshood and the larkspurs. In short, modern botanists seem to have placed this unfortunate order first, as though to terrify students on the very threshold of the science, and to prevent them from daring to advance any farther to penetrate into its mysteries.

THE GENUS RANUNCULUS.

The word Ranunculus will doubtless conjure up in the minds of my readers those very showy, double, brilliantly-coloured flowers, which flower in spring, and are generally grown in beds like tulips. These flowers form a species of the genus, under the name of Ranunculus asiaticus; and having been introduced from Asia, they have retained their botanic name from not having any English one. The honour of giving a name to the genus does not, however, rest on them, but belongs to a common English weed.

Every one who has travelled through England in the months of June and July, must have remarked the almost innumerable buttercups which glitter among the long grass of the meadows at that season; and those who observe closely, will have noticed that these brilliant little flowers are never found in poor soil, or in hilly situations, but in rich valleys where the grass is rank and luxuriant from abundance of moisture. It is this circumstance that has obtained for the buttercup the botanical name of Ranunculus, the word being derived from Rana, a frog, a creature that delights in moist places.

The buttercup being the type of the genus Ranunculus, and the order Ranunculaceæ, a close examination of its flowers will show the peculiarities which distinguish both the genus and the order. The characteristics of the order, as far as regards the number and position of the carpels and stamens, are shown in the section of the flower in the lower part of fig. 4; and those of the genus are, a green calyx of five sepals, and a bright coloured corolla of five petals (see a in fig. [4]); numerous stamens, the anthers of which are adnate, that is, with the filament growing up the back (see b); and numerous carpels (c) affixed to the upper part of the receptacle, which is drawn up in the shape of a cone to receive them. The flower shown in fig. 4, and the detached petal (e), given separately to show the little scale at

Fig. 4.—The flower of the common Butter-cup. its base, are of the natural size; but the anther b is magnified to show the curious manner in which it is affixed, for its whole length, to the filament. The section of the flower is also magnified to show the elevated receptacle, and the position of the carpels c and the stamens d with regard to each other. The line g shows the position of the corolla, and f that of the calyx, while the short line between the corolla and the stamens indicates the scale, which, from its being supposed to serve as a receptacle for honey, is sometimes called the nectary. The carpels, it will be observed, each consists of a broad part swollen in the centre, which is the ovary, with a curved part or beak at one end, terminating in a sharp point, which is the stigma. Each ovary contains only one ovule, and when the seed ripens, the carpel does not open to discharge it, but drops with the seed. When the flower is fully expanded, the green carpels may be seen in the centre, surrounded by the stamens, as shown at h in fig. 5; but after the petals drop, the stamens also disappear, and the carpels increase in size, till they assume the appearance shown at i, which shows the kind of head formed by the carpels on the receptacle after the flower has faded.

Fig. 5.—Flower and ripe carpels of the Butter-cup.

The plant from which my drawings were made was a common buttercup, Ranunculus acris, which my readers will easily recognise if they should meet with it, by its erect flower-stem, deeply cut leaves, and fibrous root. Another species (Ranunculus bulbosus) is, also, sometimes called the buttercup; but it is easily distinguished by its bulbous root. Both these, and several other species, have deeply cut leaves, which somewhat resemble the feet of a bird, and hence the name of crowfoot is often applied to them. Others, such as the greater spearwort (Ranunculus lingua), have long tongue-shaped leaves. In all, the footstalks of the leaves are somewhat folded round the stem at their base.

Such of my readers as reside in the country will find it very amusing to gather all the kinds of crowfoot, buttercup, goldilocks, and spearwort, they can find in the fields and lanes; and after having compared the flowers with the description I have given, to try to find out the specific names, by comparing the other particulars with the descriptions in Hookers or Lindley’s British Botany, or with the plates and descriptions in the new edition of Sowerby’s English Botany. In a short time they will not want these aids, but will be able to name the plants at once, and to tell in what they differ from each other by memory. I shall never forget the pleasure I once had in finding out the name of a plant myself. I happened to be waiting for Mr. Loudon, (who had gone to examine some new pines and firs,) in the pleasure-grounds of a villa, just opposite a small pond, which was covered by some white flowers that I did not know. The flowers were small, but very beautiful, and as they shone with almost a metallic lustre in the sun, they looked like a silvery mantle thrown over the water. I was curious to know what they were, and having got one with some difficulty, and by the help of my parasol, I began to examine it botanically. The leaves at first told me nothing as to the genus, for the upper ones were nearly round, and only slightly cut into three lobes, while the lower ones were almost as much divided as fennel; but on examining them closely, I found their stalks sheathed the stem at the base. This gave me the first idea of the plant being a Ranunculus, for I remembered the leaves of that genus were stem-clasping. I then looked at the plant again, and wondered at my own stupidity in not having before observed its resemblance to the genus. There was the cup-shaped flower of five petals, the green calyx of five sepals, the numerous stamens and carpels, the elevated receptacle, and even the fine texture and glossy surface of the petals. Nothing was different but the colour; and yet it was the want of the bright golden yellow of the common buttercup, that prevented me from even thinking of that genus, when pondering on the name of my water-plant. I should add, that I would not ask any help from Mr. Loudon, but identified my plant myself on my return home; when, by comparing it with the description in Hooker’s British Flora, which happened to be the first botanical work I had at hand, I found it was Ranunculus aquatilis, the water crowfoot.

In a similar manner my readers may amuse themselves, by identifying the plants they meet with, and they will be surprised to find how easy the task will soon become. I must warn them, however, that they will not find double flowers quite so easy to recognise as single ones. In double flowers the stamens and carpels are entirely or partially changed into petals; as may be seen in the florists’ varieties of Ranunculus, in the yellow bachelor’s buttons, which is a variety of the common buttercup, and in the Fair Maid of France, which is a variety of Ranunculus platanifolius, a species found wild on the mountains of Germany.

THE GENUS FICARIA.

Pansies, lilies, kingcups, daisies,

Let them live upon their praises;

Long as there’s a sun that sets,

Primroses will have their glory;

Long as there are violets,

They will have a place in story.

There’s a flower that shall be mine,

’Tis the little Celandine.

Ill befall the yellow flowers,

Children of the flaring hours,

Buttercups that will be seen,

Whether we will see or no;

Others, too, of lofty mien,

They have done as worldlings do,

Stolen praise that should be thine,

Little humble Celandine.

In these verses, and several others in the same strain, Wordsworth sings the praises of the pretty little British plant called pilewort, or the lesser celandine. This plant botanists formerly included in the genus Ranunculus, but De Candolle, finding that instead of having five sepals and five petals like all the kinds of Ranunculus, it has three sepals, and nine petals, which are narrow and pointed, instead of being broad and somewhat rounded, made it into a new genus under the name of Ficaria ranunculoides—its old name having been Ranunculus Ficaria. Its flowers are of a bright yellow, like those of the buttercup, and of the same delicate texture and glossy surface; but they are distinguished, not only as I have just observed, by having nine narrow pointed petals, and only three sepals, but by the leaves, which are roundish and shining, and not stem-clasping. These peculiarities are so striking, that I knew the Ficaria the first time I saw it in a growing state, merely from having read a description of it. Even when not in flower it may be known, by its roundish smooth leaves, and by the petioles or footstalks of its leaves being the same throughout; whereas those of all the kinds of Ranunculus are dilated at the base, to enable them to enfold the stem.

THE GENUS PÆONIA.

Fig. 6.—Flower of the male Peony, with detached carpel and stamen.

The flowers of the Peony bear considerable resemblance to those of the buttercup, but every part is on an enlarged scale; and there are some important differences—one of which is, that the Peony retains its calyx till the seeds are ripe, while in all the kinds of Ranunculus the calyx drops with the corolla. The carpels of the Peony are also many-seeded, while those of the Ranunculus contain only one seed in each. In the male Peony (P. corallina) there are five petals and five sepals, (see a in fig. 6,) with numerous stamens, forming a ring round four large woolly carpels in the centre of the flower. The stamens (c) are adnate, like those of the Ranunculus; and the carpels (b) are each terminated by a thick, fleshy, hooked stigma. These carpels open naturally on the side when ripe, to discharge their seeds. The herbaceous Peonies with double flowers, now so common in our gardens, have generally only two carpels, each containing about twenty seeds, arranged in two rows; and the Chinese tree Peony (P. Moutan) has from five to ten carpels, with only a few seeds in each. This last species is distinguished by the receptacle being drawn out into a thin membrane-like substance, which rises between the carpels like the remains of withered leaves, and partially covers them.

THE GENUS ANEMONE.

I have already mentioned (p. [10]) that some of the genera included in the order Ranunculaceæ have only a coloured calyx and no corolla; and the Anemone is an example of this peculiarity of construction. The pasque-flower (Anemone pulsatilla) is divided into six dark purple sepals, which are covered on the outside with long silky hairs. The leaves are so much cut as almost to resemble those of parsley; and at a short distance below the flowers there are three small floral leaves, or bracts, which grow round the stem, and form what is called an involucre. The carpels are small, oblong bodies, pressed close together, and each is furnished with a long, feathery point, called an awn. The carpels, though lying so close together, are perfectly distinct, and part readily at the slightest touch; and each contains only one seed.

It will be seen from this hasty sketch, that the principal point of resemblance between the genera Anemone and Ranunculus, in a botanical point of view, lies in the carpels, which are close together, and are yet so distinct as to part at the slightest touch. There is, however, a general resemblance in some of the flowers, from their five sepals, and numerous stamens, that renders it difficult for a beginner to distinguish an Anemone from a Ranunculus. In many of the British species, also, the carpels are not awned, but slightly curved, very like those of a buttercup. I remember being once very much puzzled with a beautiful little bright yellow flower, that I found in a wood. At first I thought it was a Ranunculus, but the petals were pointed and not roundish; and it could not be a Ficaria, because it had only five petals. At last I looked to see what kind of calyx it had, and found none, that is, no green calyx; and then, observing the involucre of three leaves growing in a whorl round the stem, at some distance below the flower, I knew it was an Anemone; and on comparing it with the plates in Sowerby’s English Botany, on my return home, I ascertained that it was Anemone ranunculoides.

