LIST OF PLATES.
- I.—Portrait of the Author. To face title Vol. I.
- [II.]—General map.
- [III.]—Itinerary map.
- [IV.]—A woman of Timbuctoo.
- [V.]—M. Caillié meditating upon the Koran, and taking his notes.
- [IV.]—Plan of the great mosque of Timbuctoo, and a view of it taken from the E. N. E.
- [V.]—Details of the great mosque of Timbuctoo.
- [VI.]—View of part of the town of Timbuctoo, taken from the summit of a hill to the E. N. E.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY O. SCHULZE, 13, POLAND STREET.
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GENERAL MAP
OF THE
TRAVELS OF M. CAILLIE
TO JENNÉ AND TIMBUCTOO,
AND ACROSS THE SAHARA,
in 1827, & 1828.
Drawn by M. JOMARD
Member of the Royal Institute of France
1829
TRAVELS
THROUGH
CENTRAL AFRICA
TO
TIMBUCTOO;
AND
ACROSS THE GREAT DESERT, TO MOROCCO;
PERFORMED IN THE YEARS 1824-1828.
BY RÉNÉ CAILLIÉ.
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. II.
LONDON:
HENRY COLBURN AND RICHARD BENTLEY,
NEW BURLINGTON STREET.
1830
PREFACE.
I offer, at length, to the public the narrative of my travels in the interior of Africa, which should have appeared long since; several causes have, however, concurred during the fifteen months that have elapsed since my return to my native soil, to retard its publication till the present time. I have brought home, from the regions I have traversed, only fugitive and very laconic notes, written in haste and trepidation: they would have been inexorable evidences against me, had I been surprised tracing unknown characters, and unveiling as it were to the Whites the mysteries of these countries. In Africa, especially in those districts occupied by the Foulahs and the Moors, religious hypocrisy in a stranger is the most flagrant of outrages, and it were a hundred times better to pass there for a Christian, than for a false Mahometan; so that if my mode of travelling had its advantages, which its success has proved, it was also attended with terrible inconveniences. I carried always in my wallet a sentence of death, and how often was that wallet necessarily confided to the hands of enemies! On my arrival in Paris, the notes, written mostly in pencil, were found so faint and so much effaced by time, my wanderings, and my ill fortune, that it required all the tenacity and the scrupulous fidelity of my memory to restore and reproduce them as the basis of my observations and the materials of my narrative.
But that scrupulous fidelity which should always distinguish the compilation of travels, and which I consider the principal merit of mine, demanded that I should consecrate to this work the time necessary to ascertain that I have omitted nothing essential, and to arrange the facts in the exact order in which I had observed and noted them. Another not less legitimate cause of delay arose from a long and dangerous illness which seized me some months after my arrival in France, and exhausted the strength which was left me by the long continued fatigues and privations of a seventeen months’ journey over those burning sands so frequently fatal to our European travellers. To these causes must also be added the extent of my materials, my want of initiation into the art of composition in the most difficult and delicate of languages, and the resolution I had formed to avoid having recourse to a more experienced pen, except for the correction of those errors of style which would naturally escape mine; for I was desirous of offering to the public a composition as entirely my own as the observations on which it was founded; a composition which, however deficient in studied elegance, should at least be simple, clear, and frank, describing the exact extent of my travels and exhibiting the traveller under his peculiar traits. With regret I acknowledge that important observations upon the political and religious institutions, and upon the manners and customs of the people amongst whom I have sojourned, will not be found here; even had my prior studies directed my mind to this species of reflections, the scanty resources at my disposal, and the consequent necessity of a rapid passage, did not permit my residence in any place for a sufficient length of time to furnish a solid foundation for such researches. My principal object was to collect carefully and accurately all the facts, of whatsoever nature, which fell under my inspection, and especially to notice whatever appeared conducive to the improvement of geography and of our commerce with Africa.
A long stay in our establishments of Senegal, and perhaps also, my own experience, had taught me how much this commerce, which, had so long languished, needed new markets and new connections in the interior; but to form these new connections, to impose on the distant population a tribute to our industry, new discoveries were necessary; and increased geographical knowledge was indispensable to enable the government to extend sufficient encouragement to our mercantile establishments on the coast. A strong persuasion of this necessity, of this urgent need, under which our African commerce labours, became in a manner the soul of my inquiries, particularly in a certain portion of my travels. I was convinced that our colonial and all our commercial relations must sooner or later be powerfully influenced by clear and positive information, drawn from the fountain head, and deposited with the government of a king, the zealous and enlightened protector of interests so important, and so nearly affecting, at the present period, the prosperity, and perhaps even, the internal tranquillity of the kingdom.
Have I been fortunate enough to realize in this respect the wishes I had formed, the hopes which, in common with my former compatriots of Senegal, I had dared to conceive, of fulfilling this part of the task which I undertook, and of thus paying my tribute to the government of my country? Let my natural judges, with whom the fruits of my researches are deposited, and let the success of future enterprizes, incited by mine, answer this question for me. It is not for me to estimate the progress which geographical and natural science may owe to my travels. I must leave it to be appreciated by those who so worthily represent them in the capital of the civilized world, and the possession of whose knowledge and talents would have been so delightful, and above all so useful to me, when day after day I found myself alone and left to my own feeble resources in a world as yet unknown to, and unexplored by curious and scientific Europe. Armed with the knowledge and the instruments for which we are indebted to them, I might have hoped to have more fully accomplished the wishes of the Geographical Society, and to have rendered myself more deserving of the flattering and benevolent reception which it has granted me, and of the distinction and rewards which its descriminating patriotism decrees to those who record its efforts; of that Society which, with so much zeal and success, prosecutes the extension of science, and which, by the encouragement it held out to those who should explore the central regions of Africa, confirmed my opinion of the importance of such travels, and determined me in the plan which I had already formed of one day attempting the discovery of Timbuctoo.
In paying this just homage to the Geographical Society, I must not omit one of its most distinguished members, M. Jomard, President of the Central Committee and Member of the Institute, who, since my arrival in France, has without intermission honoured me with his valuable advice and his personal kindness, who has not disdained to unite his name with mine, and has so largely contributed to any success with which this narrative may be honoured, by enriching it with a map founded upon my notes, and with geographical disquisitions upon a continent, the study of which has long been familiar to him, both as a traveller and as a writer. I request him to accept this public testimony of my warmest gratitude.
CONTENTS
OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
Departure for Timbuctoo on the 13th of March — Description of the banks of the river — Slaves released from their chains — Populous villages — Vessels of from sixty to eighty tons burthen — Branch of the river forming a large island — Mode of building canoes — Villages of Banan — Character of the Mandingoes — Description of Lake Debo — Islands called St. Charles, Henry, and Maria-Theresa.
Tongom, a village in the country of the Dirimans — Co — Do — Sa, a commercial port — Mercantile flotillas — The Soorgoos or Tooariks, a nomadic and predatory tribe — Baraconga — Lelel — Garfola — Filinsa — Baracondié — Tircy — Liquor made from the kondoo — Alcodia, the Diriman capital — Customs of the inhabitants — Salacoila — Cora — Coratoo — Separation of the river into two branches — Arrival at Cabra, the port of Timbuctoo — Description of the place.
Journey from Cabra to Timbuctoo — First view of the city — The Kissoors — The king grants the traveller an audience — Condition of the slaves — Description of the city, its buildings, extent, and commerce — Food and dress of the people — Bousbéhey, a city of the Zawats — Toudeyni — Tribe of Salah — Terror inspired by the Tooariks — Description of that tribe — The Jinbalas — Particulars respecting the fate of Major Laing — Reflexions on the means of penetrating to the centre of Africa.
Departure from Timbuctoo on the 4th of May, 1828 — Caravan of six hundred camels — Entrance of the desert — Suffocating heat — The caravan falls in with the Tooariks — Manner in which the Arabs direct their course in the desert — Aspect of Sahara, like the bed of a sea without water — Details respecting the caravans — The place where Major Laing was assassinated — El-Arawan, a city in the desert: its springs, population, and trade — Information respecting Tawât and Walet — Caravan of four hundred camels — Disheartening effect of the view of endless sands.
Violence of the east winds — Pillars of sand — Scarcity of water — Deplorable situation of the caravan — Hills of loose sand — Rocks of granite — Wells of Telig — Toudeyni, rich salt mines — Thistle of the desert — Vexations and persecutions of the Moors, their intolerance — Wells of Cramès — Wells of Trases or Trarzas — Trajacant Moors.
Wells of Amoul-Gragin — Enormous serpents — High sand-hills called Helk — Wells of Amoul-Taf — Hills of various-coloured granite — Wells of el-Ekseif; very good water — Wells called Marabouty, el-Guedea, Mayara, and Sibicia — High and steep mountains, defiles and precipices — A severe fall — Encampment of Sidi-Aly — El-Harib — The Berbers. Tatta — Description of the country at el-Harib, customs; the tribes who inhabit it.
Country of el-Drah — Zawât — el-Hamid — Bounou — Town of Mimcina — Camp of Berbers — Tabelbât — The Tawâts — Wells of Yeneguedel, of Faratissa, of Bohayara — Customs of the Berbers — Wells of Goud-Zenaga, of Zenatyia — Town of el-Yabo — Wells of Chanerou, of Nyela — Arrival at Tafilet — Town of Ghourland — Market — Ressaut, the residence of a Governor under the Emperor of Morocco.
Description of Tafilet and its commerce — Flourishing state of agriculture and industry — Miserable condition of the Jews; their habits and customs — Afilé — Gardens — Taneyara, Marca, M’Dyara, Rahaba — Chains of granite mountains — Small river of Guigo — L’Eyarac, Tamaroc, Kars, Ain-Zeland, L’Eksebi — Very high mountains covered with cork-trees — L’Quin — Guigo — Town of Soforo — Town of el-Fez, or Fez, the ancient capital of Morocco.
Description of el-Fez — Markets, monuments, gardens, police — Mequinaz — Inhospitality — Arm of the sea called Sbo — Arbata or Rabata or Rabat, the ancient Sallee — Visit to the Consular Agent — The traveller avoids the camp of the Emperor of Morocco — Writes to the Vice Consul M. Delaporte — Larache — Arrives at Tangier 7th of September, almost dying, emaciated by want, fatigue, and fever — Generous reception of M. Delaporte — Anxiety of the traveller — Is introduced by night and concealed by the Consul — M. Delaporte obtains from the naval commander of the Cadiz station a vessel to convey him to France.
GEOGRAPHICAL REMARKS AND INQUIRIES.
CHAPTER I.
[§ I.]—General retrospect of the published information on this subject prior to M. Caillié’s travels.
[§ II.]—Analysis of the itinerary map, and of the general map of the travels.
ARTICLE I.
[Early travels of M. Caillié.]
ARTICLE II.
[Map of the traveller’s route.]
[Observations on the course of the Dhioliba as traced from Couroussa to Sego and Djenné.]
ARTICLE III.
[Remarks on the general map of the travels and the elements which serve for its basis.]
[Observations on the situation of Timbuctoo, and particularly on its longitude.]
[Bearings of M. Caillié’s routes.]
[Computation of the days’ journeys.]
[§ III.]—Of the nomenclature.
[§ IV.]—Of some results of the travels of M. Caillié.
[§ V.]—Of the course of the Dhioliba above and below Timbuctoo.
CHAPTER II.
VOCABULARIES COLLECTED BY M. CAILLIÉ.
[English and Mandingo vocabulary.]
[Observations on the vocabularies.]
CHAPTER III.
CHAPTER IV.
CHAPTER V.
[Documents and miscellaneous papers.]
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MAP
of the
ROUTE travelled by M. CAILLIE
TO JENNÉ AND TIMBUCTOO,
Compiled from his Journal
By M. JOMARD
Member of the Royal Institute of France
1829
TRAVELS
TO
TIMBUCTOO,
&c., &c.
CHAPTER XIX.
Departure for Timbuctoo on the 13th of March — Description of the banks of the river — Slaves released from their chains — Populous villages — Vessels of from sixty to eighty tons burthen — Branch of the river forming a large island — Mode of building canoes — Villages of Banan — Character of the Mandingoes — Description of Lake Debo — Islands called St. Charles, Henry, and Maria-Theresa.
About half past nine o’clock we left the port. We did not waste much time in adieus; my friends saw me on board, wished me a safe voyage, and departed exclaiming: Salam alécoom, Abdallah. The sherif, with whom the gift of my umbrella rendered me such a favourite, directed me to his correspondent at Timbuctoo, to whom he particularly recommended me in a letter, which he sent by the superintendent of the cargo. I had reason to be grateful for his kind foresight, to which I was indebted for the friendly reception I experienced on my arrival in the capital of the Western Soudan.
Though the heat was beginning to be exceedingly oppressive, I remained on deck, for the canoe was very full. The river makes several windings; its course is rapid; and as it is extremely shallow, we were obliged several times to unload the vessel in order to pass over the sandbanks. The negroes in the neighbourhood helped to load and unload the canoe, and to push it forward; all this, of course, occasioned considerable delay.
About two o’clock we reached the majestic Dhioliba, which flows slowly from W. N. W. At this part it is very deep, and about three times the width of the Seine at the Pont-Neuf. It takes a turn of about two miles to the south; its banks are low and very barren. The distance from Jenné to this river is, I should imagine, about ten miles. After flowing two miles to the southward, it turns to the N. N. E. About four o’clock we arrived at Cougalia, where I had previously crossed the river. Aided by the current I suppose we made about two miles an hour.
A little before sun-set we passed Kera, a pretty little village on the right bank of the river, containing about three hundred inhabitants. It is nearly seven miles from Cougalia. Here the river turns to the N. E. A little to the left there is a small island submerged during the inundation The river is much wider here than at Cougalia, and it is quite as deep. On the plain I observed some slaves tilling the ground; they had pickaxes like those of the Bambaras. We continued our course till near midnight. As I had no compass I observed the direction of our course during the night by the polar star. In the evening we stood to the N. E., still going at the rate of about two miles an hour.
