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1000 THINGS WORTH KNOWING

1000 THINGS WORTH
KNOWING

"That all who read may know"

BY

NATHANIEL C. FOWLER, JR.

AUTHOR OF "HOW TO OBTAIN CITIZENSHIP," "STARTING
IN LIFE," "THE ART OF LETTER WRITING,"
"HANDBOOK OF JOURNALISM," ETC.

NEW YORK

SULLY AND KLEINTEICH

Copyright, 1913, by

SULLY AND KLEINTEICH

All rights reserved.

PREFACE

This book contains more than one thousand facts, many of which are not generally known to the average person; but all of them are of interest to humankind, and a knowledge of many of them is essential.

The author has used the simplest English, and has avoided, as far as possible, all technical or scientific terms. He has endeavored not to fall into the common error of making his explanations harder to understand than the subjects treated.

This book is not intended for the scientist, nor does it claim to be exhaustive.

In the space of a few hundred pages the writer has presented the thousand or more things which are really worth knowing, and which are usually described at unprofitable length and without that simplicity of expression so essential to clearness.

To find what you want consult the [Index].

Abbreviations in Common Use

Abbreviations given are those which are frequently used. For complete list of abbreviations, the reader is referred to any unabridged dictionary.

A. B. or B. A.—Bachelor of Arts.

A. D.—In the Year of Our Lord.

Agt.—agent.

A. M. or M. A.—Master of Arts.

bbl.—barrel.

B. Agr.—Bachelor of Agriculture.

B. C.—Before Christ.

B. D.—Bachelor of Divinity.

B. L.—Bachelor of Laws.

B. M. or B. Mus.—Bachelor of Music.

B. Pd.—Bachelor of Pedagogy.

B. Ph.—Bachelor of Philosophy.

B. S.—Bachelor of Surgery.

B. S. or B. Sc.—Bachelor of Science.

Capt.—Captain.

C. E.—Civil Engineer.

C. O. D.—Cash (collect) on Delivery.

Col.—Colonel.

D. C.—District of Columbia, District Court.

D. C. L.—Doctor of Canon Law.

D. D. S. or D. M. D.—Doctor of Dental Surgery.

D.D.—Doctor of Divinity.

D. Litt.—Doctor of Literature.

D. M. or D. Mus.—Doctor of Music.

D. Ph.—Doctor of Philosophy.

Dr.—Doctor.

D. Sc.—Doctor of Science.

D. V. S.—Doctor of Veterinary Surgery.

E. D.—Doctor of Electricity.

E. E.—Electrical Engineer.

F. O. B.—Free on board.

G. A. R.—Grand Army of the Republic.

Gen. or Gen'l—General.

Gov.—Governor.

Hon.—Honorable.

i. e.—that is.

int.—interest.

J. C. D.—Doctor of Civil Law.

J. D.—Doctor of Laws.

J. P.—Justice of the Peace.

Jr. or Jun.—Junior.

lat.—latitude.

lb.—pound.

Lieut. or Lt.—Lieutenant.

Litt. B. or Lit. B.—Bachelor of Literature.

Litt. D. or Lit. D.—Doctor of Literature.

LL. B.—Bachelor of Laws.

LL. D.—Doctor of Laws.

M. Agr.—Master of Agriculture.

Maj.—Major.

M. C.—Member of Congress.

M. D.—Doctor of Medicine.

M. P.—Member of Parliament

M. P. C.—Member of Parliament in Canada.

M. S.—Master of Science.

ms.—manuscript

Mus. B.—Bachelor of Music.

Mus. D.—Doctor of Music.

Pd. B.—Bachelor of Pedagogy.

Pd. D.—Doctor of Pedagogy.

Ph. B.—Bachelor of Philosophy.

Ph. D.—Doctor of Philosophy.

P. M.—Postmaster.

P. O.—Post Office.

Prof.—Professor.

P. S.—Postscript.

Rev.—Reverend.

S. B. or Sc. B.—Bachelor of Science.

Sc. D.—Doctor of Science.

S. T. B.—Bachelor of Sacred Theology.

S. T. D.—Doctor of Sacred Theology.

Rt. Hon.—Right Honorable.

Rt. Rev.—Right Reverend.

V. Rev.—Very Reverend.

yd.—yard.

yr.—year.

Acetylene Gas.—Acetylene gas is used largely for the search-lamps on automobiles. It is composed of carbon and hydrogen.

Adventists.—A religious sect whose members believe that the second coming of Christ is near at hand. There are over 100,000 communicants and ministers.

Æolian Harp.—This instrument was invented in the 17th century and was named after Æolus, the god of the winds. It is of the simplest construction, and its music is produced by the vibration of the strings automatically moved by the winds. In construction it is a rectangular box of thin boards of a few inches in depth and width and of sufficient length to extend across a window so that the breeze may pass through it. The strings are stretched lengthwise across the top of the box, and may be tuned by increasing or decreasing their tension.

Age.—About 50 per cent. of the persons living in the United States are under 20 years of age, 45 per cent. from 20 to 60 years, and 5 per cent. over 60 years, the average age being about 25 years. This average seems low, and is due largely to infant mortality. If the percentage was taken excluding those under 15 years of age it would be very much higher.

Agricultural Implement Industry.—Capital invested, about $260,000,000, and an annual output of about $150,000,000. About 60,000 people are employed.

Alaska.—Alaska is the only territory of the United States, the Hawaiian Islands, Porto Rico, and the Philippines being known as Possessions. It has an area of over 590,000 square miles, and a population of about 65,000. Its climate is semipolar.

