ONTARIO
TEACHERS' MANUALS

HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT

AUTHORIZED BY THE MINISTER OF EDUCATION
TORONTO
THE COPP, CLARK COMPANY, LIMITED

Copyright, Canada, 1916, by
The Minister of Education for Ontario

A Household Management pupil in uniform

CONTENTS

PUBLIC AND SEPARATE SCHOOL
COURSE OF STUDY

DETAILS

FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE

Bills of Household Supplies:

Furniture, bed and table linen, material for clothing
Fuel, meat, milk, groceries
Weekly or monthly expenses of an average household
Comparison of home and store cost of cooked food, such as cake, bread, meat, canned fruit.

Sources of Household Materials:

Fuel
Timber for building, and furniture
Cotton, linen, woollen, paper, china
Common groceries, such as salt, sugar, spices, tea, coffee, cocoa, cheese, butter, cereals
Cleansing agents, such as coal-oil, gasolene, turpentine, whiting, bathbrick, soap.

Manufacture of Household Materials:

Cotton, linen, woollens, paper
Salt, sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, cheese, butter, cereals.

Kitchen and Equipment:

Arrangement of a convenient kitchen
Necessary utensils.

FORM III: SENIOR GRADE

Cleaning:

Elementary principles of cleaning
Practice in cleaning dishes, tables, sinks, towels.

Cookery:

Table of cooking measurements
A recipe (parts, steps in following)
Reasons for cooking food; kinds of heat used; methods of cooking
Practice in making simple dishes of one main ingredient.

Serving:

Setting the table
Table service and manners.

FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE

The Kitchen Fire:

Requirements of a fire
Comparative merits of fuels
Construction and care of a practical stove.

Study of Foods:

Uses of food to the body
Necessary elements in food
Composition of the common foods, excepting meat and fish.

Cookery:

Practice lessons in preparing and cooking the common foods,
(milk, eggs, meat, fish, fruit, vegetables)
Cooking and serving a simple breakfast and a luncheon.

Care of the House:

Review of methods of cleaning taken in Form III
Cleaning and care of household metals
Sweeping and dusting
Care of a bed-room.

Laundry Work:

Necessary materials and the action of each
Process in washing white clothes.

Note.—These subjects are intended to be taught simply (not technically). In schools where there is no laundry equipment, the order of work may be developed in class and the practice carried on at home.

FORM IV: SENIOR GRADE

Preservation of Food:

Causes of decay, principles and methods of preservation
Practice in canning.

Cookery:

Practice lessons to review cooking common foods
Flour (kinds, composition of white flour);
flour mixtures (kinds, methods of mixing, lightening agents)
Practice in making bread and cake
Practice in cooking meat
Cooking and serving a simple home dinner at a fixed cost.

Foods:

Composition of meat and fish
Planning meals so as to obtain a broad balance of food elements.

Infant Feeding:

Proper food; pasteurizing milk
Care of bottles and food
Schedule for feeding.

Household Sanitation:

Disposal of waste
Principles and methods of sterilizing and disinfecting.

Home Nursing:

Two simple lessons to include the following:
1. The sick-room (location, size, ventilation, care)
2. Care of patient's bed, and diet
3. Making of mustard and other simple poultices.

Note.—Where no equipment has been provided, a large doll and doll's bed will serve.

Laundry Work:

Washing of woollens (the processes).

HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Until a comparatively recent period, education was regarded mainly as a means of training the intellect, but this conception of education is now considered incomplete and inadequate. Our ideas of the purpose of schools are becoming broader, and we have decided that not only the mental nature, but all the child's activities and interests, should be given direction by means of the training given in our schools. We believe also that these activities and interests can be used to advantage in assisting the mental development.

Household Management aims to educate in this way, by directing the mind to ideas connected with the home and by training the muscles to perform household duties.

Though deemed essentially practical, this subject will, if rightly presented, give a mental training similar to other subjects of the Course of Study. It should do more. While a pupil is made familiar with the duties of home life and with the materials and appliances used in the home, she will be unavoidably led to think of the work of the larger world and to realize her relation to it. When such knowledge comes, and a girl begins to feel that some part of the world's work depends on her, true character-building will begin.

The purpose of this Manual is to assist teachers in presenting Household Management to public and separate school classes in such a way as to attain these ends. It is hoped that it will be especially useful to those teachers whose training in the subject has been limited.

An attempt has been made to explain the work of Form III Senior, and of the Junior and Senior divisions of Form IV. The topics of Form II Junior are not discussed, as the work of this Form is intended to be taught as information lessons, for which general methods will suffice. In the other Forms mentioned, the topics of lessons are outlined in detail, but the method of presentation is not given except in typical cases. Both outline and method are intended to be merely suggestive and to leave opportunity for the teacher's originality.

In cases where topics seem incompletely outlined, it is due to the fact that they are treated in other school subjects or postponed until the pupils reach a more advanced stage of mental development.

The order of lessons is optional, also the amount of work each should include, unless this is specially stated.

Many lessons are suitable for rural schools, which have no equipment except what the ingenuity of the teacher may provide. In such schools, the teacher may perform the practical work, while the class observes.

Throughout the lessons, there is the difficulty of presenting scientific facts to immature minds in a way that will be simple and clear. The use of technical language would often assist the expression, and this is apt to be unconsciously employed, but there is danger of such forms of speech not being intelligible to the pupils; the teacher should therefore choose her words carefully. Technical terms may be taught, but this is not advised in Junior classes, unless really necessary. If the facts are intelligently related to the experiences of the pupils, that is all that is desired.

Temperatures, as indicated by Fahrenheit thermometers, have always been given, as this scale is best known in the home.

Since this Manual is designed for teachers, few recipes have been furnished. The books of reference which are appended will supply these and additional information on the subject.

CORRELATION WITH OTHER SCHOOL SUBJECTS

One of the benefits of placing Household Management in a Course of Study is that it relates the knowledge gained in school to the home life.

The Household Management teacher has great opportunity for this correlation. She should be more than a teacher of household duties. She should lead the pupils to see the importance and necessity of mastering the other school subjects. Wherever interest in these subjects has already been established, this interest will form a basis for development in many Household Management lessons.

Then, too, the teachers of other subjects should, as far as possible, work with the Household Management teacher in relating their instruction to the operations and requirements in the home. If the teachers co-operate in planning their lessons, the pupils will receive a deeper impression of the facts learned in each subject and will have an increased interest in the work, through seeing how one branch of knowledge is related to another.

The following will show how some of the subjects are related to the class work of Household Management:

Arithmetic.—This subject is used in household accounts, in measurements, in the division of recipes, and in computing the cost of foods prepared for the table.

Reading.—The pupils should be asked to read aloud the recipes and their notes and should be required to do this distinctly and accurately.

Spelling, Writing, Language Work.—In writing recipes and notes, in stories of household topics, and in written answers, the teacher should insist on neat writing, correct spelling, and good English.

Geography.—The study of materials for food, clothing, and house furnishings brings before the mind our commercial relations with foreign countries and the occupations of their inhabitants. It also suggests consideration of climate and soils.

History.—The evolution of furniture and utensils, of methods of housekeeping, and of preparing and serving food, brings out historical facts.

Elementary Science.—Throughout the Course, this subject is the foundation of much of the instruction given, as it explains the principles underlying household industries. Soap-making, bread-making, preservation of food, and the processes of cooking and cleaning are examples of this.

Some knowledge of elementary science is also necessary to an understanding of the construction and practical working of the kitchen stove, the fireless cooker, the cream separator, and many household appliances. Its principles determine the methods of heating, lighting, and ventilating.

Physiology and Hygiene.—The study of food and the planning and preparation of meals should include a knowledge of the body and its requirements. The sanitary care of the house and its premises is directly related to hygiene.

Nature Study.—Animals and plants furnish us with most of our food, and familiarity with these is necessary to the housekeeper. A knowledge of the structure of animals is essential in studying the cuts of meat; the structure of plants and the functions of their different parts give a key to the value of vegetable food.

Physical Training.—The class should be carefully trained throughout in correct muscular movements. The position of the body should be closely watched in working and in sitting, and the classes should enter and leave the room in systematic order.

Manual Training.—The practical part of housekeeping demands constant use of the hands. The teacher should be watchful of awkward handling of materials and utensils and be careful to correct it. She should require deft, natural movements until they become habits.

Art.—Ideas of colour and design should be applied in choosing wall-papers, carpets, dishes, furniture, and clothing. The pupils might be asked to make original coloured designs for these household articles.

ROOMS

It is most desirable to have Household Management include all home operations and, to make this possible, more than one room should be provided. Many school boards, however, in introducing the work, find that one room is all that can be afforded. Where this is the case, it is necessary that this room be equipped as a kitchen, though it must be used for other purposes as well. It will serve also for table-setting and serving, for simple laundry work, for lessons in home-nursing, and for sewing.

This kitchen should be large and airy, so that the class can work comfortably and conveniently. A room having greater length than width admits of the best arrangement.

On account of the odours that arise from cooking and other domestic operations, the kitchen should be on the top floor and should have more adequate means of ventilation than ordinary class-rooms. A north exposure makes it cooler in summer.

Opposite end of Household Management class-room, showing the black-board and class cupboard

EQUIPMENT

In planning an equipment, one must be guided by the conditions to be met. It is difficult to be definite in details, but certain general principles should be observed.

The entire equipment should be suited to the needs of the pupils, and it should also be one which it is desirable and possible for them to have in their own homes.

The walls and floor should be washable, and they, as well as the furniture, should have plain, smooth surfaces which do not catch dust and are easily cleaned.

The sinks, stoves, tables, and cupboards should be placed so as to save steps.

TABLES

Where economy is necessary, movable tables may be used, but the fixed ones are to be preferred. The latter may be placed in the form of a hollow square or an oval, with openings from opposite sides to give convenient access to a centre table, which can be used for supplies or as a dining table.

Section of a table designed for two pupils

Drawers and cupboards to hold the necessary utensils and supplies should be provided in the tables for each pupil. Provision may also be made under the table top for desk boards, which may be pulled out when notes are written, in order to allow the pupils to sit comfortably in front of the cupboards. The table top should be of hard wood or some non-absorbent material, jointed in narrow strips in order to prevent warping. Part of this must be protected by a metal or glass strip on which to set the individual stoves or hot dishes.

Contents of a table cupboard equipped for two pupils

$1

SEATS

The seats may be swing seats, stools, or chairs. The swing seats are noiseless and easily put out of the way, but are uncomfortable and unsteady, so that the pupils are inclined to prop themselves by placing their elbows on the table. The stools and chairs are noisy and occupy a great deal of room, but the latter are restful and conducive to the correct position of the pupils, the importance of which cannot be over-estimated. The former are inexpensive, if made with a plain, wooden top. Both should admit of being pushed under the table, and for this reason the chairs should have folding backs. The legs should be tipped with rubber in order to minimize the noise.