My readers will therefore observe that Anemones may be always known by their involucre, and by their having only one covering (a showy, coloured calyx) to the flower. The number of sepals in this calyx varies in the different species. The pasque-flower has six; the white wood Anemone generally five; and the Blue Mountain Anemone from twelve to twenty. The involucre also sometimes grows a long way from the flower, as in this last-mentioned species; and sometimes so close to it, as in the Garland, or Poppy Anemone (A. coronaria), as to look almost like a green calyx to the flower. The awns, or feathery tails, are also not found attached to the carpels of all the species; and this distinction is considered so important, that some botanists make those plants which have awned carpels into a separate genus, which they call Pulsatilla, and of which the pasque-flower is considered the type. This genus, however, has not, I believe, been generally adopted.

I have now only a few words to say on florists’ Anemones, the tuberous roots of which most of my readers must have seen in the seed-shops. Most of these are varieties of the Garland Anemone, already mentioned as having its involucre close to the flower. The sepals of this species are roundish, six in number, and when the flower is in a single state, there are a great number of stamens, bearing dark purple anthers in the centre of the flower. When the flower becomes double, the sepals, which retain their form and number, only becoming somewhat more spread out and flattened, are called by florists the guard-leaves; and the stamens in the centre are metamorphosed into petals, which generally retain their dark purple colour, or at any rate are much darker than the sepals. The other florists’ Anemones spring from A. stellata, or hortensis, and they are distinguished by having pointed sepals, and a white spot at the base of each, so as to form a white circle inside the cup of the flower. The involucre is a long way from the calyx, and when the flowers become double, the sepals can scarcely be distinguished from the metamorphosed stamens.

The hepatica or liverwort, the varieties of which look so pretty in our gardens in spring, was formerly considered to be a species of Anemone, and indeed the genus Hepatica appears to rest on very slight grounds. It has, however, been adopted by most modern botanists, and the Anemone Hepatica of Linnæus is now generally called Hepatica triloba. The normal form of the species is the single blue; and the double blue, the single and double pink, and the single and double white, are all only varieties of this. The hepatica agrees in all points with the Anemone, except in the involucre, which is so very like a green calyx, from the manner in which it enfolds the flower in the bud, as scarcely to be distinguished. I could not, indeed, be persuaded that this calyx-like covering was an involucre, till I turned back the apparent sepals, and found that their glossy surface was within: I also found that there was a very small portion of the stem between them and the flower, a circumstance which always distinguishes an involucre from a calyx, the latter forming part of the flower, and being always in some manner attached to the receptacle.

THE GENUS CLEMATIS.

This genus resembles the Anemone in having only one covering, an ornamental calyx, to its seed-producing organs. It has not, however, any distinct involucre; though in one species, C. calycina, there are two bracts, or floral leaves, which bear some resemblance to one. The flowers of the different species vary considerably in form, colour, and the number of the sepals; C. calycina and C. viticella having four, C. florida six, C. vitalba five, &c. All the species agree, however, in the seeds, which are produced singly, each in a separate awned carpel, which does not open, but drops with the seed, and is sown with it. These carpels, which are common to the genera Ranunculus, Anemone, Adonis, and many other kinds of Ranunculaceæ, are called caryopsides, and seeds thus enclosed are always much longer in coming up than any others. In some species of Clematis the awns of the carpels are smooth; but in others they are bearded or feathered, as in those of the traveller’s joy (C. vitalba), shown in fig. 7. The leaves of the Clematis vary considerably in form and arrangement; but the stems of the climbing species are furnished with tendrils, or slender twining leafless stems, which some botanists suppose to be metamorphosed leaves.

Fig. 7.—Carpels of the Clematis Vitalba.

The plants composing the genus Atragenè have been separated from Clematis; because they are said to have petals, which the genus Clematis has not. It must not, however, be supposed that the petals of the Atragenè bear any resemblance to what is generally understood by that word. On the contrary, the showy part of the Atragenè is still only a coloured calyx; while the petals are oblong, leaf-like bodies in the centre of the flower, which look like dilated stamens. In other respects the two genera are scarcely to be distinguished from each other.

THE GENUS HELLEBORUS, &C.

The Christmas rose (Helleborus niger) bears considerable resemblance in the construction of its flowers to the Atragenè, for it has a showy calyx, and narrow oblong petals, encircling the stamens in the centre of the flower. The calyx of the Christmas rose is white, delicately tinged with pink, and the petals are green. The carpels are erect and long, swelling out at the base, and each ends in a curved style with a pointed stigma. The Christmas rose takes its specific name of niger (black) from the root, which is covered with a thick black skin. The common Hellebore takes its name of H. viridis, from its flowers, which are green. The carpels of this plant frequently grow slightly together, and their styles curve inwardly.

The British species of Hellebore have no involucre, and the Christmas rose has only two bracts or floral leaves, which form a calyx-like covering to the bud; but the little yellow garden plant, called the Winter Aconite, which was included by Linnæus in the genus Helleborus, has a decided involucre, on which the little yellow, cup-shaped flower reposes, like a fairy bowl upon a leafy plate. The conspicuous part of this flower, like the others, is the calyx, which encloses a number of short tubular petals. This little plant is now separated from Helleborus, and formed into a distinct genus, under the name of Eranthus hyemalis, from its carpels being each furnished with a very short footstalk, by which they are attached to the receptacle, instead of growing upon it as in the other genera. The root is tuberous, or rather it forms a kind of underground stem, sending up tufts of leaves and flowers from the different buds. Thus we often see several tufts of the Winter Aconite growing so far from each other as to appear distinct; but which, in fact, all spring from the same root. The Globe-flower (Trollius europæus), which has a golden yellow, globe-shaped calyx, enclosing a number of small oblong petals, is nearly allied to the Winter Aconite; and the Fennel-flower, or Devil in a Bush (Nigella damascena), agrees with the common Hellebore in the adhesion of its carpels.

THE GENUS ACONITUM.

Fig. 8.—Flower and seed-vessels of the Monkshood.

We are so accustomed to see in our gardens the tall showy perennial called monkshood or wolfsbane (Aconitum Napellus), that few persons think of examining the flowers in detail. They well deserve, however, to be examined, as they are very curious in their construction. The showy part of the flower is an ornamental calyx of six sepals, but the upper two of these are larger than the others, and adhere together so as to form a singular sort of covering, like a monk’s cowl or hood. (See a in fig. 8.) The stamens are numerous, and they encircle three or five oval carpels, with thread-like styles, and pointed stigmas, as shown at b; which when ripe burst open at the top (c) to discharge the seed, without separating. Carpels of this kind are called follicles. Under the hood, and entirely concealed by it, are the petals (see fig. 9),

Fig. 9.—Petals of the Monkshood. which form what may certainly be considered the most remarkable part of the flower, as they are so curiously folded up that they look more like gigantic stamens than petals. The older botanists described these petals as nectaries, with crested claws. The leaves are divided into from three to five principal segments, which are again deeply cut into several others. The stem of the common Monkshood is thickened at the base, or collar, where it joins the root, so as to give it somewhat the appearance of celery; and hence ignorant persons have been poisoned by eating it. This knotted appearance of the stem is not common to all the species, and it gives rise to the specific name of Napellus, which signifies a little turnip.

THE GENUS DELPHINIUM.

Fig. 10.—The flowers of the Branching Larkspur.

The plants belonging to the genus Delphinium, that is to say, the Larkspurs, have their flowers constructed in nearly as curious a manner as those of the different kinds of Monkshood; but they differ in the sepals and petals both forming conspicuous parts of the flower, though they are generally quite distinct both in form and colour, and may be easily traced through all the different forms they assume in the various species. They are, however, perhaps most easily distin guished in the branching or autumnal Larkspur (Delphinium consolida). In the flower of this plant the spur (a in fig. 10) is the upper sepal of the calyx, and it serves as a cover to part of the petals. There are four other portions of the calyx (b), which assume the appearance of ordinary sepals. The petals are four in number;

Fig. 11.—Tap root of the Branching Larkspur. and they are united at the lower part, and drawn out into a sort of tail, as shown at c; while the upper part of two of them stands up like asses’ ears (d) in the centre of the flower; and the others are curiously folded, so as to form a hood over the stamens and carpels, as shown at e. The anthers of the stamens resemble those of the Ranunculus; but the filaments are bent, as shown at f. The carpels (g) are upright, hairy, and terminate in a blunt, fleshy stigma (h). When ripe, they open in the same manner as those of the Monkshood. The branching Larkspur has a fusiform or tap root, as shown in fig. 11, in which a is the collar, or as the Italians call it la noda vitale; and b the fibrous roots, through the points of which the plant takes up its food.

The flowers of the other kinds of Larkspur resemble this one in their general appearance, though they differ in the minor details. Those of the Rocket Larkspur (D. Ajacis) lose their spurs when they become double; and those of the Bee Larkspurs have their petals nearly black, and instead of standing up like ears, they are so curiously folded as to resemble a bee nestling in the centre of the flower.

THE GENUS AQUILEGIA.