Algebra.—The discoverer or the first user of algebra is unknown. It is said that Diophantus wrote it in 170 A. D., and he may have been its inventor. It was brought into Spain in about 900. Its signs are said to have been used first in 1544, but algebra did not come into common use until 1590. Descartes applied algebra to geometry in 1637.

Almanacs.—The word "almanac" is of Saxon origin, and probably the first almanac was published in 1470, and the first in English in 1673.

Amazons.—An ancient body of warlike women, ruled by a queen, who allowed no man to live with them. They were opposed to marriage and resolved to form a female state. They burned off their right breasts that they might better use the bow and javelin. This custom is the origin of the name "Amazons" or "breastless ones."

Apostles' Creed.—Considered by most Biblical students as the earliest form of Christian creed. It is attributed directly to the Apostles. It is doubtless the formula of belief that existed in all the early Latin churches. It was made a part of public worship of the Christian church at Antioch, and introduced into the Roman Catholic Church in the eleventh century, and subsequently into the Church of England.

April Fool's Day.—Its origin is unknown, but it is supposed to follow an ancient pageant custom of playing tricks on the first day of April.

Arbor Day.—A few years ago the United States and Canada officially set apart one day in the year for the planting of trees, shrubs, etc. It was the intention to have this day observed chiefly by the children of the public schools. Its observance has resulted in the planting of millions of trees.

Arithmetic.—While the inventor or discoverer of arithmetic is unknown, it is said that it was brought from Egypt into Greece in 600 B. C. Euclid is the author of the oldest treatise upon arithmetic and wrote it about 300 B. C. The arithmetic of decimals began in 1482, and the first arithmetic in English was printed in 1522.

Artesian Wells.—An artesian well is one made by boring perpendicularly into the earth. The oldest known well of this kind was sunk in Europe in 1126. Probably the most famous one is near Paris, which was bored in 1833, bringing water from a depth of 1792 feet. From this well 516 gallons of water flow per minute. In Missouri there is one well 2197 feet deep, and another nearly 4000 feet deep. The invention of the artesian well is undoubtedly due to the Chinese.

Artificial Ice.—The artificial manufacture of ice is of somewhat recent origin, and there are over 2,000 ice-making plants in the United States, exclusive of those used by breweries, packers, and others for the making of their own ice. Artificial ice-making showed an increase of 81 per cent. during the last few years.

Atlantic Cable.—The original or, rather, the first permanent cable, was laid in July, 1866, connecting Ireland with Newfoundland; but an earlier cable was laid between the foregoing points, which was lost in construction. This lost cable, however, was recovered and completed.

In 1868 a cable was laid from France to Duxbury, Mass. In 1873 the fourth Atlantic cable connected Ireland and Trinity Bay, New Foundland. Several cables have been subsequently laid, and are maintained.

Considerable difficulty was experienced in obtaining the right kind, and a sufficient current, of electricity, which would carry the message several thousand miles under water, and not pass from the cable into the water itself.

Two keys are used, which, when depressed, transmit respectively positive and negative currents coming from the connected batteries. The current does not pass directly into the cable, but enters what is known as a condenser, and from there reaches the wire itself. This increases the force of the current and overcomes interfering earth currents.

Originally the messages were received by a reflecting galvanometer. Upon the magnet of this instrument was placed a small curved mirror, and in front of it was a lighted lamp behind a frame with a vertical slit. The light from the lamp passed through the slit and fell upon the surface of the mirror. The flashes of light moving with the movements of the suspended needle, indicated the message sent. Because of the delicacy of the instrument, it was difficult to translate the telegraphic code. The system has been entirely superseded by the use of the syphon galvanometer. This needle is affected by the currents, and moves in response to the opening and closing of the telegraphic key. It consists of a small hollow needle, which swings between two fixed magnets. A very soluble analine ink is allowed to flow through the tube. The mouth of this tube is suspended a very small fraction above a strip or roll of white paper, which moves automatically. The vibration or movements of the needle allow the ink to flow in irregular lines or curves upon the moving paper. These irregularities or curves indicate letters, which are easily read by the receiving operator.

Cable dispatches now are recorded, when formerly they had to be read as they were seen, with the impossibility of retaining an automatic record of them.

Professor Morse, the inventor of telegraphy, may be considered the inventor of the cable, although he had little to do with its mechanical construction. To Mr. Cyrus W. Field must be given much of the credit, for its accomplishment was largely due to his foresight and energy.

The cable consists of several copper wires imbedded in gutta percha or similar substance, which is one of the best nonconductors of electricity. The cable, with its several wires and coverings or insulation, has a circumference equal to that of the old-fashioned three-cent piece. Several wires are imbedded into the insulation, so as to insure better connection.

The cable is laid by steamers built for the purpose. They travel over a charted route, and, unscientifically speaking, throw the cable overboard. Of course, no cable could be constructed of a length that would reach across the ocean. New pieces are, therefore, spliced in as conditions require. If the sea is too rough for the laying of the cable, the end is buoyed and picked up when the weather changes. The cable lies upon the bottom of the ocean, and, as the bottom of the ocean is as irregular as the surface of the earth, with its mountains, plateaus, and valleys, there is always danger of the cable being broken or injured, although there is, of course, absolute quiet at the bottom of the ocean. Then, many feet, or even a mile, of cable may be stretched between two projecting points, and the strain may part it in time.