A class towel rack

RACKS

Towel racks should be placed near the sinks and, if possible, should allow space for hanging the towels without folding. In some tables a towel rack may be attached to one of the sides.

SINKS

A sink at each corner of the room saves much time and inconveniences in the work. Each of these should be provided with hot and cold water. They may be made of porcelain or of enamelled iron.

A class gas range, showing high ovens

CLASS CUPBOARD

A large class cupboard in two sections, having glass doors in the upper part to show the class china and glass, should be placed where it will be most convenient and add to the attractiveness of the room. This cupboard will hold the dinner set and extra dishes and utensils, as well as the linen and some staple food supplies. A refrigerator is desirable for such foods as butter, eggs, meat, etc.

A class cupboard

STOVES

Individual table stoves
(a) a gas stove	(b) an electric stove
(c) a blue-flame kerosene stove	(d) an ordinary kerosene stove

The stoves provided will depend on the fuel that is available in the neighbourhood. Wood is still in use in some rural sections, while coal is the ordinary fuel in small towns and villages. Where either of these fuels is commonly used, there should be two ranges. One should be for coal or wood, to teach the use of the home fuel, and the other an oil, gas, or electric stove, to demonstrate the time and labour saved the housekeeper by the use of one of these. If possible, the stoves should have high ovens, to obviate the necessity of stooping. A section of glass in the oven door is a great convenience, as it allows the contents of the oven to be easily watched.

For individual work small table stoves are required. These may be supplied with oil, alcohol, gas, or electricity, as may be most readily obtained. These stoves may be arranged so that they can be swung from the table when not in use. In this way more room is provided for work, and the table is more easily cleaned. The tops of the stoves should be wide and flat, so that cooking dishes will not easily upset.

A fireless cooker, though not really necessary, is most helpful. Where funds are lacking, one may be made by the pupils at small expense. A barrel, wooden box, or large pail may be filled with hay or excelsior, and small, covered, granite pails may be used to contain the food.

BLACK-BOARDS

The black-boards should be of slate or glass, and as large as the size of the room allows. The windows and doors should be so placed that there will be unbroken stretches of wall for this purpose. Part of the black-board should be provided with a sliding board which, when required, can be drawn to conceal what is written. A separate black-board for current prices of common food materials is an excellent idea. The responsibility of keeping these prices correct should be given to the pupils.

ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL

A cabinet, or display case, for illustrative material, is of great educational value and, to the pupils, is one of the most attractive features of the room. The following list of specimens is suggestive for this:

A display cabinet—canned fruit

1. Standard china, such as Crown Derby, Wedgewood, Limoges, Dresden, Beleek, etc.

2. Standard carpet, such as Axminster, Wilton, Brussels, Tapestry

3. Woods used for furniture and building

4. Food materials in various stages of preparation, such as sugar, spices, cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa

5. Fruit canned by the pupils

6. Designs for wall-paper, linoleum, dishes, etc., made by the pupils.

Other illustrative material in the form of charts showing the comparative values of the common foods, or illustrating cuts of meat or different kinds of vegetables and fish, will be found to aid greatly in making the teaching effective. There are few of these to be obtained, but home-made ones may be prepared from cuts in bulletins and magazines. Pictures illustrating the production and manufacture of food may also be mounted and used.

BOOK-CASE

Book shelves should be provided, where a small library of books bearing on the various phases of the subject may be kept, together with the Government Bulletins and some well-chosen periodicals and magazines. These may be selected from the Catalogue of Books which has been prepared by the Department of Education.

UTENSILS

In regard to the selection of small articles required, such as dishes and utensils of various kinds, the greatest care should be exercised. This part of the equipment can be exactly duplicated by the pupils in their homes, and in this way may be of educational value to the community. The cooking and serving dishes should combine quality, utility, and beauty.

It is not economy to buy cheap utensils. As far as possible, they should be chosen with smooth, curved surfaces, as seams and angles allow lodging places for food and make the cleaning difficult.

Everything should be of good quality, the latest of its kind that has been approved, and, at the same time, have a shape and colour that is artistic.

It is wise to buy from stock which can be duplicated if breakages occur, so that the equipment may be kept uniform. For individual work the utensils should not be too large.

Coloured granite ware is best for most of the cooking dishes. Where tin is necessary, it should be of a good quality. Crockery is desirable for some bowls, jars, and serving dishes. Spoons and serving forks should be of Nevada silver, and knives of the best steel with well-made wooden handles.

The cost of this part of the equipment and the number of articles purchased must of course depend on the funds available. The following list is intended to give what is really desirable in a specially equipped room, at prices which are a fair average.

EQUIPMENT
FOR TWENTY-FOUR PUPILS

I. CLASS TABLE

1. Utensil Drawer:

2. Supply Drawer:

3. Supply Cupboard:

II. SINK AND WALLS

III. GENERAL CUPBOARD EQUIPMENT

IV. KITCHEN LINEN

V. CLEANING CUPBOARD

VI. LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT

VII. DINING-ROOM EQUIPMENT

VIII. MISCELLANEOUS

EQUIPMENT FOR ORDINARY CLASS-ROOMS

In some schools it is impossible to set aside a special room for Household Management work, and the ordinary class-room is all that is available. In such cases the equipment must be a movable one, and gas stoves and plumbing are impossible. Table tops may be placed on trestles or laid across the ordinary desks, and oil or alcohol lamps must be used. These and the necessary utensils may be kept in a cupboard in the room.

With certain restrictions, the Department of Education assists in equipping special rooms in villages and rural districts and also in maintaining instruction in this subject.

Modified equipment for rural schools

The classes in these schools are usually smaller, so that an outfit suitable for individual work with a class of twelve will generally suffice. The following, suggested by the Macdonald Institute, Guelph, is a good basis and may be modified as desired:

FOOTNOTE:

[A] The above may be replaced by a twenty-dollar wood stove or a ten-dollar, two burner, coal-oil stove.

PACKING-BOX EQUIPMENT

When even the expense of the modified equipment is too great, the ingenuity of the teacher and the pupils may be used to provide a "packing-box" equipment suitable for six pupils. The outlay for this will vary according to what is provided, but it can in no case be large. The following equipment used by the Department of Domestic Science, Teachers' College, Columbia University, will be suggestive:

Packing-box equipment

FOR CLASS

INDIVIDUAL EQUIPMENT FOR SIX PUPILS

CHAPTER II

SUGGESTIONS FOR CLASS MANAGEMENT

TEACHERS' PREPARATION

In no subject is careful planning of the details of the lesson more important than in Household Management. The definite length of the period allowed in the school programme for this work makes economy of time absolutely necessary. The cooking processes cannot be hurried, and unless there is in the teacher's mind a well-arranged plan for the use of the time, a part of the lesson is apt to be hastily and carelessly done. Then, too, in the limited space of one room, a number of people cannot work without confusion unless there is system.

The pupils enjoy a well-regulated lesson and their co-operation is gained, while, through the poor results of a lesson indifferently planned, they lose self-confidence and the sense of responsibility.

NUMBER IN THE CLASS

As a Household Management class is one that calls for individual supervision, the number should not exceed twenty-four, and a smaller class ensures more thorough supervision on the part of the teacher. Neatness, thoroughness, and accuracy are important factors in the work of each lesson, and the number of pupils should not be so large that a lack of these will pass unnoticed.

UNIFORMS, ETC.

The uniform consists of a large, plain, white apron with a bib large enough to protect the dress, a pair of sleevelets, a holder, a small towel for personal use, and a white muslin cap to confine the hair. (See Frontispiece.) Each pupil will also require a note-book and pencil for class, and a note-book to be used at home for re-copying the class work in ink. These books should be neatly written and kept for reference, and should be regularly examined and marked by the teacher for correction by the pupils.

The pupils should be encouraged to be clean and neat in appearance. They should be expected to have tidy hair, clean hands and nails, and neat uniforms. It is a good plan for each pupil to have two sets of uniforms, so that when one is in the wash the other will be ready to use. It may be wise to make a rule that the pupils without uniforms will not be allowed to work, but such a rule must be judiciously enforced, as in some cases it might result in much loss of time. There should be lockers or other proper provision provided at the school for keeping each uniform separately. Pasteboard boxes may be used for this purpose, when no such provision is made.

DISCIPLINE

The pupils should be trained to enter and leave the room in the same order as in their other classes. Each pupil should have a definite working place and should not be allowed to "visit" others during the class.

While at work, it is wise to allow the pupils as much freedom in talking and movement as possible, so as to portray the home life. They should be taught, however, that when their conduct interferes with the order of the room or the comforts and rights of others, they must suppress their inclinations. During the time of teaching there must be perfect quiet and attention. Marks are sometimes given to secure punctuality and good work, but the best way to have both is to try to make each member of the class interested and happy in her work.

DIVISION OF THE PERIODS

The time given to a practical lesson is usually one and a half hours. This must include both the theoretical and the practical work. In dividing the period, it is difficult to say how much time should be given to each of these, but, broadly speaking, the theoretical part may occupy one third of the time. The time for dish washing and cleaning will be included in the time allowance for practical work. These duties should require less time as the class advances in the work.

Notes should be copied at the most convenient time, usually while the food is cooking. Sitting to write notes will afford an opportunity for resting after any practical work. If printed cards are used, much of the note-taking is obviated. A sample card is given below.

HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT

JUNIOR FOURTH CARD

VEGETABLE WATER SAUCE

1. Put the vegetable water over a gentle heat.

2. Mix the flour with a little cold water until smooth and thick as cream.

3. When the vegetable water is steaming hot, gradually stir the flour paste into it and keep stirring until it thickens and boils.

4. Add the butter, salt, and pepper.

5. Pour the sauce over the hot vegetable.

ASSIGNMENT OF WORK

For practical work there are two plans in general use—individual and group work. In individual work, each pupil performs all the processes, handling small quantities of material. In group work, the pupils work in groups on one dish, each sharing the duties.

By the first method, the pupil has no chance to deal with quantities large enough for family purposes, and the small amount does not give adequate practice in manipulation, though it does give individual responsibility in every detail. By the second method, normal quantities are used, but a pupil never has entire responsibility throughout the processes.

The cost of supplies is often accountable for group work, but lack of utensils or oven room may make it a necessity. In some lessons, individual work with normal quantities may be obtained by allowing the pupils to bring the main ingredients from home; for example, fruit for a canning lesson. The finished product is then the property of the pupil who has made it.