The common Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris) differs from all the flowers I have yet described in having the sepals and petals not only of the same colour, but so intermingled as to be scarcely distinguishable from each other. The flower (given on a reduced scale at a in fig. 12) is composed of five horn-shaped petals, which are curved at the upper end, and form a kind of coronet round the stem; and five oval sepals, which are placed alternately with them; all, generally speaking, being of the same colour. The horn-shaped petal, or nectary as it was called by Linnæus, is attached to the receptacle at the thickened rim (b), while the sepal is attached at the point (c); d shows the dis position of the stamens; e a separate stamen, with its adnate anther; f the inner row of stamens, which are produced without anthers, and with their filaments growing together, so as to form a thin membranaceous case for the carpels, which are shown exposed at g. The carpels, when ripe, become follicles. The leaf of the Columbine is bi-ternate; that is, it is cut into three large divisions, each of which is cut into three smaller ones; so that it is twice-ternate. The petiole or footstalk of the leaf sheaths the stem, as shown at h, where the leaf is represented on a reduced scale to suit the flower.

Fig. 12.—Flower and leaf of the Columbine.

I would advise such of my readers as are anxious to turn the preceding pages to account, to procure as many of the plants I have described as possible, and to compare them with each other, and with any other plants belonging to the order Ranunculaceæ that they can obtain. Those who have access to a botanic garden will have no difficulty in finding the names of the genera included in the order; and those who have not this advantage, must consult Don’s edition of Sweet’s Hortus Britannicus, or any other catalogue in which the plants are arranged according to the Natural System. When a number of specimens have been collected, the student will be surprised to see how many points of resemblance exist between them. The stems of all, when cut, will yield a watery juice; which is always acrid, though some of the plants are more poisonous than others. The stamens will be found to be always numerous, and always attached to the receptacle below the carpels; and the anthers are generally adnate, that is attached to the filaments from one end to the other (see p. [12]). The carpels are in most cases numerous, and either distinct, or adhering in such a manner as to show plainly the line of junction between them; they are also always one-celled, whether one or many-seeded, and generally either caryopsides (see p. [24]), or follicles (see p. [28]). The leaves are generally divided into three or five lobes, each of which is cut into several smaller divisions; and the petioles or leaf-stalks are very frequently dilated at the base, and sheathing the stem. In most cases, the flowers are of brilliant colours, several of them being cup-shaped, and many with the calyx more ornamental than the corolla. The seeds will generally keep good for several years; and several of them, particularly those of the kind called caryopsides, when sown, are often a long time before they come up.

CHAPTER II.

THE ORDER LEGUMINOSÆ: ILLUSTRATED BY THE SWEET-PEA, THE RED CLOVER, ACACIA ARMATA, THE SENSITIVE PLANT, THE BARBADOES FLOWER-FENCE, THE CAROB-TREE, THE TAMARIND, THE SENNA, THE GLEDITSCHIA, THE LOGWOOD, THE JUDAS-TREE, AND THE KENTUCKY COFFEE-TREE.

This order is a very numerous one, containing above three hundred genera, and including several highly important plants, both for food and commerce. As examples of the utility of the Leguminosæ for food, I need only mention the pea and bean, and all their numerous allies; and as examples of their importance in medicine and the arts, I may enumerate senna, liquorice, the tamarind, gum-arabic, and logwood. Among the ornamental plants belonging to this order are, the Laburnum, the Furze or Gorse, the Robinia or False Acacia, the true Acacias, the Sensitive Plant, and the Barbadoes Flower-fence. It will be seen by this enumeration, that the flowers of the Leguminosæ differ from each other nearly as much as those of Ranunculaceæ; but when in seed, they are all easily recognised by their seed-vessels, which are always legumes, that is, bearing more or less resemblance to the pod of the common pea. To aid the memory in retaining the great number of genera included in this order, various methods have been devised of re-dividing it; and of these I shall adopt the newest, which is also the simplest, by which they are arranged in three tribes, according to their flowers.

TRIBE I.—PAPILIONACEOUS FLOWERS.

The flowers of this tribe are called Papilionaceous;

Fig. 13.—Flower, pod, and tendril, of the Sweet-pea. because Papilio is the scientific name of a genus of butterflies, which they were supposed to resemble. The type of this tribe may be considered the flower of the sweet-pea (Lathyrus odoratus), which has a small green calyx, cut into five deep notches, but not divided into regular sepals. (See a and b in fig. 13.) The corolla is in five petals, the largest of which (c) stands erect, and is called the vexillum or standard; below this are two smaller petals (d), which are called the algæ or wings; and below these are two petals, joined together so as to form a kind of boat (e), which are called the carina or keel, and which serve as a cradle for the stamens and pistil. There are ten stamens, nine of which have the lower half of their filaments growing together, so as to form a fleshy substance at the base, as shown in fig. 14 at f, and the other (g) is free.

Fig. 14.—Stamens of the Sweet-pea. The ovary is oblong, terminating in a filiform style, with a pointed stigma, as shown at g in fig. 13; and it is one-celled and many-seeded; the seeds being what we call the peas. When the petals fall, the pod still retains the calyx (b), and the style (g); and these remain on till the seeds are ripe, when the pod divides naturally into two parts, or valves as they are called, which curl back so as to discharge the seeds. If the pod be examined before it bursts, it will be found that the valves are composed of a fleshy substance, lined with a strong membrane or skin, and that they are united by two seams, called the dorsal and ventral sutures. Along the ventral suture (h) there runs a kind of nerve, called the placenta, to which the peas are attached, each pea being furnished with a little separate stalk, called a funicle. A cook would be surprised, even in these enlightened times, to be told to take a legume of Pisum sativum, and after separating the two valves at the dorsal suture, to detach the funicles of the seeds from the placenta; yet these scientific terms would merely describe the operation of shelling the peas. It will be seen by this description that the pod of the pea differs very materially from the seed-vessels of all the other plants I have had occasion to describe; and that it thus forms a very distinctive character for the order. The other parts vary in the different genera: the calyx is sometimes tubular, and sometimes inflated; sometimes it has only four notches, or teeth as they are called, instead of five, and sometimes it has five distinct sepals divided to the base. The parts of the corolla vary also in proportion to each other, the keel in some of the Australian plants is as long as the standard; as, for example, in Kennedia Maryattæ; and in others the wings are so small as to be scarcely visible. The stamens of many of the species are also free, that is, divided to the base; while in others they resemble those of the sweet-pea, in having nine joined together and one free; and in others the whole are joined together at the base. The pods also vary very much in size and form; being sometimes nearly round, and only one or two-seeded; and in others long, and containing many seeds, as in the common bean or pea. The seeds themselves are so different that the tribe has been divided, on account of them, into two sections: the one consisting of those plants which, like the common bean, have the seed dividing into two fleshy seed-leaves or cotyledons, when it begins to germinate; and the other, the seed-leaves of which are thin. The seeds of the papilionaceous plants which have thin cotyledons are not eatable; but those with fleshy cotyledons may be safely used as food. The fleshy cotyledons do not always rise above the ground; but they do so decidedly in the bean and the lupine; and if either of these seeds be laid in moist soil with the hilum or scar downwards, the seed, as soon as it begins to germinate, will divide into two parts (that is, into two cotyledons), which will rise above the ground, and become green like leaves; though, from still retaining their roundish form, they are easily distinguished from the true leaves, which rise in the centre. Though my readers will have no difficulty in recognising most of the Leguminosæ which have papilionaceous flowers, there are some genera, respecting which they may be interested to learn a few particulars. Thus, the Chorozema is one of the kinds with thin cotyledons, and consequently its seeds are not eatable. The legumes of this genus are roundish, and swelled out, so as to bear but little outward resemblance to a pod. Sophora, Edwardsia, Virgilia, Podolobium, Callistachys, Brachysema, Burtonia, Dillwynia, Eutaxia, Pultenæa, Daviesia, and Mirbelia, have all thin cotyledons, and their ten stamens all separate from each other; but in Hovea, Platylobium, and Bossiæa, though the cotyledons are thin, the stamens all grow together at the base. I mention these common greenhouse shrubs, that my readers may have an opportunity of examining their botanical construction, and thus verifying their names. The common furze (Ulex europæus), the Spanish broom (Spartium junceum), the Petty whin (Genista Anglica), the Laburnum (Cytisus Laburnum), and the common broom, all belong to this division, and consequently their seeds are not eatable; those of the Laburnum are indeed poisonous. The distinctions between Spartium, Genista, and Cytisus, are very slight, lying chiefly in the calyx; and as a proof of this the common broom, which is now called Cytisus scoparius, was formerly supposed to be a Spartium, and afterwards a Genista.

The common red clover (Trifolium pratense) has its flowers in such dense heads that it is difficult at first sight to discover that they are Papilionaceous. On examination, however, it will be found that each separate flower has its standard, wings, and keel, though the wings are so large as to hide the keel, and nearly to obscure the standard. The calyx is tubular at the base, but divided above into five long, awl-shaped teeth, that stand widely apart from each other. The legume has only one or two seeds, and it is so small as generally to be hidden by the calyx.

TRIBE II.—MIMOSÆ.

The second division of Leguminosæ comprises those plants which have heads of flowers

Fig. 15.—Flowers and sprig of Acacia armata. either in spikes or balls, like those shown in fig. 15. This figure represents two heads of flowers of Acacia armata, a well-known greenhouse shrub, of their natural size; and fig. 16 shows a head of similar flowers magnified. In the lat ter, a shows the calyx, which is five-toothed, and b the petals, which are five in number and

Fig. 16.—Flower of Acacia magnified. quite regular in shape; c are the stamens, which vary from ten to two hundred in each flower, and which are raised so high above the petals as to give a light and tuft-like appearance to the whole flower. The legumes are very large in proportion to the flower; and consequently, by a wise provision of nature, only a very few of the flowers produce seed. The valves of the legumes are not fleshy like those of the pea, but dry and hard, and when they open they do not curl back.

The flowers in the different kinds of Acacia, differ in the corolla, which has sometimes only four petals, which are occasionally united at the base, and in the calyx, which is sometimes only four-cleft. The flowers also in many species are in spikes instead of balls.