The process of locating a break or injury is very interesting. The cable fails to work. The operator stationed at either end discharges electricity into the cable, and, although it does not reach the other side, he can, by a delicate instrument, locate approximately the place of parting or where injury has occurred. The repair steamer sails for the place. With grappling irons it brings the cable to the surface; but as the location of the break cannot be determined accurately, the electrician on board must determine which way to sail to locate the place of the trouble. He attaches the cable to a battery on board, and opens connection with the land. If the break, for example, is between him and Europe, the European operator will not respond, but he will receive a reply from the American operator. He then directs the vessel's course towards Europe. The cable, when it is taken on board, is run on pulley wheels, one in the bow and one in the stern of the vessel, and the vessel sails slowly under the cable. As the vessel is two or three hundred feet long, several hundred feet of cable will be exposed. The cable is watched carefully, and the break or injury will be easily located. When it is, the operator connects the cable with the batteries, and then telegraphs in the direction opposite to that from which he received a reply. If his message goes through, the receiving operator will respond. If a reply comes, he knows he has located the break; if no reply is received, there must be other breaks in the same direction. The break is repaired, and the steamer sails on until it finds another break or injury. I have attempted to explain this in the simplest words. It is obvious that a scientific explanation would be unintelligible to the average reader.

Atmosphere.—While accurate figures are impossible, and while astronomers somewhat differ, it is generally conceded that the earth's atmosphere extends from the surface to an altitude of about 40 miles. It is theoretically or scientifically accepted that the density of the atmosphere at only a few miles from the surface of the earth is not sufficient to support life.

Aurora Borealis.—Until electricity was discovered, the origin of the aurora borealis was unknown, and was supposed to be of supernatural origin. Even to-day its exact composition or source is more or less of a mystery, but it is generally supposed that it is caused by the recomposition of positive and negative electricity. It exists only in the regions of the poles, although its light is seen to a moderate degree over the greater part of the earth.

Automobiles.—All vehicles used on the common highway, and propelled by any mechanical power, whether it be by steam, gasoline, or electricity, are known as automobiles or motor cars, and are frequently called "autos" for short. The invention of the automobile is very recent, although steam-propelled carriages were in existence more than 50 years ago. Exceeding a million are in daily use in the United States.

Bank of England.—Established in the city of London in 1694. Although a private institution, it is under Government control, and constitutes the Treasury of the Empire, England having no national treasury like that of the United States. It is managed by a governor, deputy-governor, and twenty-four directors.

Bastile.—The name given to a French prison, built between 1370 and 1383, originally as a fortress, but later used as a regular prison. It was destroyed by a mob in 1789. It was the seat of the terrible cruelties practiced in the early days.

Bayreuth Festival.—A musical festival held at the National Theatre in Bayreuth, Bavaria, which was built for the performance of the works of Wagner. The foundation stone of the building was laid in 1872, and Wagner himself opened the theatre in 1876 with a grand production of the "Nibelungen Trilogy."

Bible.—Between the eighth and tenth centuries parts of the Bible were translated into Anglo-Saxon, and in 1290 appeared an English version of the Psalms. In 1380 the New Testament was finished, and a little later the Old Testament was fully translated. The so-called King James Bible was published in 1610, and remained in common use until the present revisions were made.

Bible Statistics

The shortest chapter is Psalm cxvii; Ezra vii, 21, contains all the letters of the alphabet except j; Esther viii, 9, is the longest verse; John xi, 35, is the shortest verse. There is no word of more than six syllables in the Bible.

Bi-Metallism.—A monetary system in which gold and silver are put on the same plane as regards mintage and legal-tender.

Birth Stones.—January, garnet; February, amethyst; March, bloodstone or jasper; April, diamond or sapphire; May, emerald or carnelian; June, agate or chalcedony; July, ruby or onyx; August, sardonyx; September, chrysolite; October, opal or beryl; November, topaz; December, turquoise.

Blind.—In the United States there are about 65,000 blind persons, a little more than half of whom are totally blind. Of this number about 37,000 are males, and about 28,000 females.

Blood-heat.—The normal temperature of man is about 98-1/2° Fahrenheit. This temperature is maintained with a variation of not more than two degrees, whether one lives on the Equator or in the Arctic regions. Any great deviation is likely to prove fatal. Animals have about the same temperature as man, while the blood of birds is from eight to ten degrees warmer. Reptiles, fishes, and all invertebrates maintain temperatures about the same as that of their environment.

Blue-Grass Region.—An undulating plateau in the north-central part of Kentucky, covering about 10,000 square miles, is known as the Blue-Grass Region. The underlying rock for 150 or more feet is blue limestone, very rich in phosphate of lime. This rock crumbles on exposure to the air and enriches the soil. Tobacco and hemp have two crops a year and grow to a great height. Meadow grass grows continuously. The Blue-Grass Region for many years has been the centre of the blooded stock of America.

Boxers.—A Chinese secret society supposed to be semireligious and semipatriotic. The Boxers originally believed that they were immune from death or physical injury, and that they could, with safety, attack any foreign foe.

Brain.—As the action of the brain has not, as yet, been seen by man, no one, at the present day, knows just what it is, beyond its merely physiological or mechanical substance. It is said that the brain of the normal man contains over 300,000,000 cells, and that about 3,000 are destroyed every minute. If this is the case, then a new brain appears once in 60 days. The normal brain has a volume of from 58 to 105 cubic inches. The brain of the Anglo-Saxon and German, and of other civilized nations, averages the larger number, while the negro brain occupies a space of about 96 cubic inches, and some Australian natives have brains of only about 58 cubic inches. The male brain is about ten per cent. heavier or larger than that of the female. The most intelligent animals have only about 16 ounces of brains. The size of the brain, if it is not below normal, does not appear to influence the intellectuality of its possessor. Men with small brains may have larger mind capacity than some of those possessing brains weighing several ounces more. It would appear, then, that the size of the brain, unless it be unusually small, has little to do with its quality.