The cleaning which always follows the use of the equipment is preferably done in groups. For instance, if there are groups of fours, number one can, during a lesson, wash all dishes used by the four, number two can wipe the dishes, number three can clean the table used by the group, and number four can clean the sink. During the next lesson number two is dish washer, and number three dish wiper, and so on, until, in four lessons, each pupil has had practice in four kinds of household work and has also been given an idea of the inter-dependence of family life and interests. The same numbers should be kept during the term, as this affords an easy way of definitely designating the pupils for certain duties.

SUPPLIES

The supplies for a lesson may be put on a centre table, or smaller amounts may be placed on the working tables in front of the groups. If the class is large, the latter plan is better, especially where measurements are necessary, as it saves time and confusion. Standard food supplies, such as salt, pepper, sugar, and flour may be kept in a drawer of the work-table of each pupil. ([See page 15.])

Every member of the class should be familiar with the contents of the class pantry, cupboards, and drawers, so that she can get or put away utensils and materials without the help of the teacher.

If breakages occur through carelessness, the utensils should be replaced at the expense of the offender. This is not only a deserved punishment, but it always ensures a full equipment.

PRACTICE WORK AT HOME

As a lesson in Household Management comes but once a week, much is gained by having the work reviewed by practice at home. To encourage this, in some schools a "practice sheet" is posted, on which the work done by each pupil, between lessons, is recorded. There is a danger of the younger pupils attempting work that is too difficult, which will end in poor results and discouragement. To avoid this, with pupils in the Third Form, it may be wise to limit their practice in cookery to a review of the work done in class.

The home practice work may be taken at the beginning of a lesson or during the time the food is cooking. It may be quickly ascertained by the pupils rising in order and stating simply the name of the duty they have done or the dish they have made unless they have had poor results, when the nature of these should be told. If there have been failures, the pupils should, if possible, give reasons for these and suggest means of avoiding them in future.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS

1. The teacher should endeavour to plan lessons which will be definitely related to the home lives of the pupils. What is useful for one class may not be useful for another. The connection between the lessons and the home should be very real. It is also important to have a sequence in the lessons.

2. Great care should be exercised in criticising any of the home methods that are suggested by the pupils. A girl's faith in her mother should not be lessened.

3. The work should be taken up in a very simple manner; scientific presentation should be left for the high school.

4. Economy should be emphasized in all home duties; time, labour, and money should be used to give the best possible returns. Wholesome substitutes for expensive foods and attractive preparation and serving of left-over foods should be encouraged.

5. Too much vigilance cannot be exercised during the first year of practical work, when habits are being formed. It is much easier to form habits than to break away from them.

6. While nothing less than the best work should be accepted from the pupils, it requires much discernment to know when fault should be found, in order to avoid saying or doing anything that would discourage them.

7. As Household Management is a manual subject, the teacher is advised, as far as possible, not to spend time in talking about the work, but to have the class spend their time in doing the work.

SUGGESTIONS FOR SCHOOLS WITH LIMITED, OR NO EQUIPMENT

In schools where the ordinary class-room must be used for all subjects, there are unusual difficulties in teaching Household Management. For such schools, two modified equipments are outlined.

Since such class-rooms require special arrangement for practical lessons in this subject, it would be well to take this work in the afternoon, so that part of the noon hour may be taken for preparation. Pupils who have earned the right to responsibility may be appointed in turn to assist in this duty.

In rural schools, the afternoon recess might be taken from 2.15 to 2.30 and, during this time, tables, stoves, and supplies may be placed, so as to be ready for the lesson to follow in the remaining hour and a half.

For pupils who are not in the Household Management class, definite work should be planned. They may occupy themselves with manual training, sewing, art work, map-drawing, composition, etc. In summer, school gardening may be done.

Since the end of the week, in many schools, is chosen for a break in the usual routine, Friday afternoon seems a suitable time for Household Management lessons.

Under such limited conditions, it will be necessary to group the larger pupils into one class for practical work, and it may be necessary for the pupils to take turns in working. In some cases, the teacher must demonstrate what the class may practise at home.

It will be impossible, in such schools, to cover the prescribed work. From the topics suggested in the Course of Study each teacher may arrange a programme by selecting what is most useful to the pupils and what is possible in the school.

Even in schools which have no equipment, much of the theory of Household Management can be taught and some experiments may be performed. On Friday afternoons a regular period may be devoted to this subject, when the ingenious teacher will find ways and means of teaching many useful lessons.

The following will be suggestive as suitable for lessons under such conditions:

1. Any of the lessons prescribed in the Course of Study for Form III, Junior.

2. Measuring.—Table of measures used in cookery, methods of measuring, equivalent measures and weights of standard foods.

3. Cleaning.—Principles, methods, agents.

4. Water.—Uses in the home, appearance under heat, highest temperature, ways of using cooking water.

5. Cooking.—Reasons for cooking, kinds of heat used, common methods of conducting heat to food, comparison of methods of cooking as to time required and effect of heat on food.

Note.—An alcohol stove, saucepan, and thermometer are necessary for this lesson.

6. The kitchen fire.—Experiments to show necessities of a fire, construction of a practical cooking stove.

7. Food.—Uses, kinds, common sources.

8. Preservation of food.—Cause of decay, methods of preservation, application of methods to well-known foods.

9. Yeast.—Description, necessary conditions, sources, use.

Note.—A few test-tubes and a saucepan are necessary for this lesson.

10. The table.—Laying a table, serving at table, table manners.

11. Care of a bed-room.—Making the bed, ventilating, sweeping, and dusting the room.

12. Sanitation.—Necessity for sanitation, household methods.

13. Laundry work.—Necessary materials, processes.

14. Home-nursing.—The ideal sick-room, care of the patient's bed, and diet.

CHAPTER III

FORM III: JUNIOR GRADE

The pupils of Form III, Junior, are generally too small to use the tables and stoves provided for the other classes and too young to be intrusted with fires, hot water, etc.; but they may be taught the simpler facts of Household Management by the special teacher of the subject, or by the regular teacher in correlation with the other subjects. In either case a special room is not necessary.

If the latter plan be adopted, the following correlations are suggested:

CORRELATIONS

Arithmetic.—1. Bills of household supplies, such as furniture, fuel, meat, groceries, bed and table linen, material for clothing. This will teach the current prices as well as the usual quantities purchased.

2. Making out the daily, weekly, or monthly supply and cost of any one item of food, being given the number in the family and the amount used by each per day.

Example: One loaf costs 6c. and cuts into 18 slices. Find the cost of bread for two days for a family of six, if each person uses 1-1/2 slices at one meal.

3. Making out the total weekly or monthly expenses of a household, given the items of meat, groceries, fuel, gas, etc. This brings up the question of the cost of living.

4. Making out the total cost of a cake, a loaf of bread, a jar of fruit, or a number of sandwiches, given the cost of the main materials and fuel used. Compare the home cost with the cost at a store. This may be used to teach economy.

Geography.—1. The sources of our water supply.

2. The geographical sources of our ordinary household materials, their shipping centres, the routes by which they reach us, and the means of transportation.

Examples: Fuels, common minerals used in building and furnishing; timber for floors and furniture; manufactured goods, such as cotton, linen, carpets, china; domestic and foreign fruits; common groceries, such as salt, sugar, tea, coffee, cocoa, spices, rice, cereals, and flour.

3. The preparation of our common household commodities.

Examples: Cotton, linen, china, paper, sugar, tea, coffee, cereals, flour.

4. The household products that are exported.

Nature Study.—1. The parts of plants used as food.

2. The natural sources of our common foods, such as cornstarch, flour, breakfast cereals, tea, coffee, cocoa, sugar, salt, cheese, butter.

3. The sources of common household substances, such as coal-oil, gasolene, paraffin, turpentine, washing soda, whiting, bathbrick, soap.

4. The forms of water, as ice, steam.

5. The composition and impurities of the air.

6. The ordinary woods used in house building and furnishing.

Hygiene.—The necessity for the following:

1. Fresh air in the home at all times—in living rooms and sleeping rooms

2. Good food and plenty of sleep

3. Cleanliness of the body

4. Cleanliness in preparing food

5. Cleanliness in the home and surroundings.

Physical Training.—1. The value of exercise gained by performing household duties.

2. The importance of correct positions in performing home duties, such as dish washing, sewing, etc.

3. The value of conveniences to save steps.

Composition.—Topics selected from household materials and activities.

Examples: Food materials, cleansing agents, planning a convenient kitchen or bath-room, sweeping day, baking day, arrangement of a kitchen cupboard or clothes closet, etc.

Spelling.—Names of household articles and duties as follows:

Furniture of a special room, such as kitchen or sitting-room, kitchen utensils, contents of a kitchen cupboard, dishes and food used at a particular meal, etc.

Manual Training.—Construction of household furnishings and utensils for a doll's house from raffia, paper, and plasticine.

Art.—Designing and colouring carpets, curtains, wall-papers, book covers, dishes, tiles, ribbons, and dress materials.

Sewing.—Making the uniform for Household Management work.

If the Household Management teacher takes the work with this class, she should follow the outline of work given in the Course of Study. This outline will make the pupils familiar with the common household materials as to their sources, preparation, and cost, and when, in the next class, they deal with these materials, they will do so with more interest and intelligence. It will also draw attention to the importance of economy in time and energy. The convenience of a kitchen and the use of proper utensils to facilitate labour will impress this fact.

The lessons should be taught simply as information lessons and should be of the same length as the other studies—from thirty to forty minutes. If the usual hour and a half period be set aside for this class, the remainder of the time may be devoted to sewing.

CHAPTER IV

FORM III: SENIOR GRADE

LESSON I

Scope of Household Management

In introducing the practical side of Household Management to a class, it is an advantage to let them have a general idea of what the subject includes. They will then work with more intelligence and usually with more interest. Then, too, the prevalent idea that the subject means only cooking will be corrected from the first.

Throughout the introduction, the teacher should not forget that she is dealing with immature minds and that the ideas must be very simply expressed. She might ask what the pupils expect to learn in this class, have them name other subjects they study in school, and in each case lead up to the one thing of which a particular subject treats; for example, arithmetic treats of numbers; geography, of the world; history, of past events. She should lead the class to see that the one thing of which Household Management treats is the home; and that the two great requirements for a home are the house, and the people who live in it, or the occupants.

To get the details relating to each of these two divisions, let the pupils imagine they are boarding in some locality where they decide to make a home for themselves. The first thing to be done is to choose a building lot. Then they must decide upon the kind of house they want and the plan of the house. After the house is built, it must be furnished. When the house is ready, it must be cleaned and kept clean. As soon as the family move in, new considerations arise—they must have food, which must be bought, prepared, and served; each member of the family must be clothed and educated; they must receive proper care when sick. Only a few minutes should be spent on this introductory talk.

While the class is naturally led to think of and name these details, they should be written on the black-board in the order of development, somewhat as follows:

1. Household Management teaches us about the home.

2. A home includes two main ideas:

(1) A house, (2) a family.