Fig. 17.—The Bi-pinnate leaf of an Acacia.

The rest of the plant of Acacia armata is very curious; what appear to be the leaves (see d in fig. 15) are, in fact, only the petioles of the leaves dilated into what are called phyllodia; the true leaves, which were of the kind called bi-pinnate, having fallen off, or never unfolded. The true leaves, however, often appear on seedling plants; and thus, when seeds are sown of several kinds of Acacia, it is sometimes difficult to recognise them till they have attained a considerable age. The stipules of the leaves, (which are to ordinary leaves what bracts are to flowers,) are in Acacia armata, converted into spines, as shown at e. In some kinds of Acacia the true leaves, with the petioles in their natural state, (see fig. 17,) are retained in the adult plants, as in Acacia dealbàta; and in others, the bi-pinnate leaves are occasionally found attached to the phyllodia, as in A. melanoxylon. The bi-pinnate leaves are composed of from six to twenty pairs of pinnæ, or compound leaflets (see f in fig. 17), each of which consists of from eight to forty pairs of small leaflets (g). The Gum Arabic tree, Acacia vera, has leaves with only two pairs of pinnæ, but each has eight or ten pairs of small leaflets. The branches and spines are red, and the heads of flowers are yellow. There are above three hundred known species of Acacia.

The genus Mimosa differs from Acacia in the corolla being funnel-shaped, and four or five cleft. There are seldom above fifteen stamens, which are generally on longer filaments than those of the Acacia; and the legume is compressed and jointed or articulated between the seeds, so that the part which contains one seed may be broken off, without tearing the rest. The Sensitive-plant (Mimosa pudica) is a familiar example of this genus.

The cotyledons of the plants belonging to this tribe are generally leafy; and the seeds are not eatable. The plants themselves are easily recognised by their ball or tassel-shaped heads or spikes of flowers; by the small cup-shape and inconspicuous corolla of each; by the great number and length of the stamens; and by their bi-pinnate leaves, or phyllodia supplying the place of leaves—though the phyllodia are sometimes found in Australian plants with papilionaceous flowers, as, for example, in Bossiæa ensata.

TRIBE III.—CÆSALPINEÆ.

Fig. 18.—Flower of the Barbadoes Flower-fence.

The flowers of the plants contained in this tribe have generally five regular, widely spreading petals, which are never joined together; and stamens of unequal length, which with few exceptions are also perfectly free. The petals are generally of the same size and shape; though sometimes, as in the Barbadoes Flower-fence (Poinciana, or Cæsalpinia pulcherrima), four are of the same shape, and one deformed (see fig. 18). The filaments of some of the stamens are very long and curving over, but the others are much shorter and erect; the style is long and slender, ending in a pointed stigma. The legume is flat, and it looks almost many-celled, from the seeds being divided from each other by a kind of spongy substance, frequently found in the pods of plants belonging to this division. The leaves are bi-pinnate, and the stem is spiny.

The Carob-tree, or St. John’s bread (Ceratonia siliqua), agrees with the Barbadoes Flower-fence in the pulpy matter dividing the seeds, though it differs widely in its flowers, which are without petals, and do not possess any beauty. The pulp of the pods of the Carob tree is eatable; but that of Poinciana is said to be injurious. The pod of the Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) differs from the preceding species in having the pulpy matter of its pods contained between the outer and inner skin of each valve, like the fleshy substance in the pod of the pea, instead of serving as a bed for the seeds. The flowers of the tamarind have five equal petals of a brownish yellow, three of them being streaked with pink; and the anthers are nearly rose-colour. The stamens and the style both curve upwards. It is the pods prepared with sugar that form what we call Tamarinds. In Cassia lanceolata, the leaves of which furnish senna, the flowers have a bright yellow corolla of five concave petals, three of which are somewhat larger than the others. The stamens are also unequal in length; and the style curves upwards. The legume is kidney-shaped, and the cells are divided from each other by thin membraneous partitions. The Gleditschia or Honey Locusts, now so frequently planted in our shrubberies on account of the lightness and elegance of their foliage, belong to this division, and some of them, particularly the Chinese Thorny Acacia (Gleditschia horrida), are remarkable for their thorns proceeding from the trunk and large branches, as well as from the axils of the leaves. The Logwood (Hæmatoxylon Campechianum), has inconspicuous yellow flowers, the petals being very little longer than the calyx; and the legume has seldom more than two seeds. Though it is considered a tree, the stem is seldom thicker than the arm of a man, and it is generally crooked; chips of the wood are used for dyeing purple. The Judas-tree (Cercis siliquastrum) is another species belonging to this division, as, though the flowers appear of the papilionaceous kind, they are, in fact, composed of five petals, nearly equal in size, but having the wings the largest. There are ten stamens, free, and of unequal length. The legume is oblong and many-seeded; and it opens only on the dorsal suture, the other side to which the seeds are attached being slightly winged. The flowers are each on a separate flower-stalk or pedicel, but they rise from the trunk and branches in tufts or fascicles. The leaves are simple and cordate; and they do not appear till the flowers have faded.

The Kentucky Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus canadensis) is the last plant belonging to this division that I shall attempt to describe. This tree is called in Canada, Chicot, or the stump-tree, from its having no visible buds, and thus appearing like a dead stump in winter. The flowers of this plant are white, and they are produced in racemes, but they bear no resemblance to the pea flowers, having rather a star-like appearance, like those of the Jasmine (see fig. 19).

Fig. 19.—Flowers of the Kentucky Coffee-tree. The calyx (a) is tubular; and the upper part or limb is divided into five parts (b), which alternate with the petals of the corolla (c). There are ten stamens, but they are completely enclosed in the tube of the calyx. The pod is very large, the valves becoming hard and bony when dry; and the seeds are like large beans, the pod being deeply indented between the seeds. The leaves are bi-pinnate, with from four to seven pairs of pinnæ; the lower having only one small leaflet, but the rest bearing from six to eight pairs of leaflets each. This tree must not be confounded with the true Coffee-tree, which belongs to Rubiaceæ, and from which it is perfectly distinct in every respect; and it only takes its American name from its beans having been used as a substitute for coffee. The outer bark of this tree, when it becomes old, splits off in narrow strips and rolls up; and its timber, like that of the Robinia or False Acacia, having very little sap wood, is thus very strong in quite young trees, though it is of little value when the tree is full-grown.

The species contained in the first and second divisions of this order will be easily recognised by botanical students; and though those of the third division are much more difficult to find out, still there is a kind of family likeness, particularly in the leaves, which will enable the eye, with a little practice, to recognise them. The student should visit the hothouses of botanic gardens and nurseries, and should there endeavour to pick out plants belonging to this order.

CHAPTER III.

THE ORDER ROSACEÆ, ILLUSTRATED BY DIFFERENT KINDS OF ROSES; THE POTENTILLA; THE STRAWBERRY; THE RASPBERRY; SPIRÆA; KERRIA OR CORCHORUS JAPONICA; THE ALMOND; THE PEACH AND NECTARINE; THE APRICOT; THE PLUM; THE CHERRY; THE APPLE; THE PEAR; THE MOUNTAIN ASH; THE WHITE BEAM TREE; QUINCE; PYRUS OR CYDONIA JAPONICA; THE HAWTHORN; THE INDIAN HAWTHORN; THE MEDLAR; PHOTINIA; ERIOBOTRYA; COTONEASTER; AMELANCHIER; BURNET; AND ALCHEMILLA OR LADIES’-MANTLE.

All the numerous plants which compose this large order agree more or less with the rose in the construction of their flowers, though they differ widely in the appearance of their fruit. They all agree in having the receptacle dilated, so as to form a lining to the lower part of the calyx, and in the upper part of this lining the stamens and petals are inserted above the ovary; and the anthers are innate, that is, the filament is inserted only in the lower part. The leaves also have generally large and conspicuous stipules; and they are frequently compound, that is, composed of several pairs of leaflets, placed exactly opposite to each other; though the leaves themselves are never opposite to each other, but are placed alternately on the main stem. These characters are common to the order; but the plants included in it differ from each other so much in other respects, that it has been found necessary to redivide Rosaceæ into tribes, of which the following six contain plants common in British gardens.

TRIBE I.—ROSEÆ.

Fig. 20.—Rosa Fosteri.

The flowers of the wild Rose have the lower part of the calyx tubular and fleshy (from being lined with the dilated receptacle) and the upper part divided into five leafy sepals, which enfold the bud, and remain on after the expansion of the corolla. In Rosa Fosteri, (see fig. 20,) and its near ally the Dog rose (R. canina), the sepals (a) do not extend far beyond the petals of the bud; but in some species, as in Rosa cinnamonea and its allies, the sepals are so large and long, that they assume the character of little leaves,

Fig. 21.—Ovary of the Ayrshire rose with a detached seed. The corolla is cup-shaped, and it is composed of five equal petals, each of which is more or less indented in the margin, as shown at b. In the centre of the flower the receptacle forms a kind of disk which completely fills the opening or throat of the calyx; in most species covering the carpels and their styles and only leaving the stigmas free, though in the Ayrshire rose (R. arvensis), and its allies, the styles are united, so as to form a column, which projects considerably above the disk (see fig. 21). The pitcher-shaped part of the calyx when the corolla falls becomes the hip (fig. 20 c), and serves as a covering or false pericarp to the numerous bony carpels or nuts which contain the seed. These nuts are each enveloped in a hairy cover (see fig. 20 d, and fig. 21 a,) and each contains only one seed which it does not open naturally to discharge: hence, the seeds of roses when sown are a long time before they come up. Fig. 22 is the ripe fruit of Rosa cinnamonea, cut in two to

Fig. 22.—Ripe fruit and detached seed of a Rose. show the nuts. The leaves are pinnate, consisting of two or more pairs of leaflets, and ending with an odd one. The leaves are furnished with very large stipules (see fig. 20 e); and the stems have numerous prickles (f), which differ from thorns in being articulated, that is, they may be taken off without tearing the bark of the stem on which they grow, only leaving the scar or mark, shown at g. The leaves of the sweet briar are full of small glands or cells filled with fragrant oil, which may be distinctly seen in the shape of little white dots, when held up to the light; and this is the reason of their delightful perfume. When the leaf is rubbed between the fingers, the thin skin that covers the cells is broken, and the oil being permitted to escape, the fragrance is increased. There are only two genera in this tribe, viz. Rosa and Lowea, the latter containing only what was formerly called Rosa berberifolia, and which has been thought worthy of being made into a separate genus principally on account of its having simple leaves without stipules, and branched prickles.