Bread.—It is said that the Chinese were the first bread makers, and that they made bread from wheat and rice as early as 1998 B. C. Probably the first bread made from yeast was baked in England in about 1634. Aërated bread, which rises from carbolic acid gas injected into the dough, became somewhat common in 1857, but practically all bread, bakery-made or home-made, owes its leavening to yeast or baking powder.

Breakfast Foods.—Breakfast foods in the main are composed of either corn, wheat, or oat products, a few being made of barley, starch, and tapioca. They are sold under trade names, and most of them need no cooking by the consumer, as they were properly cooked at the mill. Usually they are made of only one grain, and to some of them is added a small quantity of salt. Most of them are pure products and are unadulterated, but few, if any of them, are any better than the grain sold in bulk, which can be purchased for about 4 cents per pound.

Brook Farm.—A famous socialistic community, originated by George Ripley and others in 1841 and located near West Roxbury, Massachusetts. The estate consisted of two hundred acres, and a company of educated men and women settled here to work out an experiment, in which each person performed a certain share of necessary manual labor. The enterprise was abandoned as an utter failure in 1846. Among the persons connected with the movement were George Ripley, Charles A. Dana, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, George William Curtis, Theodore Parker, Margaret Fuller, and Dr. Channing.

Calculating Interest

To find the interest on any sum, at any rate per cent., and for any length of time: 1st. Multiply the principal by the rate per cent., expressed in hundredths; this will give the interest for one year. 2nd. Find the number of days remaining by consulting the calendar; and multiply the principal by as many hundredths as there are days, and for 3 per cent., divide the product by 120; for 4 per cent., divide by 90; for 5 per cent., divide by 72; for 6 per cent., divide by 60; for 7 per cent., divide by 52; for 8 per cent., divide by 45; for 9 per cent., divide by 40; for 10 per cent., divide by 36; and for 12 per cent., divide by 30. This will give the interest for the days. 3rd. Add the two items of interest, and the sum will be the entire interest.

To find the number of days from any day of any one month to the same day of any other month.

Canals.—The Suez Canal is 90 miles long with a depth of 35 feet, and is 108 feet wide at the bottom. It cost $100,000,000. The Manchester Canal, between Manchester and Liverpool, is 35-1/2 miles long, with a depth of 28 feet, and 120 feet wide at the bottom. It cost $85,000,000. The canal connecting the Baltic and North Seas is 61 miles long, 29-1/2 feet deep, and has a bottom width of 72 feet. It cost $40,000,000. The Panama Canal, which is not yet completed, will be about 50 miles in length, with a width of 300 feet, and a minimum depth of 41 feet. The United States Government paid $50,000,000 to the new French Canal Company and the Republic of Panama, for property rights and franchises, and the total cost of the canal will not be far from $375,000,000. At the present time nearly 50,000 men are at work upon the canal, and the official opening is announced for January 1, 1915. When completed, it will be the largest work of its class in the world, although not the longest canal.

Capacity of Cisterns or Wells.—For each ten inches in depth, a cistern 2 feet in diameter will hold 19 gallons; 2-1/2 ft., 30 g.; 3 ft., 44 g.; 3-1/2 ft., 60 g.; 4 ft., 78 g.; 4-1/2 ft., 97 g.; 5 ft., 122 g.; 5-1/2 ft., 148 g.; 6 ft., 176 g.; 6-1/2 ft., 207 g.; 7 ft., 240 g.; 7-1/2 ft., 275 g.; 8 ft., 313 g.; 8-1/2 ft., 353 g.; 9 ft., 396 g.; 9-1/2 ft., 461 g.; 10 ft., 489 g.; 11 ft., 592 g.; 12 ft., 705 g.; 13 ft., 827 g.; 14 ft., 959 g.; 15 ft.; 1101 g.; 20 ft., 1958 g.; 25 ft., 3059 g.

Capitol at Washington.—The Capitol is situated in latitude 38° 53´ 20´´.4 north and longitude 77° 00´ 35´´.7 west from Greenwich. It fronts east, and stands on a plateau eighty-eight feet above the level of the Potomac. The entire length of the building from north to south is 751 feet 4 inches, and its greatest dimension from east to west 350 feet. The area covered by the building is 153,112 square feet. The dome of the original central building was constructed of wood, covered with copper. This was replaced in 1856 by the present structure of cast iron. The entire weight of iron used is 8,909,200 pounds. The dome is crowned by a bronze statue of Freedom, which is nineteen feet, six inches, high and weighs 14,985 pounds. The height of the dome above the base line of the east front is 287 feet 5 inches. The height from the top of the balustrade of the building is 217 feet 11 inches. The greatest diameter at the base is 135 feet 5 inches. The rotunda is 97 feet 6 inches in diameter, and its height from the floor to the top of the canopy is 217 feet 3 inches. The Senate Chamber is 113 feet 3 inches in length, 83 feet 3 inches in width, and 36 feet in height. The galleries will accommodate 1,000 persons. The Representatives' Hall is 139 feet in length, by 93 feet in width, and 36 feet in height. The room now occupied by the Supreme Court was, until 1859, the Senate Chamber. Previous to that time the court occupied the room immediately beneath, now used as a law library.