3. In connection with a house we must consider:

(1) The lot, (2) the plan, (3) the furnishing, (4) the cleaning.

4. In connection with a family we must consider:

(1) Food (buying, cooking, serving), (2) clothing (buying, sewing, mending), (3) education, (4) home nursing.

Tell the pupils that a housekeeper should be informed on all of these points, but little girls can expect to study only a few of them, such as questions of food, clothing, and cleaning.

Survey of Equipment, Uniform, etc.

Equipment.—Most of the time of the first lesson should be used in making the pupils acquainted with their surroundings and individual necessities, so that they will be ready for work the next day.

Give each member of the class a definite working place, and let her examine the contents of the cupboard and drawers which belong to her place. Explain that the particular places which the pupils are given will be kept throughout the year, and that, while they have the privilege of using and enjoying them, they are responsible for their cleanliness and order.

Point out the remainder of the equipment—hot and cold water-taps, towel racks, class cupboard with its contents, refrigerator, large and individual stoves.

Teach each pupil how to light her stove and regulate its heat.

Uniforms, etc.—Tell the pupils that you have shown them what has been provided for them, but you want them also to provide some things for themselves. It will be necessary for them to bring a large, plain, white apron, having a bib large enough to protect the dress; a pair of sleevelets; a holder; a small towel for personal use; and a white muslin cap to confine the hair while working. They will also need a note-book and pencil for class, and a note-book to be used at home for re-copying the class work in ink. The latter book is to be very neatly written and kept for reference after it has been examined by the teacher.

LESSON II

Use of Equipment

The little girls who make up the classes are not so far removed from their "playhouse" days that a survey of the dishes, stoves, and tables will not give them an eager desire to begin using them. This desire should be gratified, but as the use always necessitates the cleaning as well, it may be advisable at first to make use of the equipment only for the purpose of showing proper methods of cleaning.

A short lesson on cleaning may be given in a few minutes, and the rest of the period spent in putting it into practice. The teacher may proceed somewhat as follows in the development of a lesson on cleaning:

Development of a Lesson on Cleaning

MEANING OF CLEANING

Take two dishes—plates or saucers—exactly alike. Have one clean and the other soiled with butter or some well-known substance. Ask the class the difference between them. One is clean and one dirty. What substance is on one that hinders your saying it is clean? Butter. What else could be on it? Jam. What else? Dust. What else? Gravy. Now instead of telling the name of the particular substance in each case, let us try to find one name that will apply to all of the substances which, as you say, make the dish dirty. Let us give these substances a name which will show that they do not belong to the plate. We may call each of them a foreign substance. And if I take the substance off the plate what am I doing to the plate? Cleaning it. Then what is cleaning? Cleaning is removing a foreign substance.

METHODS OF CLEANING

1. Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance:

What would you use to remove the butter from the plate? A piece of paper or a knife. What are you doing with the knife or paper? Scraping or rubbing off the foreign substance. Then how was it removed? It was removed by scraping or rubbing.

Suppose some one has sharpened a pencil and let the pieces fall on the floor, what would you take to remove the foreign substance from the floor? A broom. What would you say you are doing with the broom? Sweeping. How does the movement of the broom over the floor compare with the movement of the knife over the plate? It is similar. What would you take to remove the dust from the window-sill? A duster. What would you say you are doing? Dusting. How does the movement of the duster compare with the movement of the knife and the broom? It is similar. In all of these cases of dish, floor, and sill, how did we remove the foreign substance? We scraped or rubbed it off. Name one way of removing a foreign substance. Scraping or rubbing it away.

2. Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping it away:

Show a much soiled towel and ask what is usually done to clean it. It is washed. Ask the pupils to tell just what they mean by that. The towel is put in water and soap used on it. What effect will the soap and water have on the foreign substance? They will soften or dissolve it. Then what must be done next? The towel must be rubbed on a board or with the hands. What effect has this operation on the foreign substance? It scrapes or rubs the foreign substance away. Then we have another way of cleaning: By first dissolving the foreign substance, and then scraping or rubbing it away.

A number of well-known cleaning operations may then be given, and the pupils asked in each case to decide the method used—such as, whisking a coat, scrubbing a table, cleaning the teeth, or washing dishes.

COMMON HOUSEHOLD CLEANSING AGENTS

Next, get lists of the common cleansing agents found in an ordinary home, and arrange them in order of coarseness.

BLACK-BOARD OUTLINE

The black-board scheme, as the lesson develops, will appear as follows:

1. Meaning of Cleaning:

Cleaning is removing any foreign substance.

2. Methods of Cleaning:

(1) Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance.

(2) Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping or rubbing it away.

3. Household cleansing agents used in the first method:

4. Household cleansing agents used in the second method:

5. Combination cleansing agents:

When the class have these ideas, they are ready to put them into practice, and the remainder of the lesson should be spent in practical work.

If the pupils have soiled no dishes, it may be wise to drill them first in table washing or towel washing, so as to get them ready for the next lesson when tables and towels will be used.

LESSONS III, IV, ETC.

Gradually, in connection with the making of simple dishes, the pupils should be taught special methods of dish washing, sink cleaning, and dusting. Each day as they are appointed to different duties in cleaning, these methods should be strictly followed until they become well known.

While they are still new to the class, it will be a great help to have outlines of the kinds of cleaning which are necessary in every lesson posted conveniently in different parts of the room for reference.

These outlines may be as follows:

DISH WASHING

Preparation for washing:

1. Put away the food.
2. Scrape and pile the dishes.
3. Put the dishes that need it to soak.
4. Place soap, pans, brushes, and towels.
5. Put water in the pans.

(1) Fill the dish pan about half full of warm water, then soap it.

(2) Fill the rinsing pan nearly full of hot water.

Order of washing:

Finishing after washing:

1. Soap a dish cloth and wash the sides and bottom of the dish pan, before emptying it.

2. Empty the dish pan, rinse at the sink, and half fill with clear, warm water, to rinse the towels.

3. Wash the towels in the rinsing pan, rinse them in the dish pan, shake them straight, fold, and hang.

4. Soap the dish cloth, wash the inside of the rinsing pan, empty, rinse, and wipe with the dish cloth.

5. Wash and wipe the soap dish.

6. Empty the dish pan and wipe with the dish cloth.

7. Pile the pans, place the brushes and soap, and set away.

8. Fold the dish cloth and hang it to dry.

TABLE CLEANING (CLASS WORK)

1. If necessary, scrape or brush off the table stoves.

2. Get a scrub cloth, a wash-basin of warm water, and a scrub-brush.

3. Wash the part of the table used by your group, doing the part not occupied by the dish washing first; then get the dish washers to move along, so that you can finish it, proceeding as follows:

(1) Wet the table all over.
(2) Rub the soap cake over it.
(3) Scrub with the wet brush with the grain of the wood.
(4) Rinse the soap off with the clear water.
(5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.

4. Get clear water. Rinse the brush and put it away. Rinse the scrub cloth and wring it dry.

5. Take the basin and cloth to the sink. Empty, rinse the basin, and dry it with the cloth. Rinse the cloth under the tap and wring it dry.

6. Fold and hang the cloth to dry. Bring back a dry cloth and thoroughly dry the aluminium strip.

7. Put away the dry cloth and basin.

SINK CLEANING

1. Let the other housekeepers get the water they need.

2. Get a sink pan, a scrub cloth, and a brush. Put warm water in the pan.

3. Scrub the drain board if there be one, as follows:

(1) Wet the board all over.
(2) Rub the soap cake over it.
(3) Scrub with a wet brush with the grain of wood.
(4) Rinse the soap off with clear water.
(5) Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.

4. Wash the nickel part of the sink (tap and stand) with soap. Wipe with the cloth wrung dry.

5. Wash the outside of the basin of the sink.

6. When the other housekeepers have emptied their water, wash the inside of the sink basin and wipe with the cloth wrung dry.

7. Wash the scrub cloth and pan, rinse the brush, and put all away.

8. Polish the nickel with a dry duster.

DUSTING

1. Get a cheesecloth duster.

2. Dust the chairs and put them in place.

3. Dust the table legs and drawer handles.

4. Dust the cupboard and refrigerator.

5. Dust the wood-work, window-sills, ledges, etc.

6. Wash the duster and hang it up to dry.

MEASURES AND RECIPES

Another preliminary part of the work will be teaching the pupils to measure and follow a recipe.

MEASURES

The measures used in kitchen work are teaspoon, tablespoon, pint, quart, and gallon, of which a table should be developed as follows:

In connection with this table the following points should be brought out:

1. That all measurements are made level.

2. That in measuring liquids, the measure should be set on a level surface.

3. That to halve the contents of a spoon, the division should be made lengthwise.

4. That to quarter the contents of a spoon, the half should be divided crosswise.

5. That in measuring flour, it should not be shaken down to level it.

6. That in using one measure for both dry and liquid ingredients, the dry should be measured first.

7. That in measuring a cupful of dry ingredients, the cup should be filled by using a spoon or scoop.

(a) Dividing the contents of a spoon

(b) Dividing a spoonful in halves

(c) Filling a cup

(d) Levelling a cupful

TABLE OF EQUIVALENT MEASURES AND WEIGHTS

A table of equivalent measures and weights of some staple foods will also be useful and may be given to the class:

PLAN OF LESSON ON MEASURING

TIME LIMIT

One and one-half hours to be divided approximately as follows—one-half hour for teaching the theory, one-half hour for the practical application of the theory, and one-half hour for housekeeping (washing of dishes, tables, sinks, etc., and putting the kitchen in order).

PREPARATION

1. Place a set of measures at hand.

2. Place a large bowl of flour on the teacher's table.

3. Place flour and sugar in the boxes of the supply drawers.

4. Place cans of cocoa and jugs of milk on the centre table.

DEVELOPMENT

1. Introduction.—What do we take for a guide when cooking? How can we be sure that we use the exact quantities the recipes require? Name some measures that you have learned in arithmetic. In this lesson we are going to learn the measures we require in cooking, also the proper ways of using them.

2. Names of measures.—Show and name the measures, beginning at the smallest: teaspoon, tablespoon, cup, pint, quart, gallon. As the measures are named, place them on the table in order of size.

3. Methods of using measures.—Ask two or three pupils, in turn, to measure a teaspoonful of flour from the bowl on the teacher's table. They will not agree in their measurements, and the necessity for levelling will be shown. What can we use for levelling measures? How can we level liquids?
If we need less than a spoonful, how can we measure it? Which part of the spoon is deeper? How shall we divide the spoonful to make both halves equal? How must we divide a spoonful into quarters? Into eighths? Examine and explain the divisions of the cup. To use one measure for both liquid and dry ingredients, which should be measured first? (As these points are obtained, they should be written on the black-board.)