When we lay to, the negroes who had the management of the canoe sought to pick a quarrel with me: they would not allow me to sleep on board. They told me that I had given them nothing, and that if I did not pay them they would put me on shore. I saw very well that their only object was to intimidate me and thereby to extort something from me. I disregarded their threats, and prepared to sleep on board in spite of them, for the cold night air and the damp were very unpleasant. I arranged my resting place as well as I could on a heap of baggage, where I was almost folded double and unable to move. I had not a wink of sleep during the whole night, and the negroes annoyed me in every possible way to induce me to leave the canoe. They even began to address insulting language to me, and threatened to put me on shore next day if I did not satisfy their demands. I suffered much from this annoyance; but the negroes gained nothing by their insolence. When the common people of these countries meet with a stranger who does not speak their language, they think they may insult him with impunity; but it is sufficient to shew firmness to make them more tractable. They gave me for supper a little rice boiled in water, which was the food of the slaves. I had not eaten any thing all day, for there was no possibility of cooking on account of the crowded state of the canoe.
At four in the morning of the 24th of March we stood to the N. E. The sailors pushed forward the canoe with a long pole: they rowed it in deep water, and sometimes towed it along shore.
At this part, the river is about half a mile broad and very deep. Its banks, though low, are adorned with a species of mimosa, which grows only to the height of a small shrub. About seven in the morning we stopped before the village of Soufara, situated on the right bank, on a height which preserves it from the inundation. Beside this village is little stream, which runs in an eastward direction. We went ashore to purchase some maumies and pistachio-nuts for breakfast. In this place there is no regular market; but people go through the streets selling pistachios, and other little productions of the country. The village probably contains about two hundred and fifty inhabitants. They live in wretched huts, built of earth like those of the Bambaras, which do not approach the perfection of the habitations of Jenné. The people catch a great quantity of fish. They generally use nets made of cotton, but sometimes fish with the line. When I returned on board the canoe, the negro who was the master of the slaves and superintendent of the cargo gave me a piece of cake for my breakfast. Fortunately I had provided myself with some on shore, otherwise I should have made a sorry repast. The negroes again importuned me for cowries; but I persisted in my resolution to give them nothing. At half past seven we continued our course. The river now took a northerly direction. It continued wide, and its depth was about ten or twelve feet. This I ascertained by observing the long pole with which the sailors pushed the canoe. It was nearly eleven o’clock when we passed Cabia. In front of this village there are three little islands; here the river takes a turn to the N. E. and becomes narrower. About two o’clock I observed its direction was north, and at half past three, north-east. Its width and depth continued much the same; its banks were barren and low. On both sides I observed immense plains, the uniformity of which was broken only by some ronniers which rise majestically to the height of about eighty feet from the ground and bound the horizon. About five in the afternoon we perceived the village of Taco, which is situated on the left bank.
At sun-set I discerned, in the direction of the east, two little hills about six miles from the bank of the river, which in this part runs to the north. About seven in the evening we stopped before the village of Coona, which is inhabited by Foulahs, who live in straw huts. In the port there were some canoes, all going to Timbuctoo. Here we could plainly perceive the two hills I have just mentioned, and a little to the north-east were three others of similar height. We passed the night in this village, which, like Taco, is situated on the left bank.
On the 25th of March I was informed that the great canoe which was to convey us to Timbuctoo was in the port and ready for our reception. It was covered with mats, and laden with rice, millet, cotton, honey, vegetable butter, and other productions of the country. The canoe appeared to me very fragile; like the smaller ones its planks were joined with cords; its burthen was about sixty tons.
We were occupied all day in getting the merchandise from the small canoe, and putting it on board the large one. There was on the shore a great concourse of people, all engaged in some kind of labour; they had pitched tents to shelter themselves from the heat, which was excessive. The negroes offered us their merchandise for sale. On seeing them I almost imagined myself in a market on the banks of the Senegal. The village is situated on a little eminence, and is scantily shaded by ronniers and mimosas. The heat was suffocating. I went to visit the market, which was very badly provided; for it was then the time of the Ramadan: there was a little milk, some pistachios, dry and fresh fish, maumies, and other light articles of food. The people looked at me with indifference. The young girls, who offered their merchandise for sale, had a very pleasing mode of address; but I bought nothing, on account of the presence of the Foulahs, who are even more fanatical than the Moors, and who, if they had seen me eat, would have set me down for an infidel. My hosts at Jenné had however made me promise that I would not fast on my passage, observing that I could make up by fasting at Timbuctoo for the number of days during which I might neglect the practice of that religious duty. I sat down beneath a tree on the bank of the river, and amused myself for a short time by observing a group of young negroes of both sexes, who were bathing, dancing and gamboling about in the water.
A little to the north of the village the river is intersected by a sand-bank. This bank was covered by a multitude of water-fowl of various kinds, whose white plumage looked like a sheet of snow in the midst of the river. The channel for the passage of canoes is near the right bank. The surrounding country is very barren: not a single shrub is to be seen. The soil consists of immense marshes, which are inundated at the swell of the waters. The shore on either side is so extremely low that the river seems on the point of overflowing its banks. In the village I met with a Moorish trader, who was returning from Timbuctoo in a common canoe, laden with salt. He told me that he had been a month on his way from Cabra to Coona. I invited him to come on board our vessel and take a little refreshment of dokhnou and water. Dokhnou, as I have before observed, consists of a mixture of the flour of millet and honey, which is afterwards mixed with water for drink. He requested me to wait until sun-set on account of the Foulahs, who, if they saw us drink, would have a bad opinion of us. He left me to take a turn in the village, but I did not see him again.
In the port, there were many fishermen’s canoes. When the fishermen catch their fish, either with the net or the line, they dry it in the sun and sell it to the vessels which are continually stopping in their port: they also carry it to Jenné for sale. At two o’clock in the afternoon, I was informed that dinner was ready, and was asked whether I would partake of it; for the slaves were not required to fast, and I was ranked among them. That I might not be observed by any one, I went on board the canoe to take my dinner at my ease. It consisted of a little boiled millet-flour, without any seasoning. After this frugal repast, the slaves were freed from their chains, and I was gratified in witnessing the pleasure which these poor creatures experienced during their temporary release from bondage. They appeared perfectly happy. They tried to walk, but it was with difficulty that they could move a few steps, for the chains which they had worn since they left Jenné had wounded their feet.
Having nothing more to detain us in the village, we left it in the afternoon during a calm, taking a northern direction. The large canoe did not get on so well as the small one which we had left behind us, consequently we scarcely made two miles an hour.
About five o’clock we passed Taguetia, situated on the left bank. In front of this village a marigot, or branch, about twenty-five or thirty fathoms wide, runs off to the east. The village of Sangouno is on one of the banks of this branch. At its mouth are two little islands, about a quarter of a mile in circumference, on which are some fishermen’s huts. The river still continues of the same width, running to the north. It is very deep, and its banks are low and barren.
At ten at night we stopped at Sankhaguibila. At this place the river takes a turn to the east, and then to the north. The inhabitants hold a little market, to which they bring milk and dried fish, which the negroes of the canoes purchase, and pay for in cowries, the only money current on the banks of the river as far as Timbuctoo. People came from all sides with earthen pots, calabashes, mats, and various other kinds of merchandise. This village probably contains about four hundred inhabitants, consisting of Foulahs, Mandingoes, and Bambaras from Jenné.
At three o’clock on the morning of the 26th, we quitted the village of Sankhaguibila, the huts of which are all of straw, and badly constructed. We advanced slowly to the west. At sun-rise we found the river take a turn to the north. Its banks are adorned with a few dwarf shrubs.
At four in the afternoon we passed Diébé, situated on the right and before which there is a sand-bank. In general, all these villages resemble each other. The population varies but little. We stopped here nearly two hours to escape the north wind, which was blowing furiously, and which, in all probability, would have destroyed our frail bark. When it ceased we continued our course, and at nine o’clock we lay to at Isaca, where we passed that night and the following day. During the night the wind changed to the north-east, and there was a good breeze stirring. The banks of the river are so low that the least wind prevents the canoes making way; for when the water is ever so little agitated the waves dash over their sides and sink them; an accident of frequent occurrence. The population of Isaca may amount to seven or eight hundred, all Foulahs. Their houses, which are built of bricks baked in the sun, resemble those of the Bambaras.
The inhabitants brought us fresh fish, sour milk, and butter, which we purchased. The butter was rolled up into little balls of the size of crab-apples, for which we paid six cowries each. In this village I saw a great quantity of dried fish, an article in which the inhabitants traffic very considerably. They carry it to Jenné and other neighbouring markets. The great arm of the river which, as the negroes informed me, branches off from Sego, and forms an immense island, rejoins the river a quarter of a mile from Isaca. This arm, which comes from the west, is very broad, and seems to be navigable for large boats. It has not a rapid current; indeed, the water appears to be almost stagnant. The village is situated on the right bank of the river, and is inhabited by Foulahs, similar to those of Fouta-Dhialon. They are the subjects of Sego-Ahmadou, the capital of which al-Lamdou Lillahi, is a day’s journey eastward from Isaca. They rear flocks, which are their principal wealth, and cultivate rice in the plains, inundated by the overflow of the waters. They fish with nets made of cotton cord.
The women manufacture a beautiful kind of pottery, which they sell at Jenné, and to the canoes going to Timbuctoo. The village is situated on a little eminence; it is a great market for provisions.
Before I proceed further I will give a description of the canoes which are employed in the passage from Jenné to Timbuctoo, and which keep up a continually active trade along the whole extent of the river. Little flotillas of sixty or eighty boats are frequently seen all richly laden with various kinds of produce.
A vessel of sixty, or eighty tons burthen, is about ninety or one hundred feet long, twelve or fourteen broad at midships, and draws six or seven feet depth of water. These canoes, whether large or small, are generally fragile, and it is astonishing how they bear the heavy cargoes with which they are laden, and which consist of rice, millet, butter, honey, onions, pistachios, colat-nuts, stuffs, and various kinds of preserved articles. In addition to their cargo they frequently have on board forty or fifty slaves, half of whom remain on deck.
The crew consists of sixteen or eighteen sailors, two steersmen, and a superior, who acts as captain. The manner in which these vessels are built shews their want of solidity. Large planks, five feet long by eight inches broad, and about one inch thick,[1] are adjusted and fixed together by ropes made from the hemp of the country and the leaves of the ronnier. These ropes possess the property of lasting a long time in water, an advantage of great importance in this country, where the inhabitants do not avail themselves of the use of iron.
The workmen first of all join the planks together; but they do not unite closely, and large interstices are left in this first joining. The seams are then caulked over with bruised straw, reduced to a sort of oakum, and mixed with a soft kind of clay, found in the morasses and on the banks of the river. The interstices thus filled up, the seams are closely covered with fresh straw, and the whole is strongly fastened by a second joining; this renders the canoe sufficiently solid for the purpose of navigating the river At the bottom, wooden bars are laid at certain distances to consolidate the whole mass; and similar bars are placed higher up, for supporting the deck. The hull being finished, it is covered over with small pieces of flexible wood, bent in a convex form, across which, other pieces of smaller size are fixed. This forms the deck, which is raised three feet and a half above the sides, and covered over with mats, made in the country from the leaves of the ronnier. The lightest merchandise is placed on the deck, or orlop, and is firmly lashed to the gunwales of the vessel, forming a sort of barrier, not very high, but sufficiently so to prevent the slaves, who sleep on deck, from rolling into the water. The vessel is loaded to the height of two feet and a half or three feet above the deck, even on the prow.
As they are unacquainted with the use of pumps, they leave in the middle of the canoe an open space, where two men are constantly stationed, and whose business it is to bale out the water which makes its way through the seams of the vessel. In spite of the quickness with which they work, the water on board is never less than half a foot deep. These men keep watch as in our European ships, and they are relieved every six hours. They use large calabashes to bale the vessel. I observed that this part of the canoe is always covered with moss of a fine green colour. This is also the place where the women kindle fires to cook the victuals of the crew; for which purpose they provide themselves with portable earthenware stoves. These stoves are in the form of chaffing-dishes, round and open, and are composed of glazed earthenware. They are manufactured at Jenné, or in its environs, and are nearly four feet in circumference. They are furnished with three little supports, forming a tripod, on which the pot, used for boiling the rice, rests. These portable stoves obviate all danger that might be apprehended from the use of fire on board the vessels. Before the cargo is put on board, the hold is lined with thick pieces of wood, to prevent the goods being damaged by damp.
These vessels being unprovided with sails, cannot make way except in very calm weather; they are besides so frail, that the slightest wind agitating the river (the banks of which are very low) produces waves, which, by dashing against the sides of the canoes, would either damage or swamp them. This danger often causes delay, and renders the navigation tedious and perilous. When the banks are entirely free from bushes, the sailors row or tow the vessel along, and when they can reach the bottom of the river with poles, they push it. In this manner the greater part of the passage is effected, and it was by means of these poles, which are about twelve or fifteen feet long, that I was enabled to judge of the depth of the river. It is very difficult to find wood of such a length in this country, and it is necessary to fix two pieces together lengthwise to form the poles. It sometimes happens that the banks are covered with bushes, and that the river is so deep that these poles cannot reach the bottom; in such cases the sailors move the vessel forward by paddles three feet long; and a place for the rowers is left open, quite at the fore part of the vessel, occupying only twelve or fourteen feet. They sometimes stand up close against the side of the vessel, and at other times sit upon the merchandise, having scarcely room to turn themselves round in consequence of the crowded state of the canoe. These men are naked; they row very fast, and keep time.
The master stands at the stern and steers the vessel, not without difficulty, by a long pole instead of a rudder. He experiences a good deal of trouble in managing the unwieldy machine, so that it is often found necessary for two others to assist him. A rudder like that attached to the boats which descend the Seine, would be extremely serviceable, but at present the people are ignorant of the use of such a thing. Each of these vessels has a captain, who maintains great authority over his crew, and I never witnessed any abuse of this authority, as is sometimes the case with us, especially in the merchant service. All the negro sailors who navigate the river are slaves; there are also some captains of this class, whose employers give them half of what they earn. Free men think themselves degraded by accepting such employment.
On the 28th, at four o’clock in the morning, the wind fell and we continued our course towards the north. The breadth of the river did not vary, and its banks continued low and naked. About seven o’clock in the morning the N. E. wind blew stronger than on the preceding day, and we were obliged to anchor before a large plain of white quicksand, which, when inundated by the rising of the waters, forms a great bank; the channel is on the left side of the river. The wind, blowing up the sand in great quantities, added to the inconvenience we were suffering from the heat.
To lighten the canoe all the slaves were set on shore, and the rice-grinders were sent to continue their work on the plain. At sunset the wind fell a little, and the oars might have been used during the whole of the night, but the negroes, to whom time is of no value, and who are never in a hurry to reach their destination, thought proper to wait till morning.