Celluloid.—Celluloid, from which many toilet articles and imitations of ivory are made, is composed from the cellulose found in cotton cloth or raw cotton. It is treated with a solution of nitric acid which forms it into a pulp very much like paper pulp. It is then washed with water, which removes most of the acid. It is partially hardened and camphor gum mixed with it, when it is rolled into sheets and thoroughly dried. In order to manipulate it, it is softened by steam and then hardened by drying. Celluloid is very inflammable. Wearers of celluloid combs and other ornaments should not expose themselves to fire.

Certified Checks.—A personal check becomes certified when across it is written "certified," with the name of the bank and the signature of the cashier or other official. The bank, then, becomes liable for the amount of the check. If the maker of a check has his check certified, he is jointly responsible with the bank for its payment, but if the receiver of the check has it certified, the maker of the check is released from all responsibility.

Chemical Composition of Man

Huxley's table on the chemical composition of man of the average weight of 154 pounds was for years the standard, but it has recently been superseded by a new one compiled by the French Academy of Sciences. The table is appended:

Chess.—Chess is one of the oldest, and probably the most scientific, game known. Its origin is mysterious. It was mentioned in Oriental literature about 2000 B. C. It was originally played in India, Persia, and Arabia, and subsequently was known in Spain and Western Europe. It is said that it was invented in order to teach the art of war.

Christmas.—A festival commemorating the birth of Christ. Said to have been observed as early as 98. Some of the early Christians celebrated the event in May; others in April and in June. In the fifth century, it was generally observed on the 25th of December.

Circulation of the Blood.—Although even the savage had seen and spilled blood, the circulation of the blood, and the part that it plays in the human machine, was not discovered until about 1616, by the English physiologist, William Harvey.

Climate and Temperature.—Climatic conditions are dependent upon heat, moisture, and altitude. The greatest heat is at the equator and diminishes as one approaches either pole, but a place of high altitude near the equator may be cooler than another farther removed from it and occupying a shut-in or low position. It is warm at times, even near the poles. The climate is also affected by the winds, and very greatly by the ocean, and especially by ocean currents. Take England, for example: it is considerably further north than Boston or New York City, and yet its climate is much warmer or milder, due to its proximity to the Gulf Stream. Land near the ocean is likely to be cooler in summer on account of its prevailing winds, and warmer in winter because a large body of water reduces the cold. It is well-known that towns on the seashore do not suffer from extreme cold as much as do those in the same latitude further inland. The altitude has much to do with climate. Even in the warmest countries, where the heat is intense, the tops of high mountains are clothed with snow. Forests, by their shade, reduce the temperature.

Coal Industry.—In the United States the coal fields have an area of exceeding 160,000 square miles, but it is supposed that there are at least 310,000 square miles which contain coal. The estimated quantity of the available coal is exceeding 3,000,000,000,000 tons.

Cocoa Industry.—The world produces about 530,000,000 pounds of cocoa annually. The United States consumes about 130,000,000 pounds; Germany about 112,000,000; France about 60,000,000; England about 56,000,000; the total consumption being about 507,000,000.

Coffee Industry.—Brazil, about 1,300,000,000, Central America, about 201,000,000, Venezuela, about 97,000,000, other South American countries about 78,000,000, Hayti and Santo Domingo, about 84,000,000, Mexico, about 43,000,000, Porto Rico, about 34,000,000, Jamaica, about 10,000,000; a total of nearly 2,000,000,000 pounds annually. The United States consumes about 881,000,000 pounds a year.

Coin.—Money, in the form of metallic coins, probably superseded all other legal tenders. The first record of the coining of silver was in 869 B. C., and it was made in Rome as early as 269 B. C., and in Great Britain 25 years before the Christian Era. Gold was first coined in England in 1087. Copper money was introduced by James I of England in 1620. The United States mint began to coin money in 1793.

Colosseum.—The building of the Colosseum at Rome began in A. D. 80. It covers about five acres of ground, and has a seating capacity for nearly 90,000 persons. It was built in the form of an oval, with a diameter varying from 312 to 515 feet, the height being from 160 to 180 feet. In its arena, the gladiators fought among themselves and with wild beasts. At its dedication by Titus, 5,000 wild beasts were killed, and the celebration lasted for nearly a hundred days. Occasionally the arena was flooded with water, and sea fights took place.

Comets.—Comets are supposed to be made up of an innumerable number of meteors, with millions of miles of burning gas. They have regular orbits, but they have not been fully established and are more or less eccentric. They are not supposed to shine by their own light, but to obtain it by reflection. The orbit of comets was discovered by Hadley in 1682, who predicted their return. Sometimes the head and tail part, and remain so. Their number is unknown, but there are supposed to be thousands of them. The comet formerly was looked upon as a source of danger, and it was supposed that the near approach of one of them would destroy the earth or any other celestial body. Recent research, however, indicates that comets have not sufficient density to cause damage, although they might affect the atmosphere. The principal thing to be feared, however, if there is any danger, is that the envelopment of the earth by the comet's gas would destroy life, but most astronomers have agreed that the atmosphere of the earth would be sufficient protection. So far as is known, no comet has ever caused any injury, and as they have existed from time immemorial, there would appear to be no reason for alarm.

Common Measurements

Diameter of a circle × 3.1416 = Circumference.

Radius of a circle × 6.283185 = Circumference.

Square of the radius of a circle × 3.1416 = Area.