TRIBE II.—POTENTILLEÆ OR DRYADEÆ.

The plants belonging to this tribe agree more or less in the construction of their flowers with the well-known showy plants called Potentilla, but my readers will probably be surprised to hear that the raspberry and the strawberry are included among them. If, however, they compare the flower of the Potentilla with that of the strawberry, they will find them very much alike. In both there is a calyx of ten sepals, and a cup-shaped corolla of five petals; and in both the stamens form a ring round an elevated receptacle, on which are placed numerous carpels. Here, however, the resemblance ceases, for as the seeds of Potentilla ripen, the receptacle withers up in proportion to the swelling of the carpels, till it becomes hidden by them; while in the strawberry the receptacle becomes gradually more and more dilated, swelling out and separating the bony carpels still farther and farther from each other, till at last it forms what we call the ripe fruit. I have already had several times occasion to mention the receptacle, which though seldom seen, or at least noticed, by persons who are not botanists, is a most important part of the flower, and one that assumes a greater variety of form than any other. Sometimes, as we have seen in several of the Ranunculaceæ and Leguminosæ, it is a mere disk or flat substance serving as a foundation to hold together the other parts of the flower; and at other times we have found it drawn out into a thin membrane and divided into a kind of leaves, as it is among the carpels of the tree-peony; but in no plants that I have yet had occasion to describe does it assume such strange forms as in Rosaceæ.

The flower of the strawberry (Fragaria vesca) has a green calyx of ten sepals; five of which are much smaller than the others, and grow a little behind them, the large and small ones occurring alternately. The corolla is cup-shaped, and in five equal petals; the stamens are numerous and arranged in a crowded ring round the carpels, which are placed on a somewhat raised receptacle. The carpels or nuts resemble those of the rose, but they have no hairy covering, and indeed look hard and shining on the surface of the distended receptacle, or polyphore as it is called in its metamorphosed state. The carpels when ripe do not open to discharge the seed, and consequently as they are sown with the seeds, the young plants are a long time before they appear. The strawberry has what is called ternate leaves, that is, leaves consisting of three leaflets; with large membranous stipules. The calyx is persistent, that is, it remains on till the fruit is ripe.

The Raspberry (Rubus Idæus) differs widely from the strawberry in many particulars, notwithstanding their being included not only in the

Fig. 23.—Flowers and Fruit of the Raspberry. same natural order, but in the same tribe. The calyx has only five sepals (a in figure 23); and though the corolla has five petals (b), they do not form a cup-shaped flower. In the centre are the carpels, the form of which is shown of the natural size at c, and magnified at d, the latter showing that each has a separate style and stigma. As the raspberry advances, the petals drop, and the receptacle becomes elevated into what is called a torus, as shown of the natural size at e; bearing the carpels upon it, which gradually swell out and soften, till each becomes a little pulpy fruit, full of juice, and having the stone or seed in the centre. While this change is taking place, the stamens gradually wither and fall off, and the stigmas disappear, the style shrivelling up to the appearance of a hair; the pulpy carpels have also become so pressed against each other, as to adhere together, and the whole, with the persistent calyx, now assumes the appearance shown at f. As soon as the carpels become ripe they cease to adhere to the torus, and they may be pulled off and eaten (the torus, or core as it is called, being thrown away): each carpel will be found to inclose a very hard seed or stone, as shown at g. If the Raspberry, instead of being gathered, be suffered to remain on the stalk, the juicy carpels dry up, and fall with the seed inclosed. The stems of the Raspberry are biennial, that is, they do not bear till they are two years old, after which they die; but the roots are perennial, and they are always sending up fresh suckers, so that the same plants will bear for many years in succession, though not on the same stems. The stems are generally erect, and prickly like the rose; and the leaves on the bearing stems have three leaflets, while those on the barren stems have five; and in both cases the leaflets are covered with white down on the under side. All the different kinds of Bramble, such as the Dewberry, Blackberry, &c., agree with the Raspberry in the construction of their fruit, though they differ in the number of their leaflets, the size and colour of their flowers, and other minor particulars.

Several other genera belong to this tribe, among which may be mentioned Geum Avens, or Herb Bennet, the carpels of which have each a hooked style; Sieversia separated from Geum, because the carpels end in a straight feathery awn; and Tormentilla, the flowers of which bear a general resemblance to those of Potentilla, but which have an eight-parted calyx; a corolla of four petals; sixteen stamens, and dry wrinkled carpels on a depressed receptacle. All these genera my readers will find it interesting to procure flowers of, in order to compare them with each other. This and the preceding tribe are considered by some modern botanists to form the order Rosaceæ; the other tribes being formed into separate orders.

TRIBE III.—SPIRÆEÆ.

The only genera in this tribe which contain well-known plants are Spiræa and Kerria. In Spiræa the calyx is five-cleft (see a in fig. 24) and lined with the dilated receptacle, forming a shallow tube or rather cup for the reception of the carpels. There are five small roundish petals (b), and from twenty to fifty stamens (c), which project very far beyond them. In the centre are from two to five carpels (d), which are something like those of the raspberry when young, but afterwards become of the kind called follicles; each carpel contains from two to six seeds affixed to its inner suture, and they are dehiscent—that is, they open naturally at the top to discharge the seed (see e). The flowers are set very close together, and from this circumstance, combined with their small size and projecting stamens, they look like fine filigree work; hence the popular English names given to S. salicifolia or Bridewort, Queen’s needle-work, &c. The flowers of this species are in spicate racemes, but others are in corymbs, as in S. bella; or in panicles, as in S. ariæfolia.

Fig. 24.—Flower of the Spiræa.

Kerria is a genus containing only one species, the plant which was formerly called Corchorus japonica; the calyx is united at the base, but divided in the upper part into five lobes; three of them obtuse, and the other two tipped with a little point called a mucro. There are about twenty stamens about the same length as the petals arising from the calyx, and five roundish carpels containing one seed each. The leaves are simple, and the stipules awl-shaped. Till lately only a double-flowered variety was known in Britain; but about 1832, the single-flowered plant was introduced from China. Corchorus, the genus in which this plant was originally placed, is nearly allied to the lime-tree.

TRIBE IV.—AMYGDALEÆ.

This tribe is distinguished by the fruit, which is what botanists call a drupe, that is, a stone fruit. The principal genera included in this tribe are Amygdalus, the Almond; Persica, the Peach and Nectarine; Armeniaca, the Apricot; Prunus, the Plum; and Cerasus, the Cherry. All these genera contain more or less of prussic acid, which is found to exist principally in the leaves and kernels; and they all yield gum when wounded.

The flowers of the common Almond (Amygdalus communis) appear, as is well known, before the leaves, bursting from large scaly buds, which when they open throw off the brown shining bracts in which they had been enwrapped. The calyx is somewhat campanulate, with the upper part cut into five teeth or lobes, and it is lined by the dilated disk. There are five petals, and about twenty stamens, both inserted in the lining of the calyx. The anthers are innate, and they differ from most of the other plants yet described in being only one-celled. The ovary is also only one-celled, and there are generally two ovules, though the plant rarely ripens more than one seed. The leaves are simple, and they have very small stipules. When the petals drop, the ovary appears covered with a thick tough downy pericarp, within which is the hard stone or nut, the kernel or almond of which is the seed.

The Peach (Persica vulgaris) was formerly included in the same genus as the almond; and in fact there is but little botanical difference. The flowers are the same both in construction and appearance; and the leaves are simple like those of the almond, and, like them, they are conduplicate (that is, folded together at the midrib) when young. The only difference indeed is in the fruit; for, as everybody knows, the stone of the peach has not a dry tough covering, like that of the almond, but a soft and melting one full of juice, and the stone itself is of a harder consistence, and deeply furrowed, instead of being only slightly pitted. The fruit of the peach has thus a fleshy pericarp, the pulp or sarcocarp of which is eatable, and a furrowed nut or stone, inclosing the seed or kernel, which is wrapped up like that of the almond, in a thick loose skin.

The Nectarine (P. lævis) only differs from the peach in the epicarp, or outer covering of the pulpy part, being smooth instead of downy. Of both fruits there are two kinds, one called free-stone, from their parting freely with the stone; and the other cling-stone, from the stone clinging to the fibres of the pulp.

The Apricot (Armeniaca vulgaris) agrees with the preceding genus in its flowers; but it differs in its fruit, its stone being sharp at one end and blunt at the other, with a furrow on each side, but the rest of the surface smooth. Thus my readers will perceive that the Peach and the Apricot, though so different from each other as to be recognised at a glance, are yet botanically so very closely allied, as to be distinguished only by the stone. The leaves indeed differ in form, but in other respects they are exactly the same.

Fig. 25.—Flowers and fruit of the Sloe.