The slaves, male and female, all Bambaras, began to leap, dance, and amuse themselves in various ways. Their gaiety, however, proved the cause of some trouble to us, for the Foulahs, observing them, came on board at night-fall in a party of about thirty, armed with bows and pikes. They severely censured the impropriety of allowing the slaves to dance during the Ramadan, observing that it was like making a scoff of religion, and that, as a punishment for such misconduct, a fine of five thousand cowries (a sum equal to twenty-five francs) must be paid. The master, to whose charge the slaves had been committed, earnestly defended the cause of his employer. A spirited altercation arose between the parties, who were seated in a circle upon the sand. The Foulahs for some time shewed no disposition to forego their demands, but at length they were taught reason, and the dispute ended at the expense of the poor slaves, who, as a punishment for dancing during this sacred season, were each condemned to receive five lashes on the back. The sentence, however, was not executed with much severity, and it did not restrain the slaves from resuming their dance as soon as the fanatical Foulahs departed.
From motives of prudence, I had for some time kept myself apart from this scene, but I felt curious to know, before the departure of these rigid defenders of Islamism, what was the subject of dispute. I therefore approached the spot where they were and sat down on the sand beside them. They were astonished at seeing me, for I had hitherto escaped their observation, owing to the interest they took in discussing the subject of the five thousand cowries, which they conceived they had a right to exact. They told the master that I must certainly be the chief of the canoe and the proprietor of the cargo; that I must doubtless have money; and that I must make them a handsome present.
The master answered them that I was a poor Arab, whom the christians had carried off from his country when a boy, and that I was proceeding to Mecca, to seek my relatives. This explanation seemed to satisfy them, for they asked no more questions about me.
The proprietor of the canoe had put a Mandingo negro on board, to take care of the cargo. This person was also directed to attend to me; a duty which he performed very negligently, for, after leaving Jenné, he gave me nothing but rice boiled in water, the food of the slaves. He was more strict than the Moors, and fasted on the voyage, not partaking of any thing until a repast was served to us at half past six in the evening. This was the best meal I had throughout the day, for he added a little dry fish and vegetable butter to the dish. However, he made me eat at other times with the slaves. I complained of this treatment, but the only reply given to my repeated remonstrances was, that he did not choose to have the trouble of lighting a fire for only one person, and that I must be content with what he gave me. Not being able to do better, I patiently bore my misfortune, and considered myself lucky when I procured a little sour milk to relish my dinner.
On the 29th of March, about three o’clock in the morning, we again put off. During the night time, the polar star served me for a compass, and the position of the stars enabled me to guess the hour. About nine o’clock a fresh breeze having sprung up, we were obliged to wait till midday, when we began to move on. At two o’clock we again stopped. The excessive heat brought upon me an attack of fever, which, fortunately, was not followed by any bad consequences. At five o’clock in the evening, the wind dropped, and we were enabled to continue our voyage. At sun-set, we passed a village on the left bank, close to which an arm of the river branches off to the west. At eight in the evening, we found ourselves before Wanza, having constantly advanced in a northern direction. We lay to about one o’clock in the morning, at a point where there was no village. Here the river might be three quarters of a mile broad, and from eight to nine feet deep; the banks were uniformly low and bare.
On the 30th of March, at six in the morning, we put off, still in the same direction. About nine o’clock, a violent north-east wind arose, and obliged us to halt before the village of Sansan. Here the river is of considerable breadth, but the banks being ornamented with mimosas, presented a pleasing prospect after the long absence of all vegetation. About five in the evening, the wind falling a little, we advanced to the north-east. The country on either side of the river was covered with numerous herds of oxen, whose lowing was heard at a great distance; they belonged to the Foulahs, residing in a village at some distance from the shore, and whose only property is their cattle. At six in the evening, we passed over a sand-bank, extending across the river, which is here a full mile in breadth. The canoe ran aground several times, and the men were obliged to jump into the water in order to get it afloat, for which about four feet and a half water was requisite. By great efforts we gained the channel, which runs near the right bank. Here I saw thousands of trumpet-birds, which came down in flocks upon the sand banks, and by their shrill cries seemed to sound a charge upon the fish, destined by nature for their prey. There were also great numbers of ducks, water-fowl, puffets, pelicans, and egrets, and multitudes of the other varieties of water birds, which inhabit these marshes, and brood undisturbed by the people of the surrounding countries. Powder is a very scarce article here, and lead is unknown; pikes, therefore, form the only arms of the inhabitants.
We continued our course till midnight; when, our wearied rowers requiring rest, we moored the vessel to two stakes fixed in the shore, and went to sleep.
On the thirty-first of March, at six in the morning, we started in a northern direction. At seven we passed the village of Corocoïla, situated on the right bank. This place contained from five to six hundred inhabitants, chiefly Foulahs, and also some who came originally from Jenné. In all the villages on the banks of the river the same language is spoken as at Timbuctoo and Jenné; it is called the Kissour. The Foulah language also is spoken in those places. The banks of the river were still covered with numerous herds of oxen.
At ten o’clock, we lay to about two miles to the north of Cobi. Between this small village and Corocoïla is a pretty little island, about two miles in circumference, covered with the finest vegetation; I was astonished to find it uninhabited. In the evening we made three miles towards the north, for the purpose of reaching Cona, the first village in the country of Banan, which the negroes call Banan-dougou (land of Banan). Cona contains about eight hundred inhabitants, all negroes. There are in the country some Mandingoes and Foulahs, who are engaged in trade. It is situated on the right bank of the river, and its environs are marshy.
The people on board our vessel purchased tamarinds, earthen pots, and untanned ox-hides used for packing. The inhabitants brought us milk, giraumons, and other articles.
In this place I met two Moors from Adrar, owners of a very large canoe of eighty tons burden at least. They were going to Timbuctoo to dispose of the merchandise they had bought at Jenné. A small vessel of seven or eight tons, was employed to carry themselves and provisions for their use and it followed the large canoe at various distances; for the latter, encumbered with merchandise, advanced but slowly.
After introducing themselves, they invited me to partake of their boiled rice and some milk, while supper was preparing. About seven in the evening they proceeded on their passage, but we stayed until the next day. Several of our men went to the village to make small purchases for a venture. Banan is independent of Ségo-Ahmadou: it is situated upon the right bank of the river, and extends very far to the east. The inhabitants are all Mahometans, and the slaves, who are very numerous, are employed in tilling the ground. The people build canoes, and make voyages to Jenné and Timbuctoo. They are very rich in herds of oxen, sheep and goats, and rear great quantities of poultry. They are very industrious, and manufacture cotton stuffs, which they sell to the people of the neighbouring towns and villages. The cotton tree, which they cultivate, flourishes exceedingly in this place. They also make cloth from the wool of sheep, for the purpose of traffic.
I saw the inhabitants, who never go out unless armed with pikes, and bows and arrows. They have woolly hair and a very black complexion, and are in other respects like the Mandingoes, to which race indeed they belong, though they speak another language.
About ten at night, we left the village of Cona, with a fine moon-light that would have favoured our progress, but the negroes thought proper to lie to at eleven o’clock. As soon as the vessels are anchored they betake themselves to sleep, without leaving any one to keep watch, for they are not accustomed to such duty when at anchor.
On the 1st of April, at six in the morning, we made ready to start: a breeze was blowing, which however, about midnight so encreased in violence, that we were compelled to stop. Had we attempted to proceed, the canoe would infallibly have been destroyed; for during this gale it made more water than usual.
The frequent halts which we were obliged to make were very annoying to me; for I was obliged to remain on board exposed to the heat of the sun. How pleased should I have been had the adjacent country been like the smiling shores of the Senegal! But here the immense monotonous plains on all sides fatigue the eye of the traveller.
The course of the river, though winding in some parts, is still northward. On the morning of the 1st of April, I observed a large hill, about two hundred and fifty feet high, distant three or four miles from the left bank of the river. It was without vegetation, and appeared to be composed of red sand.
We daily expected the owner of the canoe, who, on departing from Jenné, promised to join us in two days. He had assured me, that even in his absence I should be well treated on board. The case, however, was quite the reverse, so I looked for him with the utmost impatience, trusting that his presence would better my condition.
After my departure from Jenné, I had the misery of being the only white man among the negroes, and with their language I was unacquainted. This circumstance, joined to my being a stranger, and almost destitute, emboldened them to insult me in the grossest manner. I was absolutely ranked and treated as a slave.
During the day the heat was excessive, and I had great trouble to find a place where I could be shaded from the burning sun, which was almost insupportable, even in a state of inaction. In the night I slept on deck, for there was no room for me below. I was exposed to the dew and all the inclemency of the night; but I took the precaution of wrapping myself in a sheep-skin. However, this did not prevent me from being seized, on the 31st March, with a violent fit of illness. I experienced severe numbness, followed by great weakness, and my stomach rejected food.
During my illness I was permitted to go into the cabin; but the place assigned me there was very inconvenient. I was with a Mandingo and his female slave; and they allowed me so little room that I could not lie straight; my head touched my knees. I had been particularly recommended to the care of this negro by the sherif Oulad-Marmou; but he paid no regard to the directions he had received, and showed as little pity for me as the rest of the crew. I ought, however, to exempt from this censure a young Foulah from Massina, to whom the sherif had also recommended me. He was the only one who had behaved to me with any kindness. He went on shore whenever I asked him, bought me milk, and rendered me all the service he could. He even endeavoured to console me when I expressed dissatisfaction at the inattention with which I was treated by the rest. He often reprimanded the slaves, who, following the example of their superiors, behaved with the grossest insolence towards me. In short, I should have been much worse off had it not been for the attention of this kind-hearted young man.
In the course of my travels I have often had intercourse with the Mandingoes, and, with the single exception of those of Cambaya, in the Fouta, I have always found them arrogant when possessed of any little authority, while they are fawning, mean, and servile, to their superiors. I have seen them, in the passage from Tinné to Jenné, insult the poor Bambaras while selling their merchandise, speaking harshly to them, and even abusing them in their own language; but whenever the Bambaras showed a disposition to resent this treatment, the Mandingoes became all at once silent and humble. The women have the same faults, in addition to which they have insufferably harsh voices.
On the 1st of April, the wind continued blowing till four in the evening, when it fell a little. We rowed in a northern direction. Near half past six in the evening we halted at Toï. The river still continued the same; the banks being low and bare, and in many places not a single shrub can be seen. At nine o’clock, we started, and all night advanced towards the north. The river makes a few small windings to the east.
On the 2nd of April the weather continued calm. Towards eight o’clock in the morning we passed some large islands, situated not far from the mouth of the lake Débo. The river is here divided by several islands, which separate it into different narrow branches of great depth. Two of these islands are larger than the rest, and might be habitable, for, when the river overflows, they are only partially inundated. On one of these islands, there are the huts of fishermen, and of shepherds, whose numerous flocks find rich pasture on the marshes. These marshes are covered by aquatic birds of every kind. There is an infinite number of other small islands covered with rank grass, and inundated at all seasons. When this immense river overflows all the herbage is under water, and then the lake appears much more extensive; its banks are no longer perceptible, and it might be mistaken for an inland Sea.
After a slow navigation, during which we made repeated halts, we reached the mouth of the great lake about three in the afternoon. About six miles S. W. of this entrance, there is a rock in the form of a truncated sugarloaf; it is situated in an inundated marsh which is covered with green herbage. This enormous rock, which is quite bare, forms a singular contrast with the freshness of the surrounding vegetation. As it has, though a very striking land-mark, received no name from the natives, I thought proper to give it one, and have named the whole spot St. Charles’s Island. In the lake, and about nine or ten miles to the N. E. is a small island on which I observed some trees almost destitute of leaves. It is capable of being inhabited, and affords facilities for the formation of a good port. I have named it Henry Island, in honour of his Royal Highness the Duke of Bourdeaux. A third island, also formed of rock, is situated between these two, a little to the eastward of the line which would intersect them, and to it I have given the name of Maria-Theresa, in honour of her Royal Highness the Dauphiness. Two of these islands appear to command the mouth of the lake. Were a fort built on one of the three it would command the environs, and the navigation would be under the control of the possessor.
To the N. N. E. of the island of Maria-Theresa we observed a hill about fifty or sixty fathoms high. It is composed of red earth, and of large porous rocks of the same colour. Some fishermen have established themselves on the declivity of this hill, which is extremely arid.
Land is seen on every side of the lake except on the west, where it spreads out like an inland sea. On coasting along its northern side, and steering nearly W. N. W. to the distance of fifteen miles, we leave on the left a tongue of very flat land, which extends several miles southward. It seems to close the passage of the lake, and to form a kind of strait. Beyond this barrier the lake is prolonged, as I have said, towards the west, until it is lost in the horizon.
The barrier I have just mentioned divides lake Debo into two lakes, the upper and the lower. That through which the boats passed, and in which the three islands I have mentioned are situated, is very large. It extends in an easterly direction, and is surrounded by extensive marshes. Land is visible on every side.
When we had advanced as far as the middle of the first division, three of the large boats fired some muskets, to salute this majestic lake, and the crew of each boat shouted with all their might Salam! Salam! repeating the cry several times. We stood off from the eastern bank and navigated with great caution: the lake was calm and the water clear. The current was not perceptible on its surface, the depth of the part which we navigated was twelve or thirteen feet. The canoes were merely rowed, and advanced very slowly. I could not recover from my surprise at seeing so great a mass of water in the heart of the country. There was something very majestic in the sight.
About five in the evening we arrived off Gabibi, a small fishing village on the right bank of the lake. The huts of this village are made of straw and of a round form. Since we entered the lake we had stood to the N. E. We passed close to the island of Maria-Theresa, on which I observed some fine granite of a bright chesnut colour. We took our departure from Gabibi, and at sun-set I saw, for the first time, since I left the coast, that luminary sink into a sort of ocean.
We proceeded along the shore, at some distance from it, in the direction of W. N. W. The boatmen sang while they pushed along the canoe with their poles. We observed large blocks of granite on the shore. We brought to about eleven at night off Didhiover, a large village inhabited by Foulahs, who have only straw huts like those of the pastoral Foulahs. Some negroes went to the village to buy giraumons. We could not procure a single drop of milk.
CHAPTER XX.
Tongom, a village in the country of the Dirimans — Co — Do —Sa, a commercial port — Mercantile flotillas — The Soorgoos or Tooariks, a nomadic and predatory tribe — Baraconga — Lelel — Garfola —Filinsa — Baracondié — Tircy — Liquor made from the kondoo — Alcodia, the Diriman capital — Customs of the inhabitants — Salacoila — Cora — Coratoo — Separation of the river into two branches — Arrival at Cabra, the port of Timbuctoo — Description of the place.