Square of the diameter of a circle × .7854 = Area.

Square of the circumference of a circle × .07958 = Area.

Half the circumference of a circle × half its diameter = Area.

Circumference of a circle × .159155 = Radius.

Square root of the area of a circle × .56419 = Radius.

Circumference of a circle × 31831 = Diameter.

Square root of the area of a circle × 1.12839 = Diameter.

Diameter of a circle × .86 = Side of inscribed equilateral triangle.

Diameter of a circle × .7071 = Side of an inscribed square.

Circumference of a circle × .226 = Side of an inscribed square.

Circumference of a circle × .282 = Side of square of equal area.

Diameter of a circle × .8862 = Side of a square of equal area.

Base of a triangle × one-half the altitude = Area.

The product of both diameters × .7854 = Area of an ellipse.

Surface of a sphere × one-sixth of its diameter = Solidity.

Circumference of a sphere × its diameter = Surface.

Square of the circumference of a sphere × .3183 = Surface.

Square root of the surface of a sphere × 1.772454 = Circumference.

Square of one of its sides × 6 = Surface of a cube.

Area of the base of a square, round or triangular pyramid, or of a cone, × one-third of its altitude = Solidity.

Area of square × .7854 = Area of largest circle within it.

Area of circle × .625 = Area of largest square within it.

Spheres.—Square of circumference × .3183 = Surface of sphere.

Square of diameter × 3.1416 = Surface of sphere.

Square root of surface × .5642 = Diameter of sphere.

Cube of diameter × .5236 = Solidity of sphere.

Cube of circumference × .0169 = Solidity of sphere.

Cube root of solidity × 1.2407 = Diameter of sphere.

Diameter of sphere × .5774 = Side of inscribed cube.

Square root of solidity × .2821 = Radius.

Square root of solidity × 1.7725 = Circumference.

Cube of radius × 4.1888 = Solidity.

Cube root of solidity × .6204 = Radius.

Cube root of solidity × 3.8978 = Circumference.

Communism and Socialism.—Communism is a doctrine which would abolish individual rights, including the ownership of property. It began in England and France, but has never made any great progress. Socialism is allied to Communism, but is a milder form. It does not suggest the abolition of individual rights, but to make all rights subordinate to the good of the people. An acceptable definition of either has never been presented, and members of both parties differ materially. Socialism, however, has grown very rapidly, and the Socialistic Party in the United States is frequently successful. Some of our ablest scholars and investigators believe that Socialism will become prevalent, and that in it is vested many of the solutions to our economic problems.

Comparative Population of the United States

Comparative Population of the Large Cities and Towns of the United States

Compass.—The compass was unknown to civilization until the close of the twelfth century, but there appears to be good authority for the statement that it was used in China centuries before the European nations were aware of its power. The compass consists of a piece of steel, usually in the form of a needle, which has been magnetized so as to maintain its magnetism indefinitely. It is set on a piece of cork or rests lightly on a pivot, and if allowed to move freely, it will point towards the North Magnetic Pole, the opposite end of the needle indicating the South Magnetic Pole. The needle does not point to the Geographical Pole, but to the North Magnetic Pole, which is some degrees south of the former. The earth is a magnet, and the magnetic needle is influenced by the currents of the earth, and, therefore, points to the North under the influence of these currents. No compass is absolutely correct, for the needle does not always point to the North with a full degree of accuracy. It is subject to variations, which are caused by outside influences, like the presence of metallic substances. Without the compass, navigation would be unsafe, if not impossible, for no mariner, without it, would know the direction he is sailing in at night or during a cloudy day.

Corsets.—The corset, or something similar to what is now worn, appeared in France and Germany in the 13th century, and a 100 years later was introduced into England. The cloth was interwoven with rods of whalebone or steel, but when the price of whalebone increased, other stiffening rods were used.

Cosmetics.—Vaseline, cold cream, and glycerine are perfectly safe to use, although the latter irritates some skins. Most of the cosmetics upon the market, including many of those advertised to produce a good complexion, are practically worthless, and undoubtedly quite a number of them contain poisonous drugs and chemicals. The writer does not recall a cosmetic which contains any virtue not found in cold cream, vaseline, or glycerine. Most cosmetics are made of cold cream or vaseline, highly perfumed, and are claimed to possess special virtues. The only way to obtain a good complexion is to keep the skin in a healthy state by constant bathing and by massage, either with the hands or with a towel, with a moderate use of cold cream or other similar article. Nothing has ever been discovered which will restore the bloom of youth, and all articles advertised for that purpose are practically worthless. If they contain any "bloom," it is in the form of a dye or color. No one should use any concoction or salve other than cold cream, vaseline, glycerine, or an almond preparation, without the advice of a physician.

Cost of the British Royal Family.—The annuities paid by the British people to the Royal family for its support are as follows: The King and Queen, $2,350,000; Queen Alexandra, $350,000; Princess Christian, $30,000; Princess Louise (Duchess of Argyll), $30,000; Duke of Connaught, $125,000; Duchess of Edinburgh, $30,000; Princess Beatrice, $30,000; Duchess of Albany, $30,000; Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, $15,000; Trustees for King Edward VII's Daughters, $90,000; total, $2,790,000. The King also receives the revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster. During recent years these have amounted to about $350,000 per annum. The Prince of Wales has an income also from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall, amounting to about $500,000 per annum. When the Royal children marry dowries are usually provided for them. The last of the children of the late Queen Victoria to marry, Princess Beatrice, received $150,000 as dowry from the British people by Parliamentary grant.