4. Table of measures.—In the tables of measures which you have learned, you state the number of times one measure is contained in the next higher. We shall form a table of the measures learned to-day. By measuring flour from their boxes, let each pupil find how many teaspoonfuls fill a tablespoon. How many tablespoonfuls fill a cup, a half cup, a quarter of a cup. They will state the remainder of the table from memory. Write the table on the black-board and teach the abbreviations.

Note.—After the lesson on measuring is developed, the class should be given individual work which will put these ideas into practice. A simple recipe may be dictated by the teacher, step by step. Cocoa makes a good recipe for this lesson, as it affords practice in measuring liquids as well as dry ingredients, both powdered and granular. If each girl makes half a cupful of cocoa, it will give practice in dividing the contents of a spoon.

PRACTICAL WORK TO APPLY MEASURING

Have each pupil make half a cupful of cocoa by carrying out each step as it is dictated by the teacher, as follows:

1. Numbers one put two cups of water in the tea kettle; numbers two light a fire and put the water to boil; numbers three get cocoa from the centre table; numbers four get milk.

2. Set out sugar boxes and open them.

3. Each take a small saucepan, a measuring cup, a teaspoon, a paring-knife, and a small cup.

4. Measure half a teaspoonful of sugar into the saucepan.

5. Measure half a teaspoonful of cocoa into the saucepan.

6. Mix the sugar and cocoa by shaking the saucepan.

7. Measure half of a third of a cupful of boiling water and stir it into the sugar and cocoa.

8. Set the mixture over a gentle fire and stir until it bubbles. Cook for three minutes.

9. Measure half of a third of a cupful of milk.

10. Stir the milk into the mixture and heat it until it is steaming hot, but do not boil it.

11. Serve the cocoa in the small cups.

12. Turn out the fires and put the saucepans to soak.

SERVING

Each pupil puts her table in order by moving all cooking utensils to the metal part of the table and wiping off any soiled spots on the wooden part; she then sits to drink the cocoa she has made.

NOTE-TAKING

Notes are copied from the black-board in pencil in the ordinary class note-books. The desk boards under the table tops are pulled out for this purpose. In this lesson the notes consist of:

1. Table of measures, with abbreviations

2. Points in measuring

3. Recipe for cocoa (if there are recipe cards, these should be distributed).

HOUSEKEEPING

This will be done in groups of fours, according to their previous lessons in cleaning. If necessary, some special cleaning, as dish washing or sink cleaning, may be taught at this point of the lesson:

1. Number one will wash dishes for her group.

2. Number two will wipe dishes for her group.

3. Number three will clean the entire table belonging to her group.

4. Number four will do work outside of her group as appointed, such as dusting, cleaning a sink or the centre table.

RECIPE FOR COCOA

1. Mix the sugar and cocoa in a saucepan.

2. Stir the boiling water into the mixture, then set it over a gentle heat.

3. Keep stirring until the mixture bubbles, then boil gently for about three minutes.

4. Stir in the milk and heat it until it steams, but do not boil it.

5. Serve the cocoa hot or ice-cold.

RECIPES

In connection with a recipe, the pupils should be taught to look for three parts:

1. The name

2. The list and amount of ingredients

3. The method.

In carrying out a recipe, they should, from the first, be taught to work in the following systematic order:

1. To attend to the fire if necessary

2. To collect the necessary utensils

3. To collect the necessary ingredients

4. To obey the method.

For this lesson, some simple recipe which will review measuring should be clearly written on the black-board—the recipe for apple sauce or cranberry sauce would be suitable. While the pupils are learning obedience in following a recipe, it is better to keep them together in carrying out their work. The method should be written in definite, numbered steps, which may be checked off as each step is accomplished.

When the class has had instruction in cleaning, measuring, and recipes, they are ready for a series of lessons involving the use of simple recipes which will put into practice the ideas they have learned. For this practice, such recipes as the following are suggested:

Boiled potatoes, mashed potatoes; boiled parsnips; boiled celery; boiled carrots, asparagus, green peas; cranberry sauce; rhubarb sauce; preparing and combining ingredients for salads (fruit salad, potato salad, cabbage and nut salad, Waldorf salad)—the dressing being supplied; stuffed eggs; sandwiches.

The carrying out of these lessons will develop in the pupils accuracy and obedience, and make them familiar with the use and care of their utensils, as well as give opportunity for the cleaning of these and other parts of the equipment.

During these first lessons, careful supervision should be given each pupil, so that only correct habits may be formed in regard to neatness, thoroughness, quietness, and natural use of muscles.

The pupils should be encouraged to begin a book of recipes to contain neatly written copies of all they have used in school. The Art teacher might correlate the work here by assisting them to design a suitable cover for this book.

CHAPTER V

FORM III: SENIOR GRADE (Continued)

COOKERY

LESSON I

After a number of practice lessons have developed in the pupils a certain ability and self-confidence in working, formal cookery may be introduced, and the following ideas should be brought out:

1. The meaning of cooking:

Cooking is the application of sufficient heat to make a change in the food.

2. Reasons for cooking food:

(1) To make some food digestible.

(2) To change flavours and make some food more appetizing.

(3) To preserve food.

(4) To kill harmful germs in food.

3. Kinds of heat used:

(1) Dry heat—heat, only, is conveyed to the food.

(2) Moist heat—heat and moisture are conveyed to the food.

4. Different ways of applying dry heat:

Toasting, broiling, pan-broiling, sautéing, frying, baking.

5. Different ways of applying moist heat:

Boiling, simmering, steaming, steeping.

Note.—If the class cannot name these methods, the teacher may name and write them with only a word of comment regarding each, or they may not be given until the methods are studied.

As the moist heat methods are simpler and better known, they should be studied first. The class should be led to see that some liquid must be used to supply the moisture and should account for the common use of water for this purpose. Experiments should then be performed in heating water, and its appearance and temperature should be noted.

Note.—A preliminary lesson on the use of the thermometer may be necessary to show how to read it, and to develop the idea that it is an instrument for measuring heat. This may be taught in the regular class work, previous to the Household Management lesson.

LESSON ON THE THERMOMETER

1. Development of the idea of "measuring":

What would you use to measure the length of the table? A foot measure. What to measure the water in a tub? A pint, quart, or gallon measure. What to measure the amount of gas burned? A gas-meter.

2. Development of the name "thermometer":

What do we call the instrument

For measuring gas? A gas-meter
For measuring electricity? An electrometer
For measuring speed of a motor? A speedometer (speed-meter)
For measuring the distance a bicycle travels? A cyclometer (cycle-meter).

In each case what does "meter" mean? It means an instrument for measuring. What name may I give to an instrument for measuring heat? You may call it a heat-meter.

Tell the pupils that, in science, many Greek words are used, and that you will put a Greek word in place of the English word "heat", namely "thermos", as in thermos bottle. What will the name become? Thermosmeter, or thermometer.

3. Practice in using thermometers:

The unit of measurement (degree) should be given, and the scale taught from the black-board. Thermometers may then be given to the class to examine and use.

Saucepans having white inner surfaces are best to use for the experiments, as changes made by the heat are more plainly seen.

Observations of water under heat:

(1) At a temperature of about 100 degrees, very small bubbles form at the bottom and sides of the dish and rise slowly to the surface of the water. These bubbles are a film of water containing the air that was in solution, which, when expanded, rises to the top of the water.

(2) At a temperature of about 180 degrees, a few larger bubbles form at the bottom of the dish and rise slowly to the surface of the water, making a slight movement in it. In these bubbles air is replaced by steam which is formed from the water by the heat.

(3) At a temperature of 212 degrees, a great number of large bubbles form and rise quickly to the surface, making much movement in the water. The water is then said to boil.

(4) The water will take no higher temperature than 212 degrees.

(5) After water once boils, it requires little heat to keep it at this point, therefore the heat may be reduced.

(6) An increase of heat increases the number, size, and rate of the bubbles and the volume of steam, but makes the liquid no hotter.

Application of these observations:

(1) If food be cooked in a liquid at its greatest heat, where many bubbles are making much movement in it, the process is called boiling.

(2) If cooked in a liquid heated to 180-200, where there is scarcely any movement in the liquid, the process is called simmering.

(3) If cooked in the steam rising from a boiling liquid, the process is called steaming.

(4) If boiling liquid be poured over food and no further heat applied, the process is called steeping.

LESSONS II, III, IV, ETC.

Practice should then be given in each of the moist heat methods of cooking. The common foods, such as vegetables, fruit, eggs, and milk should be used for this purpose.

After the class has carried out a method for the first time, they should be led to consider the order of work required for it. The necessary steps should be arranged to form a set of rules for reference. The effects of the method in each case should also be noted.

When the moist heat methods are well known, the dry heat methods should be taught and practised. The outlines on [pages 73-81] will suggest the development under each method.

Plan of Lesson on Boiling Carrots

AIM

To apply the principles of boiling, as taught in a previous lesson, to the cooking of food.

TIME LIMIT

One and one-half hours to be used approximately as follows: twenty-five minutes for preparation for practical work and the first part of the practical work, twenty-five minutes for the development of ideas of boiling as a method of cooking, fifteen minutes for the serving of food, twenty-five minutes for housekeeping.

PREPARATION FOR PRACTICAL WORK

1. Review.—Question the pupils as follows: What kind of heat is used in cooking food by boiling? At what temperature is the food cooked by this method? Name the kinds of boiling. How much hotter is rapid boiling? How is water made to boil rapidly? When is rapid boiling useful?

2. Discussion of recipe.—Have the recipe written on the black-board and read by one of the pupils, while the others follow the reading carefully.

(1) Have the class decide:

(a) When the fires should be lighted

(b) The dishes required for the work

(c) The kind of boiling to use.

(2) Demonstrate the scrubbing, scraping, and dicing of a carrot, also the draining of a food cooked in liquid.

(3) State the quantity of ingredients each will use.

(4) Caution the pupils as to accuracy, neatness, and quietness while working.

PRACTICAL WORK

Have each pupil prepare the food according to the recipe and put it on to cook within a certain time. While the class works, carefully observe each pupil and give individual help to those who require it.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEAS OF BOILING AS A METHOD OF COOKING

This will be done while the carrots are cooking. The ideas brought out from review and the class work, by questioning, will be those which are given on boiling under the methods of cooking.

1. Definition of boiling

2. Kinds of boiling

3. Uses of rapid boiling

4. Rules for boiling

5. Effects of boiling.

As these ideas are obtained from the class, they should be written by the teacher on the black-board and by the pupils in their note-books.

SERVING

The pupils will drain, season, and serve the food. Each girl will set one place on the wooden part of the table and serve herself. While the food is being eaten, the table manners of each girl should be observed, and, if necessary, corrected in a tactful manner.