On the 3rd of April we took our departure from the village of Didhiover, which is situated near the northern entrance of the lake. The river on issuing from the lake may be about six miles broad. At sun-rise we stood towards the north. In the course of the morning we passed the village of Tongom, which belongs to the country of the Dirimans. It contains about four or five hundred inhabitants.
About one in the afternoon, we lay to at a spot where we observed bushes and cut some for fire-wood. At this spot the river is only about three quarters of a mile broad. I went ashore with the slaves. The land, which is subject to inundations, is not destitute of vegetation. I saw naucleas and mimosas twelve feet high. In the course of the voyage, the master of the canoe asked me to lend him five thousand cowries, until the Moor, who was the owner, and who was daily expected, should arrive. The negro had already cheated me more than once, and as I was apprehensive that I should never be repaid, which would have infallibly been the case, I refused to lend him such a sum. He made several individuals apply to me for him, but I would not comply. Finding that I was determined not to lend him the cowries, he threw out threats against me, and went so far as to pull me by the legs to make me leave the boat. He collected what articles belonged to me and threw them on deck, accompanying the action with many violent and rude expressions. He intimated that he would drive me among the slaves, and thus insulted me in a thousand different ways.
When I went on shore he objected to my going in the small boat. I knew not to whom I could complain of all these vexations, for there was no person on board who could protect me. At last the young Foulah obtained his consent to my going in the little canoe, to be put on shore along with some slaves. On landing, I seated myself under the shade of a mimosa, and, reflecting sorrowfully on the disagreeable situation in which I should be placed during the voyage if I did not lend him the cowries, I resolved to make that sacrifice. He came on shore to me, and assailed me with fresh reproaches, insisting at the same time that I certainly ought to place confidence in him, and assuring me that he would repay the debt on the arrival of his master. Though my resources were greatly diminished, and I felt that the strictest economy was indispensible, I promised for the sake of peace to lend him a thousand cowries. From that moment our quarrel terminated. His example was however followed by one of his comrades. These two negroes completely abused the advantage which circumstances had given them over me; and when we arrived at Timbuctoo I found it impossible to procure repayment.
About three o’clock in the afternoon, while we were proceeding on our voyage, the canoe, which had put off from the shore with the slaves to bring them on board, sunk in consequence of being leaky and overloaded. The poor women, embarrassed by the weight of the pagnes about their loins, were in the greatest danger: but prompt assistance was given and every one was got on board without any further accident. It is usual to anchor the boats close to the banks of the river, but when the canoe filled we were under way.
The river here makes an elbow towards the east of about six miles; it then stretches towards the north. It is every where broad and deep, but the banks are low and bare.
About seven in the evening we anchored opposite Mujo, a village of the Diriman country, containing from three hundred and fifty to four hundred inhabitants. The huts are of straw and in the sugar-loaf form. In the evening I was informed of the arrival of Sidi-Mbark,[2] the owner of our vessel. I immediately went to him and complained of the bad conduct of his people to me, but he paid little attention to my representations: he was along with a Moorish friend on board a small boat of six tons burthen. He had determined to get under way, immediately in order to reach Timbuctoo before us. I expressed a wish to go with him in his boat which moved rapidly, but he alleged that it was already too heavily laden, and that besides it was so small that there was not sleeping room for me. He once more consigned me to the care of the Mandingo, ordering him to supply me with provisions during the remainder of the voyage, and to treat me better than he had hitherto done. Sidi-Mbark afterwards tried to console me, advising me to have patience, and assuring me that we were not far from Cabra, which was the place of our destination.
The Moors of Adrar, whom I had seen in the country of Banan, stopped with us at the same spot. They sent Sidi-Mbark a plentiful supper, consisting of rice, and dried meat, seasoned with giraumons and the small onions of the country. He invited me to partake of the meal; and I accepted his invitation with pleasure, for it was late and I had not yet supped. The Moors shew great address in eating with the fingers; for my part, however, though I had long been accustomed to take my food by handfuls, I was still far from being as expert as they: I sometimes let part of the mess fall on the ground which gave them great offence, and made them vent their anger in maledictions on the Christians, who, they observed, had not even taught me how to eat decently. This was the first comfortable meal I had made since my departure from Jenné. Sidi-Mbark gave his men colat-nuts to purchase provisions. I returned on board our boat, where I soon learned how little regard was paid to the directions of the master when he was absent.
At sun-rise we stood towards the north, at the rate of two miles an hour, leaving Mbark asleep in his boat; he soon got up with us however, for he had six good rowers: he came alongside of our boat and put on board some merchandise, which had embarrassed him on account of the room it occupied. He then gave his final orders and left us, expressing his hope that every man would do his duty. The river takes a turn to the west, the banks continue low, but at this spot, the right bank was not entirely destitute of wood. At ten o’clock we came to a spot were it made an elbow towards the N. E. About half past ten we passed Co, a large village, in the environs of which we observed some tamarind-trees and ronniers: the left bank is formed by sand hills. There is a little island in the midst of the river opposite to Co; it is inhabited by five or six hundred Foulahs who have numerous flocks. At noon we found the course of the river turning towards the N. E. and we proceeded with it in that direction until half-past four, when it elbowed round to the north. At this hour we passed in front of Do. The river then stretched westward. It is still broad and deep enough for the boatmen to use their paddles in navigating. At half-past six we halted at Sa, a large village surrounded with a wall and shaded by some tamarind-trees, (tamarindus indicus). This was the only village with a wall which I had seen on the banks of the river since we left Isaca. Here we joined from thirty to forty large boats, all bound for Timbuctoo. Many of these vessels were of about eighty tons burthen. Sa is a rendezvous for the vessels which navigate in this direction. It is their practice to assemble at this port and to proceed on the voyage together, to guard against the depredations of a tribe in the neighbourhood of this town, who often board their boats and commit acts of violence and robbery. They are called by the natives Soorgoos, and by the Moors Tooariks. There were in the port of Sa from four to five hundred persons, seamen and inhabitants, who gazed at the flotilla. The port was covered with bales of merchandise, ready to be shipped on board the canoes. The commercial activity appeared astonishing. There was something in the appearance of the flotilla far more interesting than I could have expected to find in the interior of Africa. The bustle on every side almost made me fancy myself in a trading port of Europe. The largest vessels belong to Moors, who carry on the principal trade of the country: they form themselves into companies, and employ their canoes in conveying merchandise to Timbuctoo, where they are paid their freight in salt or cowries.
On the 5th of April, at sun-rise, we got under way and steered a northerly course until eleven o’clock, when we came to a bend in the river, which then flowed towards the N. E. On every side we heard the joyous cries of the sailors, who also fired muskets, still more strongly to express their gladness. We passed the village of Baraconga, which is situated on the left bank. About one o’clock we anchored before Tantala, a pretty village, where we bought some dry fish, milk, and fine mats made of ronnier leaves. They are of a long shape and yellow colour; they are used for sleeping on, and for making sacks.
We continued our course to the N. E. until sun-set, when we passed a large branch of the river, which runs westerly. About seven o’clock we brought to at Cooma, where we passed the night. The river and its banks still presented the same uniformity of aspect.
On the 6th of April, at five in the morning, we got under way, and stood towards the east. The course of the river was in that direction, but with a number of small sinuosities on the northern and southern sides. About three in the afternoon we passed Lelel, a large village, containing from five to six hundred inhabitants, and situated on the left bank. A little before it reaches this village the river elbows round to the north for a mile and a half, and then turns back to the east. At half past four in the evening we passed Garfola, a village without a wall, and very much resembling the former. I observed around it multitudes of Barbary ducks and other aquatic birds. The banks in the neighbourhood of this village are somewhat elevated. Some baobabs, bombaces, tamarinds, somps, mimosas, and naucleas, adorn the environs. The river may be here about half a mile broad. About seven o’clock we anchored at Doboo, where we passed the night.
On the 7th of April we waited to give time to the heavy boats, which we had left astern, to come up, and, about eight in the morning, stood towards the N. E. with a gentle breeze, favourable for that course. However, as it soon began to blow fresh, we anchored, about nine o’clock, at Filinsa, a village containing five hundred inhabitants. A great number of canoes were under repair in the port. I saw the carpenters at work: the only tool they used was a small hatchet, in the form of an adze, with which they shaped out, awkwardly enough, little pieces of plank, the greater part of which appeared to be in a state of decay. They were indeed fragments of old canoes which were thus used for repairs. When there was a hole in the side of a canoe, these carpenters clapped a bit of plank upon it, and fastened it, or, as it were, stitched it on with rope, made of the bark of trees. These patches are always very ill fitted, but the apertures which are left are stopped up with a mixture of bruised straw and clay. This compound is covered with a layer of fresh straw, which is fixed by a second stitching with bark-rope. I am astonished that boats thus constructed do not sink as soon as they are afloat. A man is kept constantly employed in baling them, to prevent their filling with the water which penetrates through the seams. These canoes belonged to fishermen. Young girls, half naked, came on board to us with milk and fresh butter.
The N. E. wind continued to blow till three o’clock, and it was five in the morning before we began to prepare for prosecuting our voyage. We had scarcely gone a mile when we observed that two large boats had fallen astern, and we thought it right to wait for them. We were then off Baracondié, a village opposite to which there is a large island, which is inundated when the water is high. All the villages from lake Debo belong to the Diriman country, which extends to a great distance easterly. A number of pastoral Foulahs also inhabit the banks of the river, and remove with their flocks when the inundations commence.
On the 8th of April, at five in the morning, we left Baracondié and directed our course westerly. About eleven we brought to off the village of Tircy. The N. E. wind, Which blew a gale, obliged us to anchor. Here the river takes a turn towards the north. The village of Tircy contains about six hundred inhabitants; it consists of straw huts, of the same form as those of the pastoral Foulahs who inhabit the banks of the Senegal.
In the surrounding marshes I observed a number of negroes gathering a large herb, which grows only in marshy grounds. This plant is called kondoo: they dry it in the sun, and then pass it rapidly over a flame to burn off the leaves, as the stalks only are preserved. Of these they make large bundles, which they carry home on their heads. I also saw several asses loaded with these bundles. I asked my comrades what was done with this plant: they told me, that after it is well washed and dried by the women, it is reduced to a fine powder, which is put into a large earthen vase, having the bottom perforated with small holes. Upon the powder warm water is poured, and, in filtering, the water becomes impregnated with the essence of the plant, which is of a saccharine nature. The liquor thus obtained is much esteemed by the natives, who relish it greatly; but it has the effect of a purgative on persons not accustomed to drink it. It always retains a slightly smoky flavour, which renders it disagreeable to strangers. The Mahomedan natives indulge in this beverage without scruple: the Moors also drink it, but they always mix with it a little sour milk.
The stalk of the kondoo is as thick as a reed; it is a creeping plant, about eight or ten feet long; the leaves, which are narrow, are six or eight inches long; their edges are indented or serrated. The banks of the Dhioliba are covered with this plant. The Dirimans and some Foulahs who inhabit Tircy came to sell us this liquor, sour milk, fresh butter, dry fish, and mats. About a glassful of milk was sold for five cowries. I suppose that provisions were scarce in this village, for the dealers hawked their goods on the shore, and, in general, would take nothing but millet in payment. It is true, that among the number, there were many pastoral Foulahs who pay no attention to agriculture, and whose only resource consists in their cattle. Never travelling, and not being near any markets, cowries are of no use to them; but millet is always a ready and acceptable food. A bowl full of millet purchases twice the quantity of milk which the same bowl will hold. This is the fixed rate of dealing in the country. Young girls of twelve or fourteen years lined the bank of the river, offering to sell us their merchandise: they were nearly naked, having only a pagne round their loins.
Soon after our arrival at the village of Tircy, we learned that some of the large boats had run aground, and that one of them had been completely swamped. This unforeseen accident occasioned considerable delay in the progress of the flotilla, which was obliged to stop in order to give assistance to the wrecked boat. The crews of the canoes hastened to help them; the greater part of the merchandise was floating about in the river, and, notwithstanding the activity which every individual displayed, only a very small part of the cargo was saved. This was a considerable loss to the owners; for, though the trade is very brisk, the merchants know nothing of the means of protecting themselves from risks by insurances. Notwithstanding this unfortunate occurrence, the Moor, whose neglect had caused it, did not appear in the least concerned.
The 9th and 10th of April were employed in dragging some bags of rice and millet out of the water; the negroes plunged in and one was drowned. All the negroes of the flotilla came to the aid of the wrecked canoe; they generally have an interest in rendering this kind of service, for they receive, by way of reward, a portion of the merchandise they save, except the manufactured stuffs, the value of which they are paid in millet and rice.
I saw at Tircy the two Moors of Adrar whom I had met at Banan; they greeted me cordially, and invited me many times to sup with them. As I knew these people think much of presents, I gave them a part of my dokhnou, a little baked bread, and a sheet of paper; these things they received with gratitude. One of them asked me whether I wanted some cowries to purchase milk with: as I had still from five to six thousand left, I thanked them, but declined their obliging offer.
The women of the Dirimans, like all who live on the banks of the river from Jenné to Timbuctoo, have their hair ornamented with small glass beads; they also wear glass, and sometimes metal rings in their noses. My fellow travellers told me that these people are robbers, and that they often practise great cruelties; this I was ready enough to believe, for, during the two days I staid among them, I observed much quarrelling and fighting. Their dress is the same as that of the people of Jenné; like them, they have woolly black hair. They have handsome countenances, aquiline noses, thin lips, and large eyes; they are armed with two or three pikes and a dagger, which they promptly make use of on the least provocation. After being engaged in a quarrel, they fall devoutly to their prayers, for they are Musulmans, and they often rise from their religious duties merely to begin fresh contentions. They use the bow and arrow against their enemies; but some were armed with muskets, and some with sabres; these weapons had been introduced by Europeans. I saw a man walking on the bank of the river with a calabash full of saltpetre, which he offered for sale: I was desirous of knowing in what way it had been procured; the Moors informed me that saltpetre was manufactured in the country, and that it was used for making gunpowder.
The village of Alcodia, the residence of the chief of the Dirimans, is situated to the east of Tircy, from which it is a day and a half’s journey distant. The crew, having saved all the merchandise they could, prepared to start the next day.