Cotton Gin.—One of the three or four greatest inventions of civilization. It was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793. The machine separates the cotton wool from the seed, and automatically cleans it with great rapidity. Previously, the work was done by hand, a most tedious process.

Cotton Industry.—From 16,000,000 to 17,000,000 bales of cotton are sold each year, each bale weighing about 490 lbs.

Cradle of American Liberty.—A name given to Faneuil Hall, in Boston, Massachusetts, from the fact that many meetings were held here during Revolutionary days for the purpose of declaring the citizens' rights and protesting against the interference of England.

Credit Mobilier.—This consisted of a stock company, organized in 1863, for the purpose of constructing public works, including principally the building of the Union Pacific Railroad. Without going into the merits of the case, it may be said that this organization received much criticism, as it developed that many of the members of Congress were supposed to be connected with it. It is said that some of these members were corrupt and used this organization to feather their nest. It constituted, perhaps, the greatest national scandal, placing under suspicion, as it did, many of our so-called statesmen.

Crusades.—The name of wars carried on at intervals from 1095 to 1270 by the Christian nations of Europe against the Saracens, for the purpose of gaining possession of the Holy Land. There were eight Crusades, and the soldiers who engaged in them wore a cross on their breast or right shoulder as a sign of their religious faith. Hence the name Crusades from the Latin crux, cross.

Crust of the Earth.—Very little is known of the interior of the earth, except that it is supposed to be a molten mass. The aggregate thickness of the strata or rock-layers, as far as known, is less than thirty miles.

Daguerreotypes.—Early photography owes its origin to the discovery of the daguerreotype. A plate, made of thin copper or other metal, was covered with a silver preparation. This was placed directly in the camera, and there was no method of transfer, as there is from the ordinary photographic plate, from which innumerable prints may be taken. It went out of common use with the invention of the photographic plates and paper, and with the discovery of instantaneous photography. The taking of the daguerreotype required long exposure, which was decidedly objectionable, and the result was coarse and tame. After taking, the daguerreotype passed through acid solutions for the development and permanency of the picture.

Damage by Lightning.—Statistics vary, but considerably more than 6,000 buildings are injured by lightning every year, causing a loss of about $3,000,000. About 700 people are killed every year, and more than 800 are injured. It is said that lightning kills between 4,000 and 5,000 domestic animals a year, valued at about $130,000.

Deaf and Dumb.—About 90,000 of the inhabitants of the United States are deaf and dumb, more than half of that number being born with this affliction. Of this number about 47,000 are males, and somewhat over 43,000 females.

Deeds.—A deed is an instrument in writing, conveying real estate, with or without buildings upon it, from one party to another. All deeds should be registered. Printed forms, to be filled out, are for sale at stationers. It is better to employ a good lawyer or conveyancer.

Dictionaries.—Probably the first dictionary was produced in China, and was said to contain 40,000 characters. In the 15th and 16th centuries, encyclopedias were published. The first authoritative dictionary was in Latin, and was translated into eight languages about the year 1500. Chamber's Encyclopedia was published in 1728, and Johnson's famous English dictionary in 1755. Webster's American dictionary was first issued in 1828.

Digestibility of Foods.—Apples, sweet, raw, 1 hour, 30 minutes; Asparagus, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Beans, boiled, 2 h., 30 m.; Lean beef, roasted, 3 h.; Fresh salted beef, boiled 2 h., 45 m.; Old salted beef, boiled, 6 h.; Beets, boiled, 3h., 45 m.; Bread, fresh, 3h., 30 m.; Cabbage, pickled, 4 h., 30 m.; Celery, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Chicken, boiled, 2h.; Chicken, roasted, 4 h.; Cheese, old, 3h., 30 m.; Duck, roasted, 2 h.; Eggs, raw, 2h; Eggs, soft boiled, 3 h.; Eggs, hard boiled, 4 h.; Fish, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Fish, fried, 3 h.; Game (most kinds), roasted, 4 h., 15 m.; Liver (calves), fried, 2 h., 30 m.; Lamb, grilled, 2 h., 30 m.; Milk, raw, 3 h., 15 m.; Milk, boiled, 2 h.; Mutton, boiled and broiled, 3 h.; Nuts, 5 h.; Oysters, raw, 2 h., 55 m.; Oysters, stewed, 3 h., 30 m.; Onions, stewed, 3 h., 30 m.; Pork, fat, roasted, 5 h., 15 m.; Pork, salt, boiled, 3 h., 15 m.; Potatoes, fried or baked, 2 h., 30 m.; Rice, boiled, 1 h.; Sausage, grilled, 3 h., 30 m.; Tripe, boiled, 1 h.; Trout, boiled, 1 h., 30 m.; Turkey, roasted, 2 h., 30 m.; Veal, roast or grilled, 5 h.

Distances Between Cities in the United States

(Not air-line distances, but traveling distances.)

Diving Bells.—The diving bell is simply a covering made of metal, which is securely fastened to a water-proof suit, the diving bell itself being an enclosure for the head. The diver dons his suit, the neck of which has a collar in the form of a screw. The diving bell is placed over his head and screwed on. It is connected with a rubber pipe, through which air is forced by an air pump, the air escaping through a valve in the belt itself. If properly constructed and manipulated, one may remain under water for considerable time, although he is likely to be uncomfortable until he becomes used to it. It was invented about 1715.

Drama.—During 1912, 97 new plays were presented; 36 were musical comedies; 36 of the plays were serious or sentimental; 13 were melodramas; 13 were comedies; one was a pantomime; two were tragedies, and 14 were farces.