The Sloe (Prunus spinosa) is supposed by some botanists to be the origin of our cultivated plum, though others make it a separate species under the name of Prunus domestica. The flowers in both are solitary (see fig. 25), and consist of a five-toothed calyx (a) which is united at the base, and in the lining of which the stamens are inserted as shown at (b). The ovary has a thick style and capitate stigma (c), and the fruit is a drupe (d). In these particulars therefore the plum agrees with the preceding genera; but it will be found to differ in the skin of the pericarp, which is quite smooth and covered with a fine bloom; this, indeed, and its stone being pointed at both ends constitute the chief botanical distinctions between the fruit of the plum and that of the apricot, as in other respects they are alike. Both the plum and the apricot have footstalks, and in this differ from the peach and the nectarine, which are without. The leaves of the plum differ from those of the other genera in being convolute, that is, rolled up, in the bud.

The Cherry (Cerasus vulgaris) differs from the plum in the skin of the pericarp being destitute of bloom, and in several flowers springing from each bud, in what botanists call a fascicled

Fig. 26.—Flowers and stone of the Cherry. umbel (see a) in fig. 26. The pedicels (b) are also much longer; the petals (c) are indented in the margin; the style (d) is more slender; and the stone (e) is smooth and much more globose. The number of the stamens, and the manner in which they are inserted in the lining of the calyx, is the same in both genera (see f); but the leaves are different, for those of the Cherry are folded down the middle, when young, like those of the peach and almond; while those of the plum are rolled up.

The genus Cerasus is divided into two sections, the first containing those species which have their flowers in bunches, and on long footstalks, as in the common Cherry; and the second those which have their flowers in racemes on short footstalks, as in the Bird-cherry (Cerasus Padus); the Mahaleb, or Bois de Sainte Lucie (Cerasus Mahaleb); the common Laurel (Cerasus Lauro-Cerasus); and the Portugal Laurel (Cerasus lusitanicus). These plants are so different from the common Cherry both in flowers and fruit, as far as can be judged from their general appearance, as scarcely to be recognised; but when closely examined their botanical construction will be found the same. Formerly only two genera were included in this tribe—viz. Amygdalus, which comprised the Peach and Nectarine as well as the Almond; and Prunus, which included the Apricot and the Cherry.

TRIBE V.—POMEÆ.

The common apple (Pyrus Malus) may be considered the type of this tribe, which comprehends not only what we are accustomed to call kerneled fruit, but also the Hawthorn, Cotoneaster, and other ornamental shrubs and low trees. The flower of the apple bears con siderable resemblance to the flowers of the genera already described, but the petals (see a in fig. 27) are oblong, rather than roundish.

Fig. 27.—Fruit and part of the Flower of the Apple.

The calyx (b) is tubular in the lower part, and the limb is divided into five lobes. The receptacle lines the lower part of the calyx, and forms a disk, filling its throat, in which the stamens and petals are inserted. There are five ovaries, the styles of which are for half their length united, leaving the upper part and the stigmas free; and the ovaries themselves, now become cells, are enclosed in a cartilaginous endocarp, which forms what we call the core of the Apple, and which adheres firmly to the tubular part of the calyx. There are two ovules in each cell, placed side by side, but generally only one seed in each becomes perfectly ripe. As the seeds advance, the fleshy tube of the calyx swells out and becomes what we call the apple; while the leafy part or lobes of the limb remain on, and form the eye. Fruit of this kind are called pomes.

Fig. 28.—Fruit and part of the Flower of the Pear.

The Pear (Pyrus communis) differs from the apple in the shape of the fruit (see a in fig. 28), which tapers towards the footstalk, instead of being umbilicate, that is, indented at the point of the insertion of the footstalk, as is the case with the Apple. The construction of the flowers in both species is the same, except that the styles are quite free for their whole length in the Pear, and not partially united into a column as in the Apple. This distinction, and some others, have been thought, by some botanists, sufficient to constitute the Apple and its allied species into a separate genus under the name of Malus. The leaves of the Pear differ from those of the Apple in being the same colour on both surfaces, whereas those of the Apple are covered with a white down on the under side.

Besides the Apple and the Pear, and their respective allies, which form two distinct sections of the genus Pyrus, that genus, being a very extensive one, is divided into several other sections, all the plants contained in which may be arranged under two heads: viz., those that formerly constituted the genus Sorbus; and those that were once called Aronia.

Fig. 29.—Flower and fruit of the Mountain Ash.

The Mountain Ash (Pyrus aucuparia) may be considered as a fair specimen of most of the trees belonging to the Sorbus division. By the details of the flowers of this species given in fig. 29, it will be seen that the petals (a) are very small and concave; and the calyx (b) is tubular, and five-cleft. There are three styles, as shown at c; and the stamens (d), which project far beyond the petals, are inserted in the disk. The fruit (e) is a pome with three seeds (f) enclosed in a cartilaginous membrane, like the core of the apple or pear. The leaves of the Mountain Ash are impari-pinnate, that is, they consist of several pairs of leaflets, terminating in an odd one; and the flowers are produced in corymbs. The White Beam-tree (Pyrus Aria), the wild Service (P. torminalis), and several similar trees, belong to this division and have the same kind of fruit as the Mountain Ash. The true Service, however, differs in its fruit being generally shaped like a pear, though there is a variety with apple-shaped fruit. One species (P. pinnatifida) has the leaves lobed to the midrib, instead of being cut into leaflets; and this gives the name to the species, leaves of this description being called pinnatifid. The leaves of the genus Pyrus often have their petioles dilated and somewhat stem-clasping at the base; but they have generally only small stipules.

Among the other plants included in the genus Pyrus, may be mentioned the beautiful shrub now called Pyrus arbutifolia, which has been successively included in the genera Cratægus, Aronia, and Mespilus; and P. Chamæmespilus, which has been successively called Cratægus, Mespilus, and Sorbus. There are several beautiful low shrubs belonging to this division of the genus Pyrus.

The genus Cydonia, the Quince, differs from Pyrus in having its seeds arranged in longitudinal rows, instead of being placed side by side. In the Chinese Quince there are thirty seeds in each row, arranged lengthways of the fruit. The ovary of this genus consists of five cells, each containing one row of seeds, the seeds being covered with a kind of mucilaginous pulp. The well-known plant, formerly called Pyrus japonica, has been removed to the genus Cydonia on account of its ovary and the disposition of its seeds, which are decidedly those of the Quince. It differs, however, from the common Quince in its seeds, which are arranged in two rows in each cell.

The common Hawthorn (Cratægus Oxyacantha) has generally only two styles (see a, fig. 30), but the

Fig. 30.—Flower and fruit of the Hawthorn. number of styles varies in the many different species included in the genus from one to five. The corolla, calyx, and stamens are the same as in the other genera included in this tribe, but the petals (b) are rounder and rather more indented. The seeds vary from one to five, each being enclosed in a bony covering, or stone, the whole being surrounded by the fleshy part of the calyx, which forms the eatable part of the Haw. In some of the species the haws are so large as to appear like little apples; but they may be always easily distinguished by the ripe ovary, or case which incloses the seed, being bony; whereas in all the varieties of Pyrus, the outer part of the ovary is cartilaginous, like the core of the apple. The seeds of the Hawthorn are a long time before they come up, from the hardness of this bony covering, which does not open naturally when ripe. The species composing the genus Raphiolepis, the Indian Hawthorn, have been separated from Cratægus; chiefly on account of the covering which encloses the seeds being of a paper-like texture, instead of bony, and each cell containing two seeds. The limb of the calyx also falls off before the fruit is ripe, instead of remaining on to form what is called an eye, as it does in the common Hawthorn. The leaves of the plants belonging to this genus vary in the different species; but those of the common Hawthorn are wedge-shaped, and cut deeply into three or five lobes.

The different species which compose the genus Cratægus were formerly considered to belong to the genus Mespilus. This genus, which is now almost confined to the common Medlar (Mespilus germanica), agrees with Cratægus in having each seed enclosed in a bony covering, but it differs in the limb of the calyx being in large leafy segments; and in the disk being very large and visible even when the fruit is ripe, from the tubular part of the calyx not closing over it.

Among the plants formerly included in the genus Mespilus, may be mentioned Photinia serrulata, and Eriobotrya japonica, both natives of Japan. The first of these was once called Cratægus glabra, and it is remarkable for its beautiful glossy leaves, which are of a deep green when old, and beautifully tinged with red when young; the flowers are white, and they are produced in what botanists call corymbose panicles. There are some other species of the genus Photinia, but only two or three are common in British gardens. Eriobotrya japonica, the Loquat-tree, was formerly called Mespilus japonica. It is remarkable for its large and handsome leaves, which are woolly on the under side. The flowers, which are small and white, are produced in large panicles, and they are followed by large pendulous bunches of the yellow pear-shaped fruit, which is covered with a woolly substance, and hence the botanic name Eriobotrya, which signifies woolly grapes. The tree will stand out in the open air in England, and it will flower freely in a greenhouse, but it requires a stove to ripen its fruit.

Cotoneaster and Amelanchier were also formerly included in Mespilus, and they are very closely allied to Photinia and Eriobotrya. The species belonging to Photinia, however, are easily known by their shining leaves, and the petals of their flowers being reflexed, that is, curved back; and the species of Eriobotrya are distinguished by their woolliness, which spreads over even the flowers and fruit. The Cotoneasters are known by the small petals of their flowers, which curve inwards, and remain a long time without falling. The leaves are also thick, and woolly or clothed with rusty hair on the under side; and the flowers, which are produced in cymes or panicles, with woolly pedicels, are followed by bright red haws, resembling those of the hawthorn. Lastly, the genus Amelanchier is known by its long narrow petals, and its ovary having five or ten cells, with five styles united at the base.

TRIBE VI.—SANGUISORBEÆ.