On the 11th of April, at six in the morning, we left the village of Tircy; the course of the river is northward. At seven o’clock we passed Talbocoila; about nine we halted to take in our stock of fire-wood. The wind blew gently from N. E. Two hours after we had re-embarked, we observed that the river, which had hitherto always continued of an equal width, became very narrow and deep; its banks were still low and bare. In many places we saw on the right bank quicksands, of a bright yellow colour; I perceived numerous herds of cattle grazing in the surrounding marshes.
From five o’clock in the evening till seven, when we halted, the river continued its course to the north. We saw a good many hippopotami, who kept at some distance; I could see nothing of them but their heads: the negroes assured me that they often saw them, and that if they passed near the canoes they would shatter them, as it were, with a touch. The river at this part is a little wider, we crossed it to the other side during the night.
I gave the captain of the canoe (who since I had lent him some cowries had become more civil) a bit of coloured cloth, to make him a cap, on condition that he would supply me with proper food, till our arrival at Cabra; thus I was much better fed, than I had previously been, for the captain, who was not very scrupulous, took no notice of the Rhamadan, and, indeed, lived very well for that country.
In the course of the night we were awakened by the roaring of wild beasts.
On the 12th of April, at five in the morning, we stood to the east; the river continued narrow, but deep; its width, however, was still nearly equal to that of the Senegal at Podor; about eight o’clock it made an elbow to the south, and became narrower. This part of the river may be called the dungeon, the name given to a particular part of the Senegal which is extremely narrow. The country on all sides is low and damp, and very bare; at the narrow part of the river, I have just mentioned, there are several marshy islands, some of which are flooded all the year round; we also observed four great arms, two on each side. The river seemed to lose itself in the marshes, the banks being so low that, even at this season, they are well nigh overflowed.
These marshes, extending as far as the eye can reach, are covered with pasturage, and frequented by multitudes of water-fowl of every species; by numerous herds of cattle, sheep, and some horses, breaking, by their various cries, the silence of these desert regions. These herds belong to the pastoral Foulahs, who came to the river’s side to sell us their milk; they wanted to barter it for tobacco, of which we had none to give them; we were, consequently, obliged to go without their milk, for they would not accept cowries in exchange.
When, by the overflowing of the river, all the marshes are covered to the depth of eight or ten feet, this immense plain forms a vast lake; at those periods, the tribes of pastoral Foulahs, who have their huts in the neighbourhood, are obliged to retire into the interior, where the pasture is abundant during the rainy season. Continuing our course till ten o’clock in the morning, we found the river bend to the north; at this part, a very wide arm, branching from the river, extended to the east.
About eleven we passed Salacoila, a village of the wandering Foulahs, situated on the right bank; they build their huts on the quicksands. I went ashore with a negro to purchase a little milk, and saw some of the women, who were pretty well dressed; they would not take our cowries, but wanted millet or rice in exchange. They seemed very gentle in their manners; I visited their little habitations; they are of a circular form, made of a very pretty kind of matting, manufactured in the place; this is laid on poles which are fixed in the ground, and which, being flexible, curve inward at top; seven or eight of these huts were surrounded by quickset hedges of celane, a euphorbious plant which grows spontaneously on the sandy shores of the Senegal; these huts were very neat, being cleanly swept in the inside: they had no other furniture than a few mats spread on the ground, by way of bedding: some calabashes, wooden plates and skins for holding milk, were the only domestic utensils I saw. These Foulahs have the same cast of features and the same resemblance one to another as those in the neighbourhood of the Senegal; they, however, speak another language, though they perfectly understand that which is spoken at Timbuctoo. The only dress of the women was an apron tied round their waists. They were all exceedingly clean, and I do not think their hair was greased. They came in crowds to see me, being very curious, and apparently, very devout, for when I was going away they took up some sand in their hands and earnestly requested me to pray over it.[3] I complied with their wishes, gravely muttering some verses of the Koran. They then carefully rolled up the sand in their aprons, with the intention of preserving it as a precious talisman. The nenuphar (nymphæa cærulea) grows in abundance in the immense marshes which surround Salacoila. The largest species of this plant bears a beautiful blue flower. The inhabitants gather and dry the seed, and it affords them a valuable article of food. They also procure grain from the canoes which come from Jenné.
I observed the river sensibly widening. Its direction still continued northward. About two o’clock we stopped for some canoes that were astern of us. At four we again pushed off, steering to the N. E. The river now widened considerably. About ten we halted for the night. Here we again observed many hippopotami sporting about in the water. The negroes hunt this animal and sell its flesh, which they esteem very highly.
On the morning of the 13th of April, we continued our course to the north. I occasionally observed some alligators proudly rearing their heads to the surface of the water, and apparently threatening any one who might be bold enough to attack them. Scarcely had we proceeded three or four miles when we were obliged to halt to assist a canoe which had sunk. The crews of all the vessels were dispatched for this purpose, and the whole cargo was saved, but not without considerable difficulty. Every one assiduously exerted himself to dry the wet merchandise, and stow it again. During this disorder the whole cargo was lying on the shore exposed to the depredations of the sailors, who would have made no scruple of appropriating any article to themselves, had not guards been stationed here and there to watch them. When the cargo was once more in safety, the men who had rescued it were paid with millet. We then prepared to advance, leaving the owners and crew of the wreck to wait till they could get another canoe from Timbuctoo. Fortunately for them there was no village near, or part of their cargo would in all probability have been carried off.
About noon we took an easterly direction; the river continued wide, its banks low and adorned with a few bushes. Along the shore I observed the traces of elephants, who inhabited the neighbouring woods. I was anxious to see one of these animals, but could not gratify my curiosity. It is strange that, during my long wanderings in the interior of Africa, which, according to the accounts of many travellers, is infested with wild beasts, I never met with one. At sun-set the river took a turn to the north. About nine in the evening we stopped to rest for the night; the heat had been excessive.
At five on the morning of the 14th of April we again started. Half an hour after sun-rise we passed two little islands pretty close to each other; here I observed a large arm of the river running W. S. W. At a little distance northward were two hills, which did not appear very high.
At seven in the morning we found the river turning N. E. and about nine o’clock it began to flow due east, in which direction it continued for four or five miles; then again it turned N. E., and about two in the afternoon we found ourselves before the little village of Diré, a dependency of Timbuctoo. As far as I could judge, I should suppose it contained about 150 or 200 inhabitants. Their houses are built of earth, and have terraced roofs. In an arm of the river which branched off in the neighbourhood of the village, there were six vessels of sixty tons burthen, on their way from Jenné. They had been waiting for us sixteen days. The Soorgoos or Tooariks would not allow them to pass without the payment of a ransom. These robbers daily went on board the canoes to levy contributions of food. The Soorgoos are a wandering tribe who inhabit the banks of the Dhioliba. They contrive to make themselves feared, and live at the expense of the poor negroes, whom they make their tributaries. I shall describe them more fully hereafter. The vessels which had been so long detained, joined us, firing muskets in token of their joy. The negroes of Diré, who are tributaries of the Soorgoos, informed us that the latter were absent, and that consequently we should escape the annoyance of their visits. In company with the canoes which had joined us, we now proceeded about four miles to the north-east, and afterwards turned due east. At sun-set we were overtaken by a violent storm, and we gained the right bank of the river, to which we moored our canoes with pikes made for that purpose. From N. E. to S. W. the sky was overspread with clouds driven by a gale, which continued part of the night. It did not raise the sand, but the heat was very great.
At six o’clock on the morning of the 15th of April, we took an easterly direction, and shortly afterwards I observed the river turning S. E. It was still as wide and deep as before, and its banks were very low. A few dwarf trees were growing in the plains. I was astonished to see so vast a mass of water, notwithstanding the idea I had formed of the magnitude of this river before my departure. The Senegal is but an ordinary river in comparison with this, which, at the season here referred to, was nine or ten feet deep. The current is scarcely perceptible; I should think about a knot and a half an hour. About eight in the morning we passed an island, on which grow some low shrubs. We proceeded but slowly, having to wait for the large canoes, which could not advance so rapidly as we did.
About half past eight in the morning we lay to for half an hour before the island. We saw the little village of Khokhoola, which like Diré, is a dependence of Timbuctoo. Here we met a little canoe which had left that city on the preceding morning. She had on board several of the Soorgoos, who exact a maintenance for themselves as far as Salacoila, where they stop, and then get conveyed home by some returning canoes. If they cannot obtain a conveyance in this way, they travel home by land. At Khokhoola the river takes a little turn to the N. E. and then to the north. The Soorgoos were waiting for us in the village, having been informed of our expected arrival.
They came on board the canoes, being rowed, from the shore, in little boats of their own. They were supplied with rice and water and honey mixed, a beverage of which they are exceedingly fond, and which they call Jenné-hari (water of Jenné.) These vagabonds levy their exactions without moderation. We did not allow them to come on board our canoe; we handed them out a bag of rice and they went away to importune some of our companions. When they are on board the canoes, and the negroes want to get rid of them, they fire a musket close to their ears, and they speedily take their departure, for they are very much afraid of gunpowder. They themselves never make use of fire-arms.
During the visit of the Soorgoos I was directed to go below, to avoid being seen by them; for, when they see a Moor on board, especially if his colour be lighter than usual, they assert that he is richer than the rest, as if his fortune depended on his complexion. They then become extremely troublesome, and will not suffer the canoes to depart without exacting a contribution from the white man, whom they call almankoye (the rich man.).
I was afterwards informed that these savages had detained on shore a Moor, whose complexion was, unluckily, not very dark, and who was imprudent enough not to conceal himself. They extorted merciless contributions from him. The Moors, aware of this danger, are accustomed to conceal themselves in the canoes, and only quit their hiding-place during the night.
The negroes only have the privilege of remaining on deck; they are looked upon as an inferior class, who have not much to give, and are merely the servants of the Moorish merchant.
Wishing to see without being seen, I made several holes in the matting that covered that part of the canoe in which I was concealed. In this place the heat was so excessive, that it gave me a violent head-ache. The Moorish merchants of Timbuctoo have no authority over these robbers: not one of them would have ventured among the Soorgoos to claim the six canoes which were so long detained. If they had, they would have been sure of being laid under contribution themselves; yet, they frequently make presents to the Soorgoos.
Each flotilla that navigates the river has a chief called the amiroo, and it is he who determines the periods for halting and starting; he is always the oldest man among the crews; it is his business to settle the amount of the contributions with the Soorgoos: though he has some influence over them, yet he can do nothing in behalf of the Moors, and if the Soorgoos see one on board his canoe, they become refractory, and often proceed to the utmost extremities to obtain what they want. “If you were not worth a single cowrie,” said the negroes of our canoe to me, “they would declare that you were very rich, and you would be obliged to give them something before they would allow us to proceed.”
The river, after flowing three or four miles to the north, turns to the east, and then to the N. E.; its width still continuing the same, and its banks being uniformly low and barren.
At eight in the evening we stopped before the little village of Cora, which, perhaps, contains two hundred inhabitants. Here we had another visit from the Soorgoos. They immediately went on board the canoe of the chief of the flotilla, to demand the contributions. Each canoe was ordered to put ashore a bag of millet for their supper, and the order was obeyed without hesitation. I was informed that the chief had engaged to pay at Cabra the exactions for allowing us to pass; which exactions consisted of millet, rice, honey, butter, manufactured stuffs, and preserved articles.
During the whole of the evening lightning flashed from the east. The heat was oppressive, and we had no rain.
On the 16th of April, we were detained at Cora until ten in the morning; the negro inhabitants of this village came to sell us milk, for which we gave them millet in exchange; they often want provisions, though they cultivate a great deal of rice; but they are continually robbed and harassed by the Soorgoos, who make these poor creatures supply them with food. At ten in the morning we stood to the N. E. There were some Soorgoos on board the canoes, and others were following us on horseback along the seashore. About one in the afternoon we lay to near some trees and shrubs, and collected a little fire-wood. At two we continued our course. At the point we reached at sun-set the river turned to the north, and was very wide and deep. The sailors now used their oars instead of their poles. At eight in the evening we halted before a camp of the Soorgoo. The discussions which arose with these people occasioned considerable delay, and were a source of great annoyance, especially to me, who was shut up in my hiding-place, suffocated with heat, and only able to observe what was going on through the holes which I had made in the mats of my prison. We were continually harassed by troops of these banditti: some were in small canoes, others mounted on fine horses, gallopping along the shore, and by the most horrid yells instigating their companions in the canoes to board us. This tumult was insufferable. We did not entirely get rid of our tormentors until our arrival at Cabra. Every evening our canoes were obliged to give them rice and millet for their supper, in return for which they presented the chief of the flotilla with a little bull, which was killed and distributed among the masters of the different canoes. The reports of the muskets which the negroes fired before the camp, frightened the horses of those Soorgoos who had ridden from the interior for the purpose of sharing the spoil.
On the 17th of April, at six in the morning, the flotilla stood to the north. We had not proceeded above four or five miles, when we were obliged to stop and wait for one of the great canoes which had sprung a leak, and was in momentary danger of sinking; the sailors on board set about repairing it; they plunged into the water with great agility and put oakum into the seams along the keel. About three in the afternoon all was put to rights, and we again pursued our course. The river was very wide and deep, and its banks were naked and marshy; it took a little turn to the east, and afterwards to the north: in every direction nothing was visible but marshes, without trees of any kind. At sun-set the new moon was saluted by several discharges of musketry, which so terrified the Soorgoos, that they hastened ashore, and I heard some of them exclaim in their little canoes, “God preserve us from gunpowder!” The only arms used by these people, are lances and poniards. About seven o’clock we passed Caratoo, a little village on the right bank, and about nine, we stopped at an uninhabited place.
At five in the morning, of the 18th of April, we continued our voyage. The river turned eastward, and at seven o’clock we found its course changing to N. E.; it then became rather narrow, the banks being all along very low and bare. The immense marshes on both banks were covered with cattle belonging to the Soorgoos. These herds as I have already observed, are their chief property.
At eight in the morning we stopped to say the prayer of the salam, it being the last day of the Ramadan, which the Mandingoes call Sali. We were within sight of Cabra, and the negroes testified their joy on perceiving the date trees of the village. They put on their finest dress, assembled in a large plain, and piously prostrated themselves in adoration of their God. I remained in the canoe, and observed them through the holes that I had made in the matting of my prison, where the heat was suffocating. I congratulated myself that I was not required to join in these religious ceremonies, and secretly offered up a prayer that my enterprise might be favoured by Heaven. Their devotions being ended, the negroes went to dinner, and good cheer compensated for their past abstinence, which, however, had not been very rigorously observed. An easterly wind obliged us to pass some part of the day at this spot.