HOUSEKEEPING

The work of putting the kitchen in order may be done in groups of twos or fours.

RECIPE: BOILED CARROTS

1. Scrub, scrape, and rinse the carrots.

2. Cut them into pieces by dicing them.

3. Put the pieces in a saucepan, set over the fire, and pour in boiling water until the food is covered.

4. Cook the carrots until the pieces are soft at the centre when pierced with a fork.

5. Drain off the liquid, then season the food with salt, pepper, and butter.

6. Serve in a hot vegetable dish.

Plan of Lesson on Simmering: Apples

INTRODUCTION

1. Review:

(1) Appearance and temperature of a boiling liquid.
(2) Appearance and temperature of a simmering liquid.

2. State the difficulty of keeping a liquid at simmering temperature; show the double boiler and explain its use for this purpose.

3. Compare boiling and simmering as to length of time required and difficulty.

4. Tell the pupils they are going to study simmering by making Coddled Apples.

DISCUSSION OF RECIPE

1. Read recipe.

2. Question regarding:

(1) Kind of heat used
(2) Whether to prepare apples or syrup first, and why
(3) Management in measuring so as to use only one cup
(4) Why one quantity of syrup is sufficient for so many apples.

3. Decide on the dishes required for the work.

PRACTICAL WORK

Assign work in groups of twos—numbers one and three prepare syrup; numbers two and four prepare apples; all attend to the cooking.

DEVELOPMENT OF IDEAS OF SIMMERING

(To be dealt with while food is cooking)

1. Definition.—Obtain this by comparing simmering with boiling.

2. Effects:

(1) Compare a raw and simmered apple to get the idea of "soft and tender".
(2) Tell the pupils simmering temperature will not harden and toughen meat and eggs as much as boiling does.
(3) Lying longer in the liquid to cook dissolves out more of the food substance.
(4) Less water going off as vapour does not carry away as much flavour.
(5) Less motion in the liquid does not break up the food.

SERVING

When the apples are tender, let each girl serve herself with what she has cooked. While the fruit is being eaten, direct attention to the flavour of apple in the syrup.

HOUSEKEEPING

Assign the work which is necessary to put the kitchen in order, and allow the pupils to carry it out in groups of twos or fours.

RECIPE (INDIVIDUAL): CODDLED APPLES

1. Put the sugar and water in the inside part of a double boiler, set over the fire, and boil gently for about five minutes.

2. Wash and pare the apple, cut it into halves, and remove the core.

3. Put the prepared fruit into the syrup, cover the dish closely, and set in the under part of the double boiler.

4. Simmer the pieces of apple until tender, turning them occasionally.

5. Lift the fruit carefully into a serving dish, then pour the syrup over it.

6. Serve hot or cold.

Note.—One cup of sugar will make sufficient syrup for six or seven apples.

METHODS OF COOKING: DETAILS

BOILING

1. Definition:

Boiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a boiling liquid.

2. Kinds of boiling:

(1) Gentle boiling—temperature of 212 degrees.
(2) Rapid boiling—temperature of 212 degrees.

3. Uses of rapid boiling:

(1) To make much steam
(2) To break up food
(3) To keep small particles of food in motion.

4. Rules for boiling:

(1) Put the food in a cooking dish, set over the heat, and pour in the boiling liquid to cover the food well.
(2) Regulate the heat to the kind of boiling required.
(3) Keep the food boiling during the entire cooking.
(4) Continue the cooking until the food is tender at the centre when it is tested, or for the time required by the recipe.
(5) When the food is cooked, lift it from the liquid or drain the liquid from the food.

5. Effects of boiling:

(1) It makes some food soft and tender—fruit, vegetables.
(2) It makes some food hard and tough—eggs, etc.
(3) It breaks up food.
(4) It dissolves out some of the food substance.
(5) It causes some loss of flavour (in the steam).
(6) It kills germs.

SIMMERING

1. Definition:

Simmering is a method of cooking in a liquid at a temperature of about 180 degrees.

2. Rules for simmering:

(1) Use a double boiler to keep the temperature correct.
(2) Put the food in liquid in the top dish, and proceed as in boiling.

3. Effects of simmering:

(1) It makes some foods soft and tender—fruit and vegetables.
(2) It does not make the protein of animal food (milk, eggs, and meat) hard as boiling does.
(3) It dissolves out a good deal of the food substance into the cooking liquid.
(4) It causes very little loss of flavour.
(5) It does not break up the food.

STEAMING

1. Definition:

Steaming is a method of cooking in the steam from boiling liquid.

2. Rules for steaming:

(1) Have the water boiling rapidly in the under part of the steamer.
(2) Put the food in the upper part, cover closely, and place over the lower part.
(3) Keep the water boiling rapidly during the entire cooking.
(4) If extra water be needed, only boiling water should be added, as quickly and as gently as possible.
(5) Continue the cooking according to the time required by the recipe, or test as in boiling, if the food permits.

3. Effects of steaming:

(1) It makes vegetable food tender.
(2) It makes the protein of animal food harder than simmering, but not so hard as boiling does.
(3) It does not break up the food.
(4) It does not dissolve out the food substance.
(5) It causes little loss of flavour if closely covered.

STEEPING

1. Definition:

Steeping is a method of cooking, by pouring boiling water over food, and letting it stand in a moderately warm place.

2. Rules for steeping:

(1) Heat the steeping dish.
(2) Use water freshly boiled.
(3) Put the food in the hot dish, pour water over, cover closely, and set in a warm place.
(4) Let the food remain in the liquid until you have extracted what is desired.
(5) Strain off the liquid and use as required.

3. Effects of steeping:

(1) To heat and soften the food
(2) To extract the flavour and, sometimes, the substance of the food.

TOASTING

1. Definition:

Toasting is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly from the fire. It is used mainly for bread.

2. Rules for toasting:

(1) Have a clear, hot fire.
(2) Cut bread in slices from one third to one half an inch thick.
(3) Hold the food at some distance from the fire, in a gentle heat at first, to dry and heat the surfaces. This drying may be done in the oven.
(4) Then hold the dried, hot surfaces in a strong heat, to brown and crisp them.
(5) Serve so that the surfaces will not become steamed from the moisture still contained in the slices. Put the toast in a toast-rack or stack it on a hot plate. Buttered toast may be piled.

3. Effects of toasting:

(1) To heat and dry the surface of the food.
(2) To brown and crisp the surface.
(3) To change the flavour.
(4) To change the starch of the surface into a brown substance, which is a form of sugar, and more digestible than starch.

BROILING

1. Definition:

Broiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly. It is used mainly for meat and fish in slices or thin portions.

2. Rules for broiling:

(1) Have a clear, hot fire.
(2) Grease the broiler and trim the food.
(3) Lay the food in the broiler compactly.
(4) Hold the broiler in a very strong heat to seal the tubes of the food which hold the juices, and turn frequently.
(5) When the surface is seared, hold in a gentler heat to cook the food to the centre, and turn occasionally while doing this.
(6) Time the cooking to the thickness of the food—one inch of thickness cooks rare in eight minutes.
(7) Serve at once on a hot dish, and spread with butter, salt, and pepper.

3. Effects of broiling:

(1) To sear the surface.
(2) To cook to the centre while browning the surface.
(3) To change the flavour and develop a very delicious one in the browned surface.
(4) To make the browned surface hard to digest.

PAN-BROILING

1. Definition:

Pan-broiling is an imitation of broiling and is a method of cooking on a hissing-hot, metal surface.

2. Rules for pan-broiling:

(1) Have a hot fire.
(2) Heat the pan or metal surface until it hisses when touched with water.
(3) Lay the food in compactly, and turn constantly until the entire surface is seared.
(4) Place the pan in a gentle heat and cook the food to the centre, turning occasionally.
(5) Time the cooking to the thickness of the food—one inch cooks rare in ten minutes.
(6) Serve at once, as in broiling.

3. Effects of pan-broiling:

The same as in broiling.

SAUTÉING

1. Definition:

Sautéing is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a smoking-hot, greased surface.

2. Rules for sautéing:

(1) Heat the pan enough to melt the fat.
(2) Put in just enough fat to keep the food from sticking, and let it run over the surface of the pan, and get smoking hot.
(3) Put in the food and let it brown on one side, then turn it and brown the other side.
(4) Serve on a hot dish.

3. Effects of sautéing:

(1) To sear the surface of the food.
(2) To brown the surface and develop a delicious flavour, while cooking to the centre.
(3) To make the surface slightly fat-soaked with fat which has been very highly heated.
(4) To make the surface indigestible.

BAKING

1. Definition:

Baking is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food through the confined heat of an oven.

2. Kinds of ovens:

(1) Slow.
(2) Moderate—white paper browns in ten minutes.
(3) Hot—white paper browns in five minutes.
(4) Very hot—white paper browns in one minute.

3. Rules for baking:

(1) Heat the oven according to the recipe.
(2) Put the food in the oven, usually on the lower shelf, to get an under heat first, then toward the last of the cooking, set it on the top shelf to brown.
(3) Watch carefully during the baking, but in opening the oven door, be gentle and quick.
(4) If the oven gets too hot, set a pan of cold water in it, or leave the door slightly open. If browning too quickly, cover the surface with brown paper.
(5) Cook the food according to the time required by the recipe, or until it is done, as shown by some test.

FRYING

1. Definition:

Frying is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food by immersing it in smoking-hot fat.

2. Temperature for frying:

(1) For cooked foods which have only to brown and warm through—about 400 degrees.
(2) For raw foods which have to cook—about 350 degrees.

3. Rules for frying:

(1) Use a deep iron, steel, or granite kettle, which will hold the heat.
(2) Put in sufficient fat to cover the food well, but never fill the kettle more than two-thirds full.
(3) Heat the fat to the desired temperature.
(4) Have the food as dry as possible and not very cold.
(5) When the fat begins to give off a small quantity of white vapour, test it for the required heat, as follows:

(a) For raw food, put in a small square of bread, and allow it sixty seconds to brown.
(b) For cooked food, allow a square of bread forty seconds to brown.

(6) Put the food carefully into the hot fat, and only an amount which will not cool it too much.
(7) When the food is nicely browned, lift it from the fat with an open spoon or lifter and drain over the pot until it stops dripping.
(8) Lay the food on crumpled brown paper or blotting paper, to absorb any fat still clinging to the surface.
(9) Strain the fat through cheesecloth and set it away to cool.

4. Effects of frying:

(1) To sear the surface and prevent it from absorbing fat.
(2) To cook or heat the food to the centre.
(3) To brown the surface of the food and make it crisp.
(4) To develop a delicious flavour in the browned surface.
(5) To make the browned surface indigestible, because it has absorbed highly-heated fat.