Drugs.—The safest and best rule to follow is never to take any drug without the advice of a physician. Drugs have their place, and without drugs many diseases would be incurable. But drugs taken promiscuously derange the system and give but temporary relief. Hundreds of thousands of people have contracted chronic ailments from drug-taking. Headache powders, cough mixtures, sleeping potions, and practically all of the advertised remedies should be strenuously avoided, notwithstanding that some of them are pure and would be efficacious if administered intelligently. Because one particular drug or medicine benefits a certain person should not be considered as evidence that it will aid another. The habit of borrowing prescriptions is dangerous. The intelligent physician writes a prescription, which will benefit his patient, and the same prescription would be of no benefit, and might be of positive injury, to another. Many of the testimonials given to patent medicines are genuine and are written by honest persons. The effect of many of the advertised nostrums is to give immediate or transient relief. They stimulate the system, and may make it feel better for a short time, but re-action is likely to set in, and the taker of them is worse off than he was in the first place.

Dying Sayings, Real or Traditional.—Addison. "See how a Christian dies!" or, "See in what a peace a Christian can die!"

Anaxagoras. "Give the boys a holiday."

Byron. "I must sleep now."

Cæsar (Julius). "Et tu, Brute!"

Charlemagne. "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"

Charles II (of England). "Don't let poor Nelly starve!"

Chesterfield. "Give Day Rolles a chair."

Cromwell. "My desire is to make what haste I may to be gone."

Franklin. "A dying man can do nothing easy."

Goethe. "More light!"

Hobbes. "Now I am about to take my last voyage—a great leap in the dark."

James V (of Scotland). "It came with a lass, and will go with a lass."

Jesus Christ. "It is finished!"

Knox. "Now it is come."

Mahomet. "Oh Allah, be it so! Henceforth among the glorious host of Paradise."

Mirabeau. "Let me die to the sounds of delicious music."

Napoleon I. "Mon Dieu! La nation Française! Fête d'armée."

Napoleon III. "Were you at Sedan?"

Nelson. "I thank God I have done my duty."

Rabelais. "Let down the curtain, the farce is over."

Scott, Sir Walter. "God bless you all!"

Sidney, Algernon. "I know that my Redeemer liveth. I die for the good old cause."

Socrates. "Crito, we owe a cock to Aesculapius."

Talma. "The worst is, I cannot see."

Tasso. "Lord, into Thy hands I commend my spirit!"

Vespasian. "A king should die standing."

William III of England. "Can this last long?"

Wolfe, General. "What! do they run already? Then I die happy."

—Brewer's "Reader's Handbook."

Dynamite.—This is one of the strongest explosives, and is used for blasting, and even for guns, although it has not, as yet, been successful for the firing of projectiles. It consists of infusorial and porcelain earth, mixed with coal dust and siliceous ashes, saturated with about three times its weight of nitro-glycerine. It is of a grayish-brown or reddish color, damp, and greasy. It has an explosive power nearly eight times greater than that of gun powder. It is dangerous to make, because the nitro-glycerine which it contains will explode if not handled carefully.

Earth Facts

The distance from the surface of the earth to its center is estimated to be 20,926,202 feet; or about 3,963, miles; and the distance from the poles to the center of the earth is 20,854,895 feet, or about 3,951 miles. One degree of latitude at the equator is about 68.7 miles, and at the poles about 69-1/2 miles.

The circumference at the equator measures 24,902 statute miles.

The total area of the earth is 196,940,400 statute square miles, and its volume is 259,880 million cubic miles.

The land area of the earth covers 54,807,420 square miles.

The ocean, including the inland seas, covers 142,132,980 square miles, or about 72 per cent. of the total surface of the earth.

The Arctic Ocean, including Hudson Bay, contains 5,785,000 square miles; the Atlantic Ocean, 34,301,400 square miles; the Indian Ocean, 28,615,000 square miles; the Pacific Ocean, 67,699,630 square miles; and the Antarctic Ocean, 5,731,350 square miles.

The mean height of the land has been estimated at 2,440 feet, and the mean depth of the sea 11,470 feet. The highest mountain (Mt. Everest) is 29,000 feet high, and the greatest depth of the ocean is supposed to be 31,614 feet.

The North American continent has an area of 6,446,000 square miles, with exceeding 115,000,000 inhabitants, or a little less than 18 to the square mile.

The South American continent has an area of 6,837,000 square miles, with over 45,000,000 inhabitants, or about 6-1/2 per square mile.

Europe has an area of about 3,555,000 square miles, with a population of somewhat less than 400,000,000, or about 107 per square mile.

Africa has an area of 11,514,000 square miles, and a population of about 127,000,000, or 11 to the square mile.

Asia has an area of 14,710,000 square miles, with a population estimated at about 850,000,000, or a little less than 58 to the square mile.

Australia, New Zealand, and contingent islands, have an area of 3,288,000 square miles, with a population of exceeding 5,200,000, or about 27 to the square mile.

It is estimated that the surface of the earth is divided into somewhat more than 28,000,000 square miles of fertile soil, about 14,000,000 square miles of steppe, a little more than 4,000,000 square miles of desert, with the polar regions occupying nearly 5,000,000 square miles of land, most of which is covered with ice.

At the time of Emperor Augustus, there were said to be between 54,000,000 and 55,000,000 people upon the earth, but as the earth undoubtedly supported millions of inhabitants unknown to civilization, these figures are of little consequence.