About four in the afternoon it became somewhat calm, and preparations were made for pursuing our voyage; but the Soorgoos opposed our departure until they had received four sacks of millet from each boat, independently of the duties we should be obliged to pay them on arriving at Cabra. This exaction on their part led to a long discussion: all the masters of canoes gathered round the chief of the flotilla, attended by the chiefs of the Soorgoos, and each party defended their own interests and those of their employers with considerable warmth. The Soorgoos were not inclined to abate their demands; but, by dint of entreaty and resistance, the contributions were reduced to one-half the amount which had been at first demanded.
About nine in the evening the canoes received orders to send on shore two sacks of millet; which was done without delay. These sacks were of the height of a man, and as wide as the sacks commonly used in France. I suppose they might contain nearly two hundred pounds of grain. Never did any day appear to me so long and tedious as this. I was almost within sight of Timbuctoo, and durst not shew my face: I was obliged to hide myself the whole day; and, if at any time the Soorgoos came on board, the crew obliged me to muffle myself up in a large woollen wrapper, and to pretend to sleep. At night I left my prison, for then the Soorgoos could not distinguish my complexion from that of the negroes, and I breathed the pure air until day-break.
On the 19th of April, at five in the morning, we stood to N. E., and at sun-rise passed a large branch of the river, which flows for a short space to W. S .W. About seven o’clock we found ourselves near a camp of Tooariks, the aspect of which was most miserable. The tents which the Moors inhabit on the right bank of the Senegal are palaces in comparison with the dwellings of these savages: a few stakes, three or four feet high, supporting a covering of untanned bulls’ hides, and encircled by mats, in the form of a palisade, compose the abode of the chief, as well as of his meanest sujects. The interior of these habitations appeared to correspond perfectly with their exterior.
As we were very near the shore, I could observe a woman who had the clear copper complexion of the Moorish females, whom she still further resembled in dress: she was enormously fat, and was sitting on a sheep-skin spread on the ground; she was doubtless amusing herself by looking at the vessels as they passed. During my travels among the Braknas I never saw a woman who had attained such a degree of corpulency, though that quality constitutes the principal charm of female beauty among these people. This Tooarik Venus must have required four slaves at least to assist her in walking. The river now turned a little to the east. After having passed the camp, we came to a large island, off which we halted till eight o’clock, having to wait for some boats, which could not proceed as fast as ours. This island is very flat and sandy, but I observed some specimens of the mimosa, balanitis ægyptiaca, and other stunted shrubs.
About nine o’clock we again put off, and at ten arrived at a place where the river separates into two branches: the principal of these might be three-quarters of a mile broad, running gently E. S. E.; the direction of the other is E. by N.; it is deep, and its breadth is from thirty-five to forty paces.
About one o’clock P. M. we arrived at the port of Cabra, and I was informed that I might quit my prison, the Soorgoos having remained behind; I speedily went on deck, whence I could see nothing around me but flooded morasses covered with aquatic birds. This arm of the river is very narrow, and the current stronger than in the large arm. I think it not unlikely that at a little distance it joins the Dhioliba, for in this place the branch inclines to the east. If this is the case, the river forms a large marshy island, which must be flooded during the inundations.
Across these immense marshes is discovered the village or little town of Cabra, situated on a small hill, which protects it from inundation. I was told that in the rainy season these marshes are covered with water to the depth of ten feet, which appeared to me a surprising depth for so vast a space, and that at those periods large vessels cast anchor before Cabra. A little canal leads to this village; but small boats only can enter the port. If the canal were cleared of the grass and nenuphars which choke the passage, vessels of twenty-five tons burthen might go up it in all seasons; but such a task would be too toilsome for the negroes.
I embarked on board a small canoe, in company with the Moors from Adrar, to proceed to Cabra. The negro slaves hauled the canoe along by a rope, as the pole would not have been sufficient to move it. We met several small canoes which had been dispatched for the purpose of conveying to the town the most valuable commodities brought by the vessels from Jenné. About three in the afternoon we reached Cabra, which is situated three miles to the north of the great port. On entering it I observed a number of straw huts like those of the Foulahs, which were inhabited by trading slaves. Near their huts was a great quantity of the fruit of the nenuphar, which constitutes part of the food of the slaves and poorer classes.
I observed in the streets a great concourse of people and merchants; some walking idly about, others endeavouring to dispose of their goods, consisting of fish, milk, colat-nuts, pistachios, &c. The town of Cabra is narrow, and extends east and west; the houses are built of earth with terraced roofs, and have only a ground-floor; few of them are well built, being chiefly cabins, for the richer class of people prefer living at Timbuctoo, the centre of commerce. The inhabitants of Cabra, about a thousand or twelve hundred in number, are all employed, either in landing the various merchandise brought from Jenné, or in conveying it to Timbuctoo. For this purpose they make use of asses and camels. The slaves do not carry loads on their heads; this would be a bad speculation for their masters, for the poor creatures would soon be worn out, as the road leading to the town consists of quicksand which renders walking very difficult.
At Cabra a market is daily held for the sale of all sorts of merchandise from Soudan. The town contains a little mosque, surrounded by a tower or minaret. To the west of the town there are some specimens of the balanitis ægyptiaca, and small gardens of tobacco; this latter plant, however, does not thrive, and seldom grows higher than six or seven inches. On the east side there are some date-trees, which are visible from a distance.
The almost constant inundation of the marshes, in the neighbourhood of Cabra prevents the inhabitants from cultivating rice; and the sandy soil on the north is unfit for growing millet. The Moors from Adrar, in whose boat I had come from the great port, having unloaded the canoe, placed their goods in a store-house, until they should be ready to convey them to the city. The inhabitants of Cabra let their magazines to merchants, who wish to deposit their goods in the town; and they also let out asses for carrying loads to Timbuctoo.
I went out to take a view of the interior of the village. The streets are narrow, but neat. I saw several female traders, and from one of them I bought a little milk and a loaf of wheaten flour, which cost me twenty cowries. I made a hearty breakfast, for I had not tasted any thing all day. I had not cause to think much of the honesty of the woman from whom I made the purchase, for she wanted to make me pay twice. I was foolish enough to pay her beforehand; it is the custom in this country to lay the value of what is bought on the basket in which the goods lie, and the money is not removed until the article is in the hands of the purchaser. This precaution does not say much for the honesty of either buyers or sellers.
I saw in the port a number of large canoes undergoing repair. The owners are accustomed, as soon as the boats are unladen, to draw them on shore, where they are supported on large round blocks of wood, which keep them a little elevated from the ground. Were it not for this prudent practice, the cords with which the planks are fastened together would very quickly rot. The little port of Cabra extends east and west for the space of half a mile, being about sixty paces broad. It would be a very useful place, were it kept in better order; but it is very dirty and full of mud. Numbers of men and women are always ready in the port to load and unload the vessels. This was the day for celebrating the conclusion of the Ramadan. The inhabitants were dancing and indulging in their simple demonstrations of joy. They were all decently clothed. I asked a female slave, who was sitting before her hut, for some water to drink. She immediately rose, and, washing a wooden bowl, brought me some water in it, which she presented to me with great civility.
The Soorgoos, or Tooariks, receive at Cabra the duties which they levy on vessels. They roam about the village, and behave in the most arbitrary way, making the inhabitants give them provisions and other property—in fact, seizing whatever they can lay their hands on. The inhabitants of Cabra took no notice of me. The Moors of Adrar invited me to partake of their supper of rice, which I found very palatable; and I passed the night in the open air, sleeping on a mat beside my companions. I was a little tormented by the mosquitoes, which, however, are not so common on the banks of the Dhioliba as on those of the Senegal.
On the 25th of April, the merchants of Timbuctoo came to Cabra, to land their goods. They were mounted on excellent horses. Sidi-Abdallahi Chebir, to whom I had been directed by the sherif of Jenné, did not come; but he sent his slaves. They were all well clothed, and armed with a common kind of muskets, made at Tunis. Sidi-Mbark, the owner of the canoe which had conveyed me to Cabra, had arrived at Timbuctoo several days before us, and had mentioned me to Sidi-Abdallah Chebir. He, consulting only the duty imposed on him by his religion (for he had not yet received the letter of his correspondent in my behalf) ordered his slaves to congratulate me on my happy arrival, and to invite me to visit him. This message led me to augur a good reception from him.
CHAPTER XXI.
Journey from Cabra to Timbuctoo — First view of the city — The Kissoors — The king grants the traveller an audience — Condition of the slaves — Description of the city, its buildings, extent, and commerce — Food and dress of the people — Bousbéhey, a city of the Zawats — Toudeyni — Tribe of Salah — Terror inspired by the Tooariks — Description of that tribe — The Ginbulas — Particulars respecting the fate of Major Laing — Reflexions on the means of penetrating to the centre of Africa.
On the 20th of April, at half past three, I set out for Timbuctoo, escorted by Sidi-Abdallah Chebir’s slaves. Our road lay northward. The slaves who had been on board our canoe also accompanied us, so that we formed a numerous caravan. The youngest slaves were mounted upon asses, as the road is very sandy and wearisome. Near Cabra we passed two lakes, the banks of which were overgrown with mimosas from five to six feet high. A little further the eye was refreshed by some signs of vegetation. The country presented the same scenery until we had proceeded half way on our journey, and then it began to be more naked, and the sand becoming exceedingly loose, rendered travelling very difficult. On the road we were followed by a Tooarik, mounted on a superb horse. This marauder, who appeared to be about fifty years of age, shewed a disposition to appropriate to himself a young negro slave. Sidi-Abdallah Chebir’s men represented to him that the slave belonged to their master, and that if, on arriving at the city, he would pay him a visit, he would doubtless receive a present. This appeared to satisfy him, and he ceased to molest us. He eyed me narrowly, and several times inquired who I was, and whence I came. They told him I was poor, and he relinquished the hope of getting any thing from me.
At length, we arrived safely at Timbuctoo, just as the sun was touching the horizon. I now saw this capital of the Soudan, to reach which had so long been the object of my wishes. On entering this mysterious city, which is an object of curiosity and research to the civilised nations of Europe, I experienced an indescribable satisfaction. I never before felt a similar emotion and my transport was extreme. I was obliged, however to restrain my feelings, and to God alone did I confide my joy. With what gratitude did I return thanks to Heaven, for the happy result which attended my enterprise! How many grateful thanksgivings did I pour forth for the protection which God had vouchsafed to me, amidst obstacles and dangers which appeared insurmountable. This duty being ended, I looked around and found that the sight before me, did not answer my expectations. I had formed a totally different idea of the grandeur and wealth of Timbuctoo. The city presented, at first view, nothing but a mass of ill-looking houses, built of earth. Nothing was to be seen in all directions but immense plains of quicksand of a yellowish white colour. The sky was a pale red as far as the horizon: all nature wore a dreary aspect, and the most profound silence prevailed; not even the warbling of a bird was to be heard. Still, though I cannot account for the impression, there was something imposing in the aspect of a great city, raised in the midst of sands, and the difficulties surmounted by its founders cannot fail to excite admiration. I am inclined to think, that formerly the river flowed close to Timbuctoo; though at present it is eight miles to the north of that city, and five miles from Cabra, in the same direction.
I took up my abode with Sidi-Abdallahi, who received me in the most friendly manner. He had already been indirectly acquainted with the alleged circumstances, which, as I pretended, had occasioned my journey across the Soudan. He invited me to sup with him; and an excellent couscous of millet and mutton was served up. Six of us partook of the dish, and we ate with our fingers; but in as cleanly a way as was possible under such circumstances. Sidi-Abdallahi, according to the custom of his countrymen, did not say a word to me. He was a mild, quiet, reserved man. His age might be about forty or forty-five. He was five feet high, stout and pitted with the small-pox. His countenance was pleasing, his manners grave, and rather dignified. He had no fault but his religious fanaticism.
After bidding my host good night, I went to repose upon a mat which was spread upon the ground in my new lodging. At Timbuctoo the nights are as hot as the days, and I could get no rest in the chamber which had been prepared for me. I removed to the court adjoining the house, but still found it impossible to sleep. The heat was oppressive; not a breath of air freshened the atmosphere. In the whole course of my travels I never found myself more uncomfortable.
On the morning of the 21st of April, I went to pay my respects to my host, who received me with affability; afterwards I took a turn round the city. I found it neither so large nor so populous as I had expected. Its commerce is not so considerable as fame has reported. There was not as at Jenné, a concourse of strangers from all parts of the Soudan. I saw in the streets of Timbuctoo only the camels, which had arrived from Cabra laden with the merchandise of the flotilla, a few groups of the inhabitants sitting on mats, conversing together, and Moors lying asleep in the shade before their doors. In a word, every thing had a dull appearance.
I was surprised at the inactivity, I may even say, indolence, displayed in the city. Some colat-nut venders were crying their goods in the streets, as at Jenné.
About four in the afternoon, when the heat had diminished, I saw several negro traders, all well clothed and mounted on good horses richly harnessed, go out to ride. Prudence forbids them to venture far from the city, for fear of the Tooariks, who would make them pay dearly for their excursions.
In consequence of the oppressive heat the market is not held until three in the afternoon. There were few strangers to be seen except the Moors of the neighbouring tribe of Zawât, who often come hither; but in comparison with Jenné, the market is a desert.
At Timbuctoo, it is very unusual to see any other merchandise except what is brought by the vessels and a few articles from Europe, such as glass wares, amber, coral, sulphur, paper, &c.
I saw three shops kept in small rooms, well stored with stuffs of European manufacture. The merchants put out at their doors cakes of salt for sale, but they never exhibit them in the market. Such as do business at the market have stalls made of stakes covered with mats, to protect them against the heat of the sun. My host Sidi-Abdallahi was obliging enough to shew me over one of his magazines in which he stowed his European merchandise. I observed there many double-barrel guns, with the mark of Saint-Etienne, and other manufactories. In general French muskets are much prized, and sell at a higher rate than those of other nations. I also saw some beautiful elephants’ teeth. My host told me that he procured some from Jenné, but the larger ones had been bought at Timbuctoo; they are brought hither by the Tooariks or Soorgoos, the Kissoors, and the Dirimans, who inhabit the banks of the river. They do not hunt the elephant with fire-arms, but catch it in snares. I regret having never seen one of these animals caught.