The plants included in this tribe agree more or less with the common Burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis). This plant, which is found in great abundance in rich meadows on calcareous soils, has its flowers produced in a close terminal spike. The flowers have no petals, but the calyx, which is four-cleft, is pink, and there are four glossy brown bracts to each flower; so that, on the whole, the flowers are rather ornamental, notwithstanding their want of petals. There are only four stamens, and two carpels with slender styles and pointed stigmas. The leaves are pinnate, consisting generally of nine leaflets, and each pair of leaflets is furnished with two stipules. The Alchemilla, or Ladies’ Mantle, is nearly allied to the Burnet; but the flowers are in small corymbs, instead of spikes. The flowers have no petals; but the limb of the calyx is coloured, and divided into eight unequal segments. There are generally four stamens and only one style, though sometimes there are two. The ovary contains one or two carpels, each containing a single seed, and these when ripe are enclosed in a capsule, formed by the tubular part of the calyx becoming hardened. The leaves are lobed, plaited, and serrated at the margin; and those of the Alpine species (A. alpina), which is often found wild on the Scotch mountains, are covered with a beautiful silky substance of the most brilliant whiteness.

CHAPTER IV.

THE ORDER ONAGRACEÆ: ILLUSTRATED BY THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUCHSIA; ŒNOTHERA, OR THE EVENING TREE-PRIMROSE; GODETIA; EPILOBIUM, OR THE FRENCH WILLOW-HERB; AND CLARKIA.

The type of this order is considered to be the common evening Tree-primrose (Œnothera biennis), and it takes its name from Onagra, the name given by Tournefort to the genus. The Fuchsia seems so unlike the Œnothera, that it appears difficult to any but a botanist to trace the connexion between them; but, botanically, they agree in the position of the ovary, which in both is so placed as to seem rather to belong to the flower-stalk than to the flower; and this peculiarity is found in all the genera included in the order. The parts of the flowers are also always either two, four, eight, or twelve; as, for example, there are four petals and eight stamens in both the Fuchsia and the Œnothera.

THE GENUS FUCHSIA.

Little more than fifty years ago, the first Fuchsia was introduced into England; and we are told that small plants of it were sold at a guinea each. Now more than twenty species, and innumerable hybrids and varieties, are in common cultivation, and we find them not only in greenhouses and windows, but planted in the open air as common border shrubs. The first Fuchsia seen in England was F. coccinea, introduced in 1788; and this species is still common in our gardens. It was followed about 1796 by F. lycoides; and after that no other species was introduced till 1821, since when a full tide of Fuchsias has kept pouring in upon our gardens, from the different parts of Mexico, South America, and New Zealand, to the present time.

All the Fuchsias were formerly divided into two sections; the plants in one of which having the stamens and pistil concealed, and those in the other having the stamens and style exserted, that is, projecting beyond the other parts of the flower. The first division comprises all the small-flowered kinds; such as F. microphylla, thymifolia, cylindracea, and bacillaris, all which have the lobes of the calyx short, and the petals partially concealed. F. parviflora belongs to this division, but it is distinguished by its glaucous leaves with an entire margin; and F. lycoides is also included in it; though this last seems to form the connecting link between the two sections, as both its petals and its style and stamens are partially exposed. The second division comprises all the kinds which have long projecting stamens.

As the general arrangement of the parts of the flower is nearly the same in both divisions, fig. 31, which represents the section of a flower of F. cylindracea, from the Botanical Register, will give my readers a clear idea of the botanical construction of the Fuchsia. In this figure, a shows two cells of the ovary (which when entire

Fig. 31.—Section of the flower of Fuchsia cylindracea. is four-celled, opening when ripe into four valves), with the seeds attached to a central placenta. This ovary is surrounded and protected by the dilated disk, which also serves as a lining to the tubular part of the calyx, b. The anthers, in this division, have very short filaments, which are inserted in the lining of the calyx, as shown at c; d is the style, which, in fact, consists of four styles united together, and which divides near the apex into four stigmas; e e are two of the four lobes of the calyx; and f is one of the four petals.

In the second division, of which F. coccinea may be considered the type, the calyx and the corolla are of different colours. In fig. 32, which shows a flower of F. discolor, the Port Famine Fuchsia, the calyx (a) is scarlet and the most ornamental part of the flower, while the petals (b) are purple, and wrapped over each

Fig. 32.—Fuchsia discolor. other. The ovary (c) is green, and when the petals and calyx fall off, it swells into a berry, which becomes of a dark purple when ripe. F. globosa differs from F. coccinea in the flowers being shorter and more globose, while the limb of the calyx curves inward. In F. macrostemma, a well-known Fuchsia, the lobes of the limb of the calyx are, on the contrary, recurved, that is, turned backwards. This formation is common, more or less, to several other species. In F. excorticata, the New Zealand Fuchsia, there is a large fleshy knot at the base of the calyx, and strong ribs running up the lobes; the calyx is green when young, but it afterwards becomes crimson; and the petals are very small. This species is so different from the others, that it was at first described as a new genus, under the name of Skinnera. The calyx is green at first, but it afterwards becomes crimson. F. arborea has pale-purplish flowers, and, like F. lycoides, forms a connecting link between the two sections, the stamens being only a little exserted, and the petals hidden.

F. radicans, the only Fuchsia yet discovered with a creeping stem, which was introduced in 1841, belongs to this division.

These sections include all the Fuchsias known in British gardens previously to 1835; but since that period, two kinds have been introduced, which belong to a third division. These are F. fulgens and F. corymbiflora. In these plants the tube of the calyx is about two inches long, and the lobes are very short. The petals are also short, and scarlet or deep-rose colour, though not exactly of the same hue as the calyx. The leaves are large, with the midribs and veins red; and the branches and pedicels are also of a dark reddish purple.

THE GENUS ŒNOTHERA.

In the description of the botanical construction of the Fuchsia, my readers may have observed, that the ovary is placed below the calyx, and quite distinct from it. The same construction is still more visible in the Œnothera, as the tube of the calyx is very slender, and often more than two inches long, while the ovary is often vase- shaped, and of large size. The calyx of Œnothera biennis, the common Evening or Tree Primrose, consists of four sepals growing together in the lower part, so as to form a long tube (a in fig. 33), and with the upper part or limb generally in two segments (b), which are bent quite back when the corolla expands, and which may be easily divided with a pin into four. There are four petals in the corolla (c), and they are placed so as to wrap over each other at the base. The calyx is lined with the dilated receptacle, and in this lining are inserted the filaments of the eight stamens (as shown at d); the stamens having versatile anthers, that is, anthers attached to the filament by the middle, so as to quiver at every breath. The pollen contained in the cells of these anthers feels clammy when touched; and its particles, when magnified, will be found to be triangular, and connected by small threads, a form of construction peculiar to this genus and its allies. The style is long, and the stigma is four-cleft. The ovary (e e) is situated at the base of the calyx, and when ripe, it becomes a four-celled dry capsule, which bursts into four valves, opening at top to discharge the seed. The seeds, when young, are attached to the central placenta, and they are quite free from hair or wool of any kind.

Fig. 33.—The Evening Primrose (Œnothera biennis).

The genus Œnothera being a very extensive one, it has been divided by M. Spach, a German botanist residing in Paris, into fourteen new genera; but only one, or at most two, of these genera have been adopted by other botanists. One of these Godetia, which embraces all the purple-flowered kinds, has been divided from Œnothera, on account of a slight feathery appearance on the seeds; whereas the seeds of the true yellow-flowered Œnotheras are naked, that is, without the slightest appearance of any feathery substance or wing. The other genus, Boisduvalia Spach, includes only two species, both with pink flowers, which are very seldom seen in British gardens. The generic mark of distinction consists in four of the stamens in these species being shorter than the other four; whereas in the true Œnotheras all the eight stamens are of equal length. As M. Spach’s other genera have not been adopted by any British botanist, it is not worth while troubling my readers with the distinctions between them. The flowers of the yellow Œnotheras only open in the evening, or in cloudy weather; but those of the purple kinds, or Godetias, remain open all day. The leaves in both kinds are alternate.

THE GENUS EPILOBIUM.

Fig. 34.—Epilobium roseum. This genus is well known, by the showy plant often seen in shrubberies, called the French Willow-Herb—(Epilobium angustifolium), and the English weed called Codlings-and-Cream (E. hirsutum). In this genus, the tubular part of the calyx which incloses the ovary, is quadrangular, as shown at a in fig. 34, which represents seed-vessels of Epilobium roseum, a very common weed in the neighbourhood of London. The limb of the calyx is four-cleft, and the corolla has four petals; and when these fall off, the ovary assumes the appearance shown at a. The quadrangular form is retained by the capsule, which, when it ripens, bursts open into the four valves (b), and discharges the seed which was attached to the central placenta (c); each seed being furnished with a little feathery tuft resembling pappus, as shown

Fig. 35.—Seed of Epilobium. in fig. 35. The genus Epilobium is divided into two sections; the plants in one of which have irregular petals, the stamens bent, and the stigma divided into four lobes, as in the French Willow-Herb, and the other showy species; and the plants in the other section having small flowers with regular petals, erect stamens, and the stigma undivided.

THE GENUS CLARKIA.

The calyx in this genus is tubular, with the limb in two or four lobes, as in Œnothera. The corolla is, however, very different, the four petals being unguiculate or clawed; that is, so much narrower in the lower part as to stand widely apart from each other; they are also three lobed. The stamens are very different, only four of them being perfect, and the anthers of the other four being wasted and destitute of pollen; and the stigma is divided into four leaf-like lobes, very different from those of all the other genera included in the order. The capsule is cylindrical in shape, and furrowed on the outside; it is four-celled, and when ripe, it bursts open by four valves. The seeds are quite naked.

Among the other genera belonging to this order, I may mention the following: Gaura, the petals of which are somewhat unguiculate, like those of Clarkia, but not three-lobed as in that genus; the segments of the limb of the calyx often adhere two together, so as to appear three instead of four; the ovary is one-celled, and the seeds naked: Lopezia, which has apparently five irregular petals, though, on examination, one will be found to be a metamorphosed stamen, a four-cleft calyx, two stamens, including the one converted into a petal, and a globular, four-celled capsule: and Circæa, or Enchanter’s Nightshade, which has the limb of the calyx apparently in only two segments, and only two petals and two stamens; the capsule is globular like that of Lopezia, but it is covered with very small hooked bristles, and it is divided into only two cells, each containing only one seed.