Note.—As frying requires the fat used to be at a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let young children take the responsibility in this method of cooking. For this reason, it may be wise to defer lessons on frying until the Fourth Form, or even later.

For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive:

Boiling.—Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni, eggs, coffee

Simmering.—Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples; strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew

Steaming.—Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings, dumplings, fish

Steeping.—Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce

Toasting.—Bread, rolls

Broiling.—Steak, fish

Pan-broiling.—Steak

Sautéing.—Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes (teacher prepares the batter)

Baking.—Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf

Frying.—Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the dough).

The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also afford excellent drills in measuring, manipulation, and cleaning. Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these, instead of correcting them individually.

After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking, they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient, for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school, they may be of service in the homes of the pupils.

Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive manner.

In this first year of practical work, the main point is the formation of correct habits of work. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged.

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF LEFT-OVERS

BREAD

1. Toast for garnishing stews and hash

2. Croutons for soup

3. Bread crumbs to use for croquettes and scalloped dishes, or for stuffing meat and fish

4. Pudding (chocolate bread pudding, cabinet pudding, plain bread pudding, brown betty)

5. Pancakes.

CAKE

1. Pudding (steamed until just re-heated and served with a sauce)

2. Pudding (baked in a custard mixture)

3. Trifle.

MEAT

1. Meat pie or potato and meat pie

2. Meat loaf

3. Stew with dumplings

4. Hash

5. Scalloped meat

6. Croquettes

7. Meat moulded in gelatine

8. Salad (light meats only)

9. Sandwiches.

FISH

1. Scalloped fish

2. Salad.

EGGS

1. Stuffed eggs

2. Hard-boiled for salad

3. Garnish for salad

4. Sandwiches.

CHEESE

1. Cheese crackers

2. Cheese straws

3. Cheese cream toast

4. Cheese omelet

5. Cheese salad

6. Welsh rarebit

7. Macaroni and cheese

8. Sandwiches.

VEGETABLES

1. Scalloped vegetable

2. Cream of vegetable soup (water in which vegetable is cooked should be kept for this)

3. Sautéd vegetables

4. Salad.

CANNED FRUIT

1. Cup pudding or roly poly

2. Steamed or baked batter pudding

3. Pudding sauce (strain juice and thicken)

4. Trifle

5. Fruit salad

6. Gelatine mould.

BEVERAGES

After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson:

MEANING OF BEVERAGES

A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making beverages.

KINDS OF BEVERAGES

1. Refreshing.—Pure cold water, all cold fruit drinks

2. Stimulating.—All hot drinks, tea, coffee, beef-tea, alcoholic drinks

3. Nutritious.—Milk, cocoa, chocolate, oatmeal and barley water, tea and coffee with sugar and cream.

Note.—As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary household beverages, they should be specially studied. Their sources and manufacture will have been learned in Form III Junior, but their use as beverages may now be discussed and practised. It is desirable that the pupils be led to reason out correct methods of cooking each.

TEA

1. Description.—The leaves contain, beside a stimulant and flavour, an undesirable substance known as tannin, which is injurious to the delicate lining of the stomach. If the tea be properly made, the tannin is not extracted.

2. Method of cooking.—Steep the tea from three to five minutes, then separate the leaves from the liquid (suggest ways of doing this). Boiling is not a correct method to use for making tea, as it extracts the tannin and causes loss of flavour in the steam.

Note.—Because of the stimulant, young people should not drink tea or coffee.

COFFEE

1. Description.—The beans, or seeds, of coffee also contain tannin as well as a stimulant and flavour. This beverage is more expensive than tea, since a much larger amount must be used for one cup of liquid. After the beans are broken by grinding, the air causes the flavour to deteriorate, so that the housekeeper should grind the beans as required, or buy in small quantities and keep in tightly covered cans.

2. Method of cooking.—Coffee may be cooked in different ways, according to the size of the pieces into which the roasted beans are broken. These pieces are much harder than the leaves of tea, hence coffee may be given a higher temperature and a longer time in cooking than tea. Small pieces of beans are apt to float in the liquid, making it cloudy; this may be overcome by the use of egg-white or by careful handling.
Coarsely ground coffee must be boiled gently. Finely ground coffee may be boiled gently or steeped. Very finely ground, or powdered coffee should be steeped or filtered with boiling water.

COCOA

1. Description.—This contains a stimulant, but differs from tea and coffee in being nutritious. It makes a desirable drink for children.

2. Method of cooking.—Cocoa contains starch and should be simmered or gently boiled.

CHOCOLATE

This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much larger amount of fat.

TABLE SETTING

The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply without loss of time.

Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented as follows:

PREPARATION

1. See that the dining-room is well aired and in order.

2. See that the linen is clean and carefully laundered.

3. See that the glass, silver, and steel are polished.

4. Decide on the number to be served.

ARRANGEMENT

1. Place a silence cloth of felt, woollen, or thick cotton:

(1) To prevent the dishes from making a noise
(2) To give the table a better appearance
(3) To preserve the table top.

2. Lay the cloth, placing the centre of the cloth in the centre of the table and spreading it smoothly, having its folds parallel with the edges of the table.

3. Arrange a centre-piece, using a vase or basket of flowers, a small plant or a dish of fruit.

4. Put a plate at each person's place and lay the cutlery and silver beside it about one inch from the edge of the table, in the order of use, those used first on the outside, or farthest from the plate. At dinner these plates are usually placed before the one who serves.

(1) Place the knives at the right side, with the sharp edges toward the plate.
(2) Place the forks at the left side, with the tines up.
(3) Place the soup spoons at the right of the knife, bowl up.
(4) Place the dessert spoons in front of the plates, the handle to the right, the bowl up.
(5) Place the dessert forks with the other forks, or in front of the plates with the dessert spoons.

5. Place the water glasses at the end of the knife blades, top up.

6. Place the bread and butter plates at the left of the forks. (These are not necessary at dinner.)

7. Place the napkins at the left, neatly folded; discourage fancy folding.

Table laid for a home dinner

8. Place the salt and pepper so that they are convenient to every one.

9. Place the dishes that are to be served at table directly in front of the one who is to serve them.

10. Place the carving set in front of the host, and the tablespoons as on [page 89], or where food is to be served.

11. Place a chair for each person.

Individual section of table laid for dinner

TABLE MANNERS

In Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson on Preparing and Serving Meals, [page 136], has been reserved for the work of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the following:

RULES FOR CORRECT TABLE MANNERS

These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table.

They may be stated as follows:

1. Stand behind the seat assigned you.

2. Wait until the hostess is seated, before taking a seat.

3. Sit naturally erect, without any support from the elbows, placing the feet on the floor.

4. Do not begin to eat until others are served.

5. Eat and drink quietly, taking small mouthfuls; keep the mouth closed while eating.

6. Do not drink with food in the mouth.

7. Do not talk with food in the mouth.

8. Use a fork preferably, whenever it will serve the purpose; and never put a knife into the mouth.

9. Take soup from the side of the spoon.

10. Wipe the mouth before drinking from a glass.

11. Be attentive to the needs of others.

12. If it be necessary to leave the table, ask the hostess to excuse you.

13. If a guest for one meal only, leave the napkin unfolded beside the plate.

14. Never use a toothpick at the table, or in any company.

15. Wait for the hostess to rise, then stand, and replace the chair in position.

CHAPTER VI

FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE

THE KITCHEN

At the beginning of the year's work in Form IV, several lessons should be spent in reviewing the methods of cooking and cleaning taught in the previous year. This may be done by reviewing former recipes and by using new ones which require a knowledge of these methods. As the pupils work, they should be closely observed, and, without the teacher giving undue assistance, their weak points should be carefully strengthened. The length of time spent on the review will vary according to the ability of the class. This can be plainly judged by their habits of work. The new recipes given them should be such as they are likely to use at home, so as to encourage home practice. These recipes will also enlarge their collection in their special recipe books. Some of the following may be useful: creamed potatoes, potato omelet, stuffed potatoes, stuffed onions, corn oysters, baked tomatoes, spaghetti with tomato sauce, macaroni and cheese, scalloped apples, plain rice pudding, ginger pudding, sago pudding, tapioca cream.

THE KITCHEN FIRE

Up to this time the pupils have been allowed to manage their individual table stoves or a gas range. They should now be taught to understand and to use an ordinary coal or wood range. Two lessons will be necessary for this purpose. After each lesson has been taught, the remainder of the period should be spent in some kind of practical work which can be accomplished in the time. Some cookery which requires only a few minutes may be reviewed, such as tea, cocoa, coffee, toast, bacon, apple sauce; drawers and cupboards may be cleaned; silver and steel may be polished; designs for wall-paper, dishes, curtains, and dress materials may be drawn; household accounts may be computed; sewing may be finished.

LESSON I

Requirements of a Kitchen Fire

In introducing a lesson on the kitchen fire, ask the pupils to imagine that they have built a new house, which the workmen have just vacated. Before they can move in it must be cleaned. What kind of water is best for cleaning? Hot water. What is necessary to provide hot water? A fire.

Find out from the pupils and then write on the black-board what is necessary for a fire. What is the first requisite? Something to burn. What do we call such a substance? Fuel. Where shall we put the fuel? In a stove. Why is a stove necessary? To confine the fire.

Using a candle as fuel and a lamp chimney as a stove, light the candle and place it in the chimney. It burns only a short time and then dies out. Why? Because the oxygen of the air in the chimney is all exhausted. Then what is another requisite for a fire? Oxygen.

Imagine the room to be a stove and the chairs, books, tables, etc., to be fuel. The air in the room also contains much oxygen, so that in this room we have three requisites for a fire. It is very fortunate for us that something else is needed. We shall try to find out what it is.

Watch while I hold these strips of paper over this lighted gas stove high enough to be out of reach of the flame. What happened to them? They burst into a flame. What did the paper that I held receive that it did not get when it was lying on the table? Heat. We shall try a match in the same way, also some thin shavings. They also burn when they receive heat from the fire. Then what is another requisite for a fire? Heat. Name all of the requisites for a kitchen fire. Fuel, stove, oxygen, and heat.

Note.—Just here it is a good thing to impress the care that is necessary in regard to gasolene, coal-oil, benzine, etc., or any substance that burns at a low temperature. Bring out the fact very clearly that it is the heat that makes fuel burn, that a flame is not necessary.

HEAT

Experiments to show on what the amount of heat required depends:

1. Heat together two strips of paper of the same size but of different thicknesses and observe which burns first.

2. Heat together a strip of very thin paper and a match which is much thicker than the paper, and observe which burns first.

3. Rub a match vigorously on some surface and observe the result.

Conclusions.—1. The amount of heat required to make fuel burn depends on:

(1) The thickness of the fuel.

(2) The substance composing the fuel.