On the 22nd of April, Sidi-Mbark, to whom I had made a present of a piece of cloth with the view of gaining his friendship, told me he should have a caravan ready in two days to go to Tafilet, and that I must hold myself prepared to accompany him to the great desert. This information vexed me, for I was not disposed to quit Timbuctoo so soon. I did not, however, lose all hope of prolonging my stay in that city.
In the evening I mentioned Mbark’s proposition to my host, adding that I was greatly fatigued by the long journey I had performed on foot, and that I wished to rest at Timbuctoo for about a fortnight, after which I would avail myself of the first caravan that might depart. I had scarcely expressed this wish, when he interrupted me, saying in the kindest manner: “You may remain here longer than a fortnight, if you please. You will gratify me by so doing; you shall want for nothing.” I gratefully thanked him for his generous hospitality. Shortly after I had another instance of his kindness, for which I was very grateful. He had at first given me a chamber to myself; but the Mandingo negro by whom I had been so ill treated on board the canoe, on his arrival in Timbuctoo, quartered himself and his female slave in my apartment. I bore this patiently for some days; but the presence of the intruders prevented me from taking my notes which I could only do in secret. I mentioned to Sidi-Abdallahi that I should prefer being alone; and, after reprimanding the negro, he lodged me in another house belonging to him, which was near the marketplace and opposite to that which had been occupied by Major Laing, the street only intervening between them.
Often, when seated before my door, I thought of the fate of that unfortunate traveller, who, after surmounting numberless dangers and privations, was cruelly assassinated when on the eve of returning to his country. In the course of these reflections I could not repress a feeling of apprehension, lest, should I be discovered, I might be doomed to a fate more horrible than death—to slavery! But I determined to act with caution, and not to afford any ground for suspicion.
I found myself much more comfortable in my new lodging. Sidi-Abdallahi my host had directed a mat to be spread in my chamber, of which he gave me the key. The slaves who lived in the house were ordered to wait on me, and they brought me twice a day couscous and rice seasoned with beef or mutton.
The city of Timbuctoo is principally inhabited by negroes of the Kissoor nation. Many Moors also reside there. They are engaged in trade, and, like Europeans, who repair to the colonies in the hope of making their fortunes, they usually return to their own country to enjoy the fruits of their industry. They have considerable influence over the native inhabitants of Timbuctoo, whose king or governor is a negro. This prince, who is named Osman, is much respected by his subjects. He is very simple in his manners: his dress is like that of the Moors of Morocco; and his house is no better furnished than those of the Moorish merchants. He is himself a merchant, and his sons trade with Jenné. He inherited a considerable fortune from his ancestors, and is very rich. He has four wives, besides an infinite number of slaves, and is a zealous Mahometan.
The sovereignty is hereditary, descending to the eldest son. The king does not levy any tribute on his subjects or on foreign merchants, but he receives presents. There is no regular government. The king is like a father ruling his children. He is mild and just, and has nothing to fear from his subjects. The whole community, indeed, exhibits the amiable and simple manners of the patriarchs. In case of war, all are ready to serve; but the mild and inoffensive manners of these people afford little ground for quarrels, and when they arise the natives of Timbuctoo repair to their chief, who assembles a council of the elders, all of whom are blacks. Though the Moors are not permitted to take part in these councils, yet my host Sidi-Abdallahi, the friend of Osman, was sometimes allowed to be present at them. The Moors acknowledge a superior among themselves; but they are, nevertheless, amenable to the authorities of the country. I requested my host to present me to the king, which, with his usual good-nature he consented to do.
The prince received me in the midst of his court. He was seated on a beautiful mat with a rich cushion. We seated ourselves for a few moments at a little distance from him. Sidi-Abdallahi, after briefly relating my adventures, told him that I wished to pay my respects to him. I could not understand their conversation, for they spoke in the language of the Kissoors. The king afterwards addressed me in Arabic, asking some questions about the christians, and the manner in which they had treated me. After a short time we took our leave: I wished to have seen the interior of the house, but my curiosity could not be gratified. The king appeared to be of an exceedingly amiable disposition; his age might be about fifty-five, and his hair was white and curly. He was of the middling height, and his colour was jet black. He had an aquiline nose, thin lips, a grey beard, and large eyes, and his whole countenance was pleasing; his dress, like those of the Moors, was composed of stuff of European manufacture. On his head was a red cap, bound round with a large piece of muslin in the form of a turban. His shoes were of morocco, shaped like our morning slippers, and made in the country. He often visited the mosque.
There are, as I have already mentioned, many Moors in Timbuctoo, and they occupy the finest houses in the city. They very soon become rich in trade, and they receive consignments of merchandise from Adrar, Tafilet, Tawât, Ardamas, Tripoli, Tunis, and Algiers. They receive from Europe tobacco and other articles, which they send by canoes to Jenné and elsewhere. Timbuctoo may be regarded as the principal entrepôt of this part of Africa. All the salt obtained from the mines of Toudeyni, is brought hither on camels. The Moors of Morocco and other countries who travel to the Soudan, remain six or eight months at Timbuctoo to sell their goods, and get their camels re-laden.
The cakes of salt are tied together with cords, made of a sort of grass which grows in the neighbourhood of Tandaye. This grass is dry when gathered; but it is afterwards moistened, and then buried under ground to keep it from the sun and the east wind, which would dry it too rapidly. When sufficiently impregnated with moisture, it is taken out of the earth and platted into cord, which the Moors use for various purposes. The camels frequently throw their loads off their backs, and when the cakes of salt arrive in the town they are frequently broken. This would spoil their sale, if the merchants did not take the precaution of making the slaves join them together again. When the pieces are fastened together, the cakes are packed up again with a stronger kind of cord made of bull’s hide. The cakes are ornamented with little designs, such as stripes, lozenges, &c., traced in black. The slaves are very fond of executing these ornaments, an employment which enables them to collect a little supply of salt for their own use. In general, the slaves are better treated at Timbuctoo than in other countries. They are well clothed and fed, and seldom beaten. They are required to observe religious duties, which they do very punctually; but they are nevertheless regarded as merchandise, and are exported to Tripoli, Morocco, and other parts of the coast, where they are not so happy as at Timbuctoo. They always leave that place with regret, though they are ignorant of the fate that awaits them elsewhere.
At the time of my departure, I saw several slaves affectionately bidding each other adieu. The conformity of their melancholy condition excites among them a feeling of sympathy and mutual interest. At parting, they recommended good behaviour to each other; but the Moors frequently hurry their departure, and interrupt these affecting scenes, which are so well calculated to excite commiseration for their fate.
When I was at the mosque, a middle-aged Moor stepped up to me gravely, and without saying a word slipped a handful of cowries into the pocket of my coussabe. He withdrew immediately, without affording me time to thank him. I was much surprised at this delicate way of giving alms.
The city of Timbuctoo forms a sort of triangle, measuring about three miles in circuit. The houses are large, but not high, consisting entirely of a ground-floor. In some, a sort of little closet is constructed above the entrance. They are built of bricks of a round form, rolled in the hands, and baked in the sun. The walls, except as far as regards their height, resemble those of Jenné.
The streets of Timbuctoo are clean, and sufficiently wide to permit three horsemen to pass abreast. Both within and without the town there are many straw huts of a circular form, like those of the pastoral Foulahs. They serve as dwellings for the poor, and for the slaves who sell merchandise for their masters.
Timbuctoo contains seven mosques, two of which are large; each is surmounted by a brick tower.
This mysterious city, which has been an object of curiosity for so many ages, and of whose population, civilization, and trade with the Soudan, such exaggerated notions have prevailed, is situated in an immense plain of white sand, having no vegetation but stunted trees and shrubs, such as the mimosa ferruginea, which grows no higher than three or four feet. The city is not closed by any barrier, and may be entered on any side. Within the town are seen some of the balanitis ægyptiaca, and in the centre is a palm tree.
Timbuctoo may contain at most about ten or twelve thousand inhabitants; all are engaged in trade. The population is at times augmented by the Arabs, who come with the caravans, and remain awhile in the city. In the plain several species of grass and thistles afford food for the camels. Fire-wood is very scarce, being all brought from the neighbourhood of Cabra. It is an article of trade, and the women sell it in the market-place. It is only burnt by the rich; the poor use camel-dung for fuel. Water is also sold in the market-place; the women give a measure containing about half a pint for a cowrie.
Timbuctoo, though one of the largest cities I have seen in Africa, possesses no other resources but its trade in salt, the soil being totally unfit for cultivation. The inhabitants procure from Jenné every thing requisite for the supply of their wants, such as millet, rice, vegetable butter, honey, cotton, Soudan cloth, preserved provisions, candles, soap, allspice, onions, dried fish, pistachios, &c.
If the vessels from Cabra should chance to be stopped by the Tooariks, the inhabitants of Timbuctoo would be reduced to famine. To obviate this misfortune, they take care to have their warehouses always amply stored with every kind of provision. I saw the magazines of Sidi-Abdallahi full of great sacks of rice, which keeps better than millet.
For these reasons, the vessels which come down the river to Cabra are deterred from making any resistance to the Tooariks, notwithstanding the burthen of their exactions. I was assured that, if the crews dared but to strike one of these savages, they would forthwith declare war against Timbuctoo, and intercept all communication with the port; the city could then receive no supplies.
To the W. S. W. of the town there are large excavations, from thirty-five to forty feet deep: these are reservoirs, which are supplied by the rains. Hither the slaves resort to procure water for drink and cooking. This water is tolerably clear, but it has a disagreeable taste and is very hot.
These reservoirs had no covering whatever; the water is consequently exposed to the influence of the sun and the hot wind. The excavations are dug in loose sand. I descended into the largest of them by a gentle declivity: the bottom was not quite covered with water. I remarked some veins of hard red sand; with this exception the soil was grey sand, of a coarsish grain.
Near the reservoirs are some small plantations of tobacco. This plant grows here no higher than five or six inches, and that only by dint of watering. It is the only cultivated vegetable that I observed in this country. Some negroes were engaged in gathering it; and I remarked that it had already run to seed. They dry the leaves and pound them in a mortar, and then take the powder without any further preparation. It is merely a green powder, and has not even the smell of tobacco. They bring it to market; but the richer class of people prefer that which comes from Morocco, which is of a far better quality.
The inhabitants of Timbuctoo do not smoke, but the wandering Moors who dwell in the neighbourhood of the city use pipes.
The slaves draw the water from the reservoirs in calabashes, with which they fill leathern bags, which are carried by asses. Before they proceed to work, they always amuse themselves with a short dance; for, in spite of their hard lot, they are constantly full of gaiety. On their return home, they pour the water into jars, where it cools and loses somewhat of its disagreeable taste. I saw some female slaves washing in large calabashes beside the reservoirs.
Two days’ journey N. E. of Timbuctoo stands the town of Bousbéhey, built of bricks, made of a sandy clay. It belongs to the tribe of Zawât, who wander in the desert of that name. The inhabitants of Bousbéhey trade in salt, which they procure in the small village of Toudeyni. They possess many camels, which constitute their principal property: they drink their milk, of which they also make butter. They possess a few sheep and some horned cattle.
The merchants of Timbuctoo purchase cattle from these people, and give in exchange millet and rice; for the soil of Bousbéhey is totally barren, and scarcely furnishes fodder for the camels. The Timbuctoo merchants likewise procure salt at Toudeyni, for which they barter millet, rice, cloth, and gold.
Bousbéhey and Toudeyni, being only supplied with the grain which the merchants of Timbuctoo receive from Jenné, would of course be reduced to famine if the trade between the two latter cities should be interrupted.
The country of Salah, which is inhabited by a wandering tribe like that of Zawât, is situated on the east, and is ten days’ journey from Timbuctoo, whither the people of Salah often come for the purpose of trade. They possess numerous herds of camels, the milk of which, together with the grain they procure from Timbuctoo, forms their subsistence. Sidi-Abdallahi informed me, that there was no traffic or communication by water between Timbuctoo and the country of Haoussa; because, said he, the navigation of the river ceases at Cabra.
The negroes and Moors devote their attention exclusively to trade: they possess but limited ideas of geography. All to whom I applied for information respecting the course of the river to the east and E. S. E. of Timbuctoo agreed in stating, that it runs to Haoussa, and empties itself into the Nile.[4] I was unable to obtain any more accurate information on this point, and the great problem of the issue of the Dhioliba into the ocean will thus be left to the demonstration of some more fortunate traveller; but, if I may be permitted to hazard an opinion as to the course of the river, I should say, that it probably empties itself by several mouths into the Gulf of Benin.
The Moors of Tripoli, as well as those of Ardamas, trade with Haoussa, whither they carry European merchandise, and in exchange bring back gold, which they procure in the rich country of Wangara; they afterwards go to Timbuctoo with packages of the fine cloth of Wangara, which is woven in narrow breadths, dyed a beautiful blue, and well glazed with gum. Sidi-Abdallahi shewed me a beautiful piece; it resembled the cloth manufactured by the negroes more to the north. At Galam, in 1819, I saw a similar kind of cloth which was brought from Sego, and was made by the Bambaras. It was as well glazed as that which I saw at Timbuctoo. In general, the negroes of the Senegal set a high value on this article.
As the country of Timbuctoo is entirely destitute of pasture, (for even the camels can scarcely find food) the people obtain a considerable quantity of fodder from Cabra, which the inhabitants of that town grow in the marshes, and which they dry for the purpose of selling to those who keep horses, cattle, sheep, and goats. This forage is stowed on the roofs of the houses. Timbuctoo and its environs present the most monotonous and barren scene I ever beheld. I once indeed saw a herd of camels near the town feeding here and there upon thistles which had been dried up by the scorching east wind, and on branches of the mimosa ferruginea, the long thorns of which did not prevent these animals from devouring them. I was told that these camels belonged to the Moors who journey across the great desert.
All the native inhabitants of Timbuctoo are zealous Mahometans; their dress is similar to that of the Moors. Like the Arabs, they are allowed to have four wives each. The women attend to domestic occupations, and they are not like the Mandingo females, subject to the punishment of beating. The people of Timbuctoo, who are in constant communication with the half-civilized inhabitants of the Mediterranean, have some idea of the dignity of human nature. I have constantly observed in my travels, that in proportion as a people was uncivilized the women were always more enslaved. The female sex in Africa have reason to pray for the progress of cultivation. The women of Timbuctoo are not veiled like those of Morocco: they are allowed to go out when they please, and are at liberty to see any one. The people are gentle and complaisant to strangers. In trade they are industrious and intelligent; and the traders are generally wealthy and have many slaves. The men are of the ordinary size, well made, upright, and walk with a firm step. Their colour is a fine deep black. Their noses are a little more aquiline than those of the Mandigoes, and like them they have thin lips and large eyes. I saw some women who might be considered pretty. They are all well fed: their meals, of which they take two a day, consist of rice, and couscous made of small millet, dressed with meat or dried fish. Those negroes who are in easy circumstances, like the Moors, breakfast on wheaten bread, tea, and butter made from cow’s milk. Those of inferior condition use vegetable butter. Generally speaking, the negroes are not so well lodged as the Moors. The latter have great influence over them, and indeed, consider themselves far their superiors.