CHAPTER V.

THE ORDER RUBIACEÆ: ILLUSTRATED BY THE CINCHONA, OR PERUVIAN BARK; LUCULIA GRATISSIMA; CAPE JASMINE; RONDELETIA; COFFEE; IXORA; IPECACUANHA; MADDER; GALIUM; WOODRUFF; AND CRUCINELLA STYLOSA.

This order contains more than two hundred genera; but by far the greater part of these are composed of tropical plants, many of which are not yet introduced into Britain. Several of the genera, on the other hand, are British weeds; and this difference in habit, with others in the qualities of the plants, &c., have occasioned some botanists to divide the order into two: one of the new orders being called Cinchonaceæ, and containing the plants most resembling Cinchona; and the other Galiaceæ, containing the plants most nearly allied to Galium or Bedstraw.

The characteristics of Rubiaceæ, in its most extended sense, are that the ovary is surrounded by the calyx, and placed below the rest of the flower; and that the corolla has a long tube, lined with the dilated receptacle, in which the stamens are inserted. In most of the species, the filaments are very short, and the anthers nearly or entirely hidden in the corolla; and in many cases, the segments of the calyx remain on the ripe fruit, as they do in the genus Pyrus in Rosaceæ, where they form what is called the eye in the apple and pear.

The qualities of the Cinchona division of the Rubiaceæ are generally tonic; but some of the plants, as for example the Ipecacuanha, are used as emetics, and one (Randia dumetorum) is poisonous. The qualities of the Galium division are not so decidedly marked; but the roots of some of the plants are used for dyeing.

THE GENUS CINCHONA, AND ITS ALLIES.

Fig. 36.—Cinchona, Peruvian Bark (Cinchona Lanceolata).

The well-known medicine called Peruvian bark is produced by three species of the genus Cinchona; the pale bark, which is considered the best, being that of C. lanceolata. The flowers of this species are small, and of a very pale pink. The calyx (see a in fig. 36) is bell-shaped, and five-toothed; and the corolla (b) is tubular, with the limb divided into five lobes, and silky within, as shown in the magnified section at c. The stamens (d) have very short filaments, which are inserted in the throat of the corolla. The ovary (e), which is deeply furrowed when young, is inclosed in the calyx; it is two-celled, with a single style, and a two-lobed stigma (f). The capsules retain the lobes of the calyx as a sort of crown (g); and they open naturally at the division between the two cells, as shown at h, beginning at the base. The cells (i) each contain several seeds. C. oblongifolia, which yields the red bark of the shops, has cream-coloured flowers, as large as those of a Jasmine, which they resemble in shape; and C. cordifolia, which produces the yellow bark, has flowers like the first species, and heart-shaped leaves. The singular plant called Hillia longiflora, is nearly allied to Cinchona; as is also the beautiful and delightfully fragrant Luculia gratissima. In this last plant the tube of the calyx is very short, and pear-shaped, and the segments of the limb are short, and sharply pointed. The corolla is salver-shaped, with a long tube, and a spreading, five-parted limb. The anthers are nearly sessile, and the short filaments to which they are at tached are inserted in the throat of the corolla, only the tips of the anthers being visible. The stigma is divided into two fleshy lobes, and the capsule splits, not like that of Cinchona, but from the apex to the base in the centre of each cell. The seeds are very small, and each has a toothed, membranous wing. The flowers of this beautiful plant are produced in a large head, and at first sight greatly resemble those of a Hydrangea; but they are easily distinguished by their delightful fragrance.

Manettia cordifolia, a very pretty stove-twiner often seen in collections, is very nearly allied to Luculia, differing principally in the shape of the flowers, which in Manettia have a long tube and a very small limb. Bouvardia triphylla and the other species of Bouvardia, and Pinckneya pubescens, belong to this division; and such of my readers as have the living plants to refer to, will find it both interesting and instructive to dissect them and compare the parts of their flowers with the description I have given of Luculia and Cinchona, so as to discover the difference between the different genera; afterwards reading the generic character of each given in botanical works, that they may see how far they were right.

THE GENUS GARDENIA AND ITS ALLIES.

The Cape Jasmine (Gardenia radicans) is a well-known greenhouse plant, remarkable for the heavy fragrance of its large white flowers, which die off a pale yellow, or buff. The calyx has a ribbed tube, and the limb is parted into long awl-shaped segments. The corolla is salver-shaped, that is, it has a long tube and a spreading limb, the limb being twisted in the bud. There are from five to nine anthers, having very short filaments which are inserted in the throat of the corolla. The stigma is divided into two erect fleshy lobes. The ovary is one-celled, but there are some traces of membranes, which would, if perfect, have divided it into from two to five cells. The seeds are numerous and very small. Gardenia radicans is a dwarf plant, which flowers freely when of very small size, and is easily propagated from the readiness with which its stem throws out roots; but G. florida is a shrub five or six feet high, and much more difficult to cultivate. In both species the flowers are generally double, and the petals are of a fleshy substance, which gives the corolla a peculiarly wax-like appearance.

There are many other species, but the two above-mentioned are the most common in British gardens. Burchellia capensis is gene rally considered to belong to this division of Rubiaceæ, though its flowers bear more resemblance to those of Cinchona; and the singular plant called Mussæuda pubescens, the flowers of which are small and yellow, but the bracts are so large and so brilliantly white as to look like flowers; Posoqueria versicolor, an ornamental plant lately introduced, belong to this division.

THE GENUS RONDELETIA AND ITS ALLIES.

Rondeletia odorata, sometimes called R. coccinea, and sometimes R. speciosa, is a very

Fig. 37.—Section of the flower of Rondeletia. fragrant stove shrub, a native of Cuba. The flowers are produced in corymbs, and their botanical construction is shown in the magnified section fig. 37. In this a is the ovary inclosed in a hairy calyx; b shows the limb of the calyx cut into awl-shaped segments; c shows the manner in which the very short filaments of the anthers are inserted in the throat of the corolla; d shows the termination of the dilated receptacle which lines the tube of the corolla; and e the segments of the limb. I have given the section of this flower, that my readers may compare it with the section of the flower of the Cinchona in fig. 36,

Fig. 38.—Part of the head of flowers of Rondeletia. in p. 87, and may see the general resemblance which connects the two plants in the same order, and the differences which mark them to be of different genera. Fig. 38 is a tuft of flowers of Rondeletia odorata. Wendlandia is nearly allied to Rondeletia; as is the magnificent Portlandia grandiflora, which somewhat resembles Brugmansia lutea in shape though not in colour, as its flowers are white.

THE GENUS COFFEA AND ITS ALLIES.

The Coffee-tree (Coffea arabica) differs from the other Rubiaceæ in the tube of its calyx being very short and disappearing when the ovary begins to swell; and in the filaments of the stamens being sufficiently long to allow the anthers to be seen above the throat of the corolla (see a in fig. 39). The limb of the corolla (b) is five-cleft, and the style (c) bifid. Each ovary when its flower falls, becomes distended into a berry (d) or rather drupe, containing the nut e, in which are two seeds, flat on one side, and convex on the other, which are placed with the flat sides together, as shown at f; each seed having a deep longitudinal groove, as shown at g. These seeds are our coffee.

Fig. 39.—Coffee. (Coffea Arabica.)

The flowers of Ixora coccinea have the same general construction as those of the other plants of the order. The calyx has an ovate tube, and a very small four-toothed limb; and the corolla is salver-shaped, with a long and very slender tube, and a four-parted spreading limb. There are four anthers inserted in the throat of the tube of the corolla, and just appearing beyond it, and rising a little above them is the point of the style with its two-cleft stigma. The berry is two-celled, but it differs from that of the coffee in retaining the lobes of the calyx, which form a sort of crown. There are many kinds of Ixora, all stove shrubs, and all conspicuous for their large heads or rather corymbs of showy flowers. The genus Pavetta has been divided from Ixora, principally because the species composing it have the style projecting considerably beyond the corolla, instead of only just appearing above it.

The drug called Ipecacuanha is the produce of two plants belonging to this order, Cephælis Ipecacuanha and Richardsonia scabra; though a spurious kind is made from the roots of three species of Viola, all natives of South America, and a still inferior one from the roots of a kind of Euphorbia, a native of Virginia and Carolina. It is important to know this, as the best kinds possess tonic properties as well as emetic ones, while the inferior kinds are only emetics, and they are very injurious if taken frequently. The best brown Ipecacuanha is the powdered root of Cephælis Ipecacuanha; a plant with small white flowers collected into a globose head, which is shrouded in an involucre closely resembling a common calyx. The true calyx to each separate flower is small and roundish, with a very short five-toothed limb. The corolla is funnel-shaped, with five small bluntish lobes. The anthers are inclosed in the corolla, and the stigma, which is two-cleft, projects only a little beyond them. The berries are two-celled and two-seeded, and they retain the lobes of the calyx. The root is fleshy and creeping. Richardsonia scabra, which produces the white Ipecacuanha, has its flowers also in heads, but the calyx is larger in proportion to the corolla, and the stamens and style are both visible. The capsule contains three or four one-seeded nuts, crowned by the calyx; which, however, becomes loosened at the base, and falls off, before the seeds are quite ripe. Cephalanthus, Spermacoce, and Crusea, are nearly allied to Richardsonia.

The above plants all agree, more or less, with Cinchona, in their qualities, and they are all included by Dr. Lindley in the order Cinchonaceæ.

THE GENUS GALIUM AND ITS ALLIES.