2. Some substances burn at a very low temperature.

Note.—This will explain the order of laying the fuel for a fire and the use of a match in lighting it.

OXYGEN

Experiments to show the means of obtaining oxygen:

1. Light a candle, set the lamp chimney over it and observe the result.

2. Raise the chimney by supporting it on two small pieces of wood. Note the result.

3. Cover the raised chimney with a piece of cardboard. Note the result.

Experiments to show the necessity for oxygen

Conclusions.—1. A fresh supply of oxygen is constantly required.

2. Two openings are required to ensure a constant supply of oxygen, one below the fuel and one above it.

3. Oxygen is obtained from the surrounding air.

4. The passage of air through these openings creates a draught.

It will be necessary next to lead the class to see that the supply of oxygen can be controlled:

1. By the relation of the openings:

(1) Openings directly opposite each other cause a rapid circulation of air or a "direct draught".

(2) Indirect openings cause a slower circulation of air or an "indirect draught".

2. By a cross current of air which tends to check the draught.

FUELS

A discussion of the fuels may next be taken. With pupils of Form IV it will not be wise to go into too many details regarding these. Besides the classification of the commonest ones, they may be compared from the standpoints of cost, and of the time and labour required in their use.

Classes of Fuels:

Liquid—coal-oil, gasolene, alcohol

Solid—coal (coke), wood (charcoal)

Gaseous—natural gas, coal gas.

Note.—Electricity is a means of producing heat, but cannot be called a fuel.

THE KITCHEN STOVE

LESSON II

In developing the construction of a practical coal or wood range, it is a good idea to use the black-board and make a rough drawing to illustrate the details, as they are given by the pupils. These details should be evolved from the knowledge gained in the preceding lessons, and the drawing should not be an illustration of any particular stove.

After the best practical stove, according to the pupils' ideas, has been thought out and represented on the black-board, they should examine and criticise the school range and the stoves at home. They are then ready to be given the responsibility of managing any ordinary range.

The following are the necessary details to be considered regarding a kitchen stove:

Material.—(1) Iron, (2) steel

Shape.—Rectangular.

Compartments.—(1) Fire-box, (2) ash-box, (3) oven, (4) passage for hot air, (5) other compartments if desired, such as water tank, warming closet, etc.

Dampers.—(1) Front damper—below the fuel, to control the entrance of oxygen to the fuel. (2) Oven damper—above the fuel at the entrance to the pipe, to control the heat for the oven, and also to control the draught. (3) Check damper—at the front of the stove above the fuel, to admit a cross current of air to check the draught.

Management of the stove.—(1) Lighting the fire, (2) heating the oven, (3) arranging for over night, (4) cleaning and care.

Note.—Openings below the level of the fire increase the draught, and those above the level check it.

A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (a) oven damper open

A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (b) oven damper closed

THE FIRELESS COOKER

Throughout the training given in Household Management, the teacher should emphasize the value of labour-saving devices and aids in the home. How to economize time and energy should be a prominent feature of every practical lesson. If time permit, a lesson may be taken to consider specially such aids as are readily procurable, together with their average cost. In this lesson the fireless cooker is considered.

A fireless cooker

The principles of the fireless cooker are based on a knowledge of the laws governing the conduction and radiation of heat. For this reason, an elementary science lesson relating to these laws should precede this lesson. Such a science lesson is part of the regular grade work of Form IV, so if a specialist teaches the Household Management of that grade, she and the regular teacher should arrange to co-ordinate their lessons.

PRINCIPLES OF THE FIRELESS COOKER

1. It furnishes no heat, but conserves the heat which is in the food when it is put into the cooker.

2. It conserves the heat in the food, by surrounding it with substances which are poor conductors of heat.

3. Extra heat may be given the food, after it is put in the cooker, by placing heated stone plates above and below the dish that contains the food. The stone used for this purpose must be a good absorbent of heat.

REASONS FOR THE USE OF THE FIRELESS COOKER

1. It saves fuel and is therefore economical.

2. It saves time, because it requires no watching.

3. It conserves the flavour of the food.

4. It obviates all danger of burning the food.

5. It does not heat the room.

WAYS OF USING THE FIRELESS COOKER

1. Food cooked in liquid:

In all cookers where stone plates are not used, only such foods as are cooked in liquids can be prepared. Examples of foods cooked in this way are, meat soup, beef-tea, meat stews, vegetables, fruit, porridge, cereal, puddings, etc.

The prepared food is put into one of the food receptacles belonging to the cooker and is placed over a fire, until it has boiled for a few minutes. The cover is then tightly adjusted, and the dish quickly locked in the cooker, to conserve the heat that the food and liquid have absorbed.

2. Food cooked in dry heat by the use of stone plates:

In this method the food is cold when it is placed in the cooker, and all the heat is supplied by stone plates placed above and below the utensil containing the food. These plates are heated for about twenty minutes over a fire, before they are used in the cooker.

Examples of food cooked in this way are, roasts of meat; baked fruit, such as apples; baked vegetables, such as potatoes or beans; cakes, such as plain cake or fruit cake; quick bread, such as corn-bread and biscuits.

3. Food cooked in liquid, aided by the heat of one stone plate:

In cases where the original heat absorbed by the food is not sufficient to complete the cooking as desired, a heated stone plate may be placed in the cooker below the utensil containing the hot food. The stone may be necessary for one of the following reasons—

(1) Because the amount of food put into the cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is always better to have the food nearly fill the dish.

(2) Because the time required is so long that the heat of the food and liquid becomes exhausted before the cooking is completed.

(3) Because it is desirable to finish the cooking in less time.

A HOME-MADE FIRELESS COOKER

Use a large wooden box or a small trunk with a close-fitting cover. Make it as air-tight as possible by pasting thick paper all over the inside.

Pack it level with clean sawdust or excelsior (the latter preferably), until just enough height is left to set in a covered granite pail, which is to be used for holding the food. Place the pail in the centre, so that its top edge is just about half an inch below the top of the box. Then pack in more excelsior very tightly around the pail, until level with it. This will shape the "nest" for the pail.

A home-made fireless cooker

Make a thick cushion, or mat, of excelsior to fit in the space between the level of the excelsior and the inside of the cover. Cover the cushion with cheesecloth or denim to keep it intact.

Note.—Only food cooked in a liquid can be prepared in a home-made cooker.

CHAPTER VII

FORM IV: JUNIOR GRADE (Continued)

STUDY OF FOOD

The pupils have been working with some of the well-known foods in all of their recipes and should have a fair knowledge of how to prepare them in simple ways for the table. It is now time for them to learn what these foods contain for the use of their bodies. Much of this part of the work can be taught in rooms without special equipment. An earnest teacher, with a few articles from home, can make the study interesting and valuable.

A series of lessons will be necessary for this purpose. The amount of work to be taken at one time is suggested, but this should be judged by the teacher. As in other lessons on theory, the remaining time of the lesson period should be used in practical work. Suggestions for such practical work are given under the lesson on "The Kitchen Fire", [page 92].

Practice lessons, to give variety and sustain interest, should be interspersed between these lessons as desired.

LESSON I

USES OF FOOD

The lesson may be introduced by asking the class to think in what way the body of a healthy baby, who is fed regularly, will have changed at the end of six months. It will be larger; it will have more flesh, more bone, more hair, etc. We want to get a name that will apply to any part of the body. No matter which part we examine through a microscope we find the same fine and beautiful texture, and to this we give a name similar to that given to fine, thin paper. We call it tissue—hair tissue, bone tissue, flesh tissue.

What has food done to the baby's tissues? It has enlarged its tissues; the child has grown larger. To the enlargement, or growth, of the tissues, we may apply the term, build, suggested by the building of a house. Then what may we say food does for the tissues of the body? We may say that food builds the tissues of the body.

Think of some persons who have taken food every day, and yet as long as you have known them they have not increased in size. What has food done for their tissues? The class must be told that the tissues of our bodies wear out through use, and that food has furnished the material to replace the worn-out parts. What do we say we are doing to clothes when we replace the worn parts? We are mending or repairing them. What does food do for our worn-out tissues? Food repairs the tissues of the body.

Do not think any more about the tissues of the body. Suppose you had not been able to get any food for several days. In what way would you be different from what you are now? You would not be as strong. Food gives strength or energy by being burned inside the body. There is a fire burning in our bodies all the time we are alive, the fuel being food. What do we require from the fire in our homes? We require heat. The fires in our bodies give us heat also. Any fire gives off both heat and energy. State another use of food to the body. Food produces heat and energy in the body.

But food does more for the body; it contains substances to keep our bodies in order. Suppose the clock gets out of order and does not keep good time, what does the watchmaker do to it? He regulates it. That is what certain kinds of food do for us. What then is another use of food? Food regulates the body.

Name the uses of food to the body.

1. It builds the tissues.

2. It repairs the tissues.

3. It produces heat and energy.

4. It regulates the body.

How then can we judge if a substance be a food? By deciding that it performs one of these duties in the body.

LESSON II

NECESSARY SUBSTANCES IN FOOD

The names of the substances in food which supply the material for the different uses of the body should be taken next.

1. For building and repairing.—(1) Mineral matter—used largely in hard tissues. (2) Nitrogenous matter, or protein—used largely for flesh. (3) Water—used in all tissues.

2. For fuel.—Carbonaceous matter (starch, sugar, fat).

3. For regulating.—Mineral matter, water.

Note.—The teacher should call attention to the fact that few foods contain all these substances, some have nearly all, some have only one, some two or more. In order to get all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class is now ready to consider the well-known foods, in order to find out which of these necessary substances each food contains, and to obtain a general idea of their comparative food values.

SOURCES OF FOOD

All nature supplies us with food. The three great divisions of nature are animal, vegetable, and mineral, and from each we obtain food, though most largely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

Animal food is some part of an animal's body or some product of an animal: examples—meat or fish, milk, eggs.

Vegetable food is some part of a plant: examples—vegetables, fruit, seeds.

Mineral food is some constituent of the earth's crust used as food. This mineral food is obtained by drinking water which in coursing through the earth has absorbed certain minerals, by eating plants which have absorbed the minerals from the soil, or by eating animal food which was built from plant food.

This preliminary survey of the sources of all our food gives the pupils a basis for classifying the foods with which they are familiar. They may be given exercises in doing this, and will not only find them interesting, but most useful as nature study.

STUDY OF THE COMMON FOODS

In beginning the analysis of the common foods, it must be remembered that the pupils have no knowledge of chemistry, and that what is found in each food must be discovered through the senses (seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling), or through a process of reasoning.

The pupils should also feel quite sure of what they are setting out to do; they are going to examine some particular, well-known food, to find which of the necessary food substances it contains. The food substances for which they are looking are water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, and carbonaceous matter (sugar, starch, fat).