WOMAN OF THE CITY OF TIMBUCTOO.
The inhabitants of Timbuctoo are exceedingly neat in their dress and in the interior of their dwellings. Their domestic articles consist of calabashes and wooden platters. They are unacquainted with the use of knives and forks, and they believe that, like them, all people in the world eat with their fingers. Their furniture merely consists of mats for sitting on; and their beds are made by fixing four stakes in the ground at one end of the room, and stretching over them some mats or a cow-hide. The rich have cotton mattresses, and coverlets, which the neighbouring Moors manufacture from camel’s hair and sheep’s wool. I saw a woman of Cabra employed in spinning these coverlets.
The natives of Timbuctoo, as I before observed, have several wives, and to these many add their slaves. The Moors, indeed, cohabit only with their slaves, and these females are employed in vending merchandise in the streets, such as colats, allspice, &c. Some also have a little stall in the market-place, while the favourite stays at home, superintending those whose business it is to cook for the household: the favourite herself prepares the husband’s meals. These women are very neatly dressed: their costume consists of a coussabe, like that worn by the men, except that it has not large sleeves. Their shoes are of morocco. The fashion of the head-dress sometimes varies; it principally consists of a fatara of fine muslin, or some other cotton stuff of European manufacture. Their hair is beautifully platted. The principal tress, which is about an inch thick, comes from the back to the front of the head, and is terminated by a piece of cornelian of a round form and concave in the centre; they put a little cushion under the tress to support it, and add to that ornament several other trinkets, made of imitation of amber or coral, and bits of cornelian cut like that just mentioned. They also anoint the head and the whole body with butter, but less profusely than the Bambaras and the Mandingoes. The great heat, which is augmented by the scorching east wind, renders this custom necessary. The women of the richer class have always a great number of glass beads about their necks and in their ears. Like the women of Jenné, they wear nose-rings; and the female who is not rich enough to procure a ring, substitutes a bit of red silk for it; they wear silver bracelets, and ancle-rings of plated steel, the latter of which are made in the country; instead of being round, like the bracelets, are flat, and about four inches broad. Some pretty designs are engraved on them.
The female slaves of rich masters have gold ornaments about their necks; instead of wearing ear-rings as in the environs of the Senegal, they have little plates in the form of a necklace. A few days after my arrival at Timbuctoo I fell in with a negro, who was parading about the streets two women, whom I recollected to have been fellow-passengers with me on board the canoe. These women were not young, but their master, to give them the appearance of an age better suited to the market, had dressed them well. They wore fine white pagnes, large gold ear-rings, and each had two or three necklaces of the same metal. When I passed them, they looked at me, and smiled. They did not appear in the least mortified at being exhibited in the streets for sale, but manifested an indifference which I could easily enough account for, by the state of degradation to which they had been reduced and their total ignorance of the natural rights of mankind. They thought that tilings should be so, and that they had come into this world to be bought and sold.
The negroes of the Diriman Malaka and Kissoor villages, situated on the banks of the river, come to Timbuctoo in their canoes. They bring to that market slaves, ivory, dried fish, earthen pots, and various other articles, which they exchange for glass trinkets, amber, coral and salt.
To the south of Timbuctoo there is a country called Ginbala, which extends far inland. The inhabitants are, as I was told, all Mahometans. They seldom come to Timbuctoo on account of the Tooariks, whom they dread. They are very industrious, and raise crops of millet and rice; they are hospitable to strangers, and have numerous herds of horned cattle and flocks of sheep and goats. They grow cotton, with which they manufacture stuffs for clothing. Having nothing to fear in communicating with Jenné, they prefer trading with that place.
The Foulahs who inhabit the neighbourhood of the river also visit Timbuctoo. The few whom I happened to see were similar in features and colour to those of the Fouta-Dhialon. They were armed with several pikes.
The trade of Timbuctoo is considerably cramped by the Tooariks, a warlike nation who render the inhabitants of the town their tributaries. The latter, for the privilege of carrying on their trade, give them what they demand, independently of the duties levied on the flotillas at Cabra. A refusal to satisfy them would be attended with serious consequences; for the Tooariks are very numerous, and sufficiently strong to cut off all communication between Cabra and Timbuctoo, when the city and its neighbourhood, having within themselves no agricultural resources, would be reduced to famine. The Moors entertain a profound contempt for the Tooariks, and when they would express their utmost hatred of them, they compare them to the christians, whom they suppose to be the same kind of vagabonds and depredators. I endeavoured to refute this error, which received implicit credit here. I assured them that the Europeans were not to be compared to those marauders; that, instead of robbing, they were always ready to assist and succour their fellow creatures. “But if the christians are so very good,” said they, “why did you not stay among them;” This question embarrassed me a little; but I replied that God had ordained it otherwise, and had inspired me with the idea of returning to my country to resume the religion of my fathers.
The house of my host Sidi was constantly infested with Tooariks and Arabs. These people visit Timbuctoo for the sole purpose of extorting from the inhabitants what they call presents, but what might be more properly called forced contributions. I have often seen them sit in the court and insist on being supplied with food until the master sent them his tribute. They always come on horseback and their horses must be provided with forage.
When the chief of the Tooariks arrives with his suite at Timbuctoo, it is a general calamity, and yet every one overwhelms him with attention, and sends presents to him and his followers. He sometimes remains there two months, being maintained all that time at the expense of the inhabitants and the king, who sometimes give them really valuable presents, and they return home laden with millet, rice, honey, and preserved articles.
The Tooariks and Soorgoos are the same people: the former name is given to them by the Moors and the latter by the negroes. They are a wandering race, and inhabit the banks of the Dhioliba from the village of Diré to the environs of Haoussa, which my host informed me was twenty days’ journey E. by S. E. of Timbuctoo, situated in a vast country of the same name, watered by the river.
The Tooariks have terrified the negroes of their neighbourhood into subjection, and they inflict upon them the most cruel depredations and exactions. Like the Arabs, they have fine horses which facilitate their marauding expeditions. The people exposed to their attacks stand in such awe of them, that the appearance of three or four Tooariks is sufficient to strike terror into five or six villages. At Timbuctoo the slaves are never allowed to go out of the town after sun-set, lest they should be carried off by the Tooariks, who forcibly seize all who fall in their way. The condition of these unhappy beings is then more deplorable than ever. I saw some in the little canoes almost naked, and their masters were constantly threatening to beat them.
The Tooariks possess numerous flocks of sheep and herds of oxen and goats. Milk and meat are their only food. Their slaves gather the seed of the nenuphar, which is very common in all the surrounding marshes; they dry it and thrash it. It is so small that it does not require bruising; they boil it with their fish. The Tooariks cultivate no kind of vegetable. Their slaves are employed in tending their flocks and herds. They have no grain for their own use, except what they obtain from the flotillas passing from Jenné to Timbuctoo. During the swell of the waters, the Tooariks retire a little into the interior of the country, where they find good pasture. They have numerous herds of camels, whose milk is always a certain resource for them.
The Foulahs who live in the neighbourhood of the river are not kept in subjection by these savages. The Foulahs are very superior to the pure negro race; they are full of energy, and are too brave to submit to the degrading yoke of the Tooariks. These Foulahs do not speak the Poulh language of the Fouta-Dhialon. I addressed to them some words in that dialect which they did not understand. They speak the language of Timbuctoo; but they have also a particular dialect which they use among themselves. All those whom I saw on the banks of the river were rovers.
I sometimes saw the camels of the Tooariks employed in transporting merchandise from Cabra to Timbuctoo; but only the poorest among them would condescend to earn any thing by this sort of labour. The rich are too proud to work. They sell at Timbuctoo oxen and sheep for the usual consumption of the town. Milk is very dear and not so good as on the banks of the river.
The Tooariks have, like all Mahometans, several wives. The largest and the fattest are the most admired. To be a real beauty with them, a woman must have such a degree of obesity as will render her unable to walk without two assistants.
They are dressed like the Moorish women on the banks of the Senegal; but instead of blue Guinea stuffs they wear blue pagnes, which are brought from Jenné, and which the merchants of Timbuctoo procure for them. Those I saw in passing the chief’s camp were very dirty, and the men did not appear to be very careful about their dress. Like the negroes of Timbuctoo, they wore a white or blue coussabe, and trowsers reaching to the ancle, such as are worn at Jenné and Timbuctoo. The slaves have breeches, like the Moors who inhabit the banks of the Senegal. The dress of the Tooariks, except as to the head, resembles that of the Moors. They wear, both night and day, a band of cotton cloth, which passing over the forehead hangs down over the eyes and even upon the nose, for they are obliged to throw back the head a little to enable them to see. After two or three turns round the head the band is passed under the nose, and made to descend a little below the chin, so that only the point of the nose is visible. They do not take it off either to eat, to drink, or to smoke. On these occasions they merely lift up this bandage, which the negroes call fatara.
The Tooariks are great smokers. They have all fine horses, which they manage ably. They are as cruel as they are warlike. Their weapons consist of three or four pikes and a poniard which they wear on the left arm; the blade pointing upward and the hilt touching the back of the hand. To the sheath of these poniards is attached a kind of muff, through which the hand is passed; they are straight and very well made. This weapon is brought from the banks of the Mediterranean. These men also carry bucklers, of tanned ox-hide, the workmanship of which is elegant. In their form they resemble the shields of the ancient knights, except that they are square at the extremities.[5] They are adorned with handsome designs, and are large enough to cover the whole body. Some negroes of Timbuctoo have likewise bucklers of the same form, but smaller. The only weapons of the Tooariks, who are always on horseback, are the lance and the poniard. They do not use the bow, as the management of their bucklers would prevent them from employing that weapon advantageously. The people who compose this wandering tribe have long hair and a very swarthy complexion, like the Moors. The nose is aquiline, the eyes large, the mouth finely formed, the face long, and the forehead rather elevated. The expression of their countenance is, however, savage and barbarous. They are supposed to be of Arab origin, and in fact, in some of their customs they resemble that race; but they speak a particular dialect. They assemble in force to attack the caravans from Tripoli, but the Morocco caravans are less exposed to their depredations because their haunts are more northerly. They keep many slaves, whom they partly employ in collecting gum on the banks of the river. This gum, and also considerable quantities of ivory, they sell to the merchants of Timbuctoo.
It is astonishing that such a number of different tribes submit quietly to the yoke of these Tooariks, when, were they to come to an understanding, they could so easily rid themselves of their troublesome enemy. The Dirimans, the Ginbalas, the Kissoors, and the Moors of Zawâ and Salah, if united, would be greatly superior to the Tooariks, and could soon deliver themselves from their oppression. The Tooariks dread fire-arms, of which they make no use, while the negroes of Timbuctoo and the Moors are armed with double-barrel guns.
The Foulahs in the neighbourhood of Jenné, led by their chief Sego-Ahmadoo, attacked the Tooariks; the Foulahs were few in number, on account of their distance from their country, and the difficulty of procuring supplies of provisions; nevertheless, they defeated the Tooariks, made a number of prisoners, whom they put to death, and carried off a multitude of slaves and cattle, which were valuable prizes to the victors. This defeat proves, that there is no good reason for the dread with which the Tooariks are regarded, and that they are really formidable to those only who fear them. Were these tributaries, supported by the Moors, to attempt to throw off their yoke, they would quickly succeed; but, in general, the negroes are indolent, and the Moors, being addicted to commerce, have no martial character. Sego-Ahmadoo, indignant at seeing these Tooariks, who are Mahometans, although certainly not very zealous disciples of that creed, imposing a tax on the vessels from his country, has determined to make war upon them; but he is too distant to maintain a long war. I conjecture that Mungo Park was murdered by these barbarians.
After residing four years at Jenné, or Timbuctoo, the Moors return to their own country with a little fortune; they carry with them a number of slaves; the greater part, however, prefer trading with Sansanding and Yamina, on account of the vicinity of the gold mines of Bouré, whence they obtain considerable supplies of this precious metal. The Arabs, who come from Tafilet, Adrar, Tripoli, and other countries, bring wheat to Timbuctoo: of the flour of this wheat small leavened loaves are made; they are round, and weigh about half a pound each; the bread is good, and a loaf may be purchased for about forty cowries, (equal to four sous French money). The rich merchants, as I believe I have already observed, eat this bread at breakfast, with tea; they have tea services which are brought from Morocco; those which I saw were made of tin, and the cups were small, like Sidi-Ulad-Marmoo’s, at Jenné. All the negroes of Timbuctoo are able to read the Koran, and even know it by heart; they make their children begin to learn it very early, whether they take upon themselves the task of instructing them, or confide their education to the Moors, of whose abilities they have a high opinion. They employ writing in their correspondence with Jenné.
Provisions are very dear in Timbuctoo, and I should have been greatly embarrassed if, as at Timé, I had been obliged to maintain myself, for my means would have been soon exhausted. To the worthy and generous Sidi-Abdallahi-Chebir, I was therefore indebted for my return through the great desert. I had only merchandise to the value of thirty-five piastres, which I reserved to buy a camel, to carry me to the sea-coast, either through the great desert, or by directing my course westerly. I confess that the idea of crossing the Sahara in so dry a season was accompanied by not a little alarm; I was afraid that, with my slight resources, I should not be able to support the privations and fatigues of such a journey, augmented, as they must be, by a scorching wind, which blows unceasingly and renders the heat intolerable. However, after mature reflection, I resolved to encounter the dangers to which the great drought could not fail to expose me, and to venture with a caravan among the moving sands of the desert. I reflected that if I should return by the way of Sego, Sansanding, and our establishments at Galam, those who might envy the success of my enterprise, the very undertaking of which had created for me many enemies, would pretend to doubt the fact of my journey and of my residence at Timbuctoo, whereas, by returning through the Barbary states, the mere mention of the point at which I had arrived would reduce the most malignant to silence.
Sidi-Abdallahi daily lavished on me marks of his kindness; he even went so far as to urge me to remain in Timbuctoo. He said he would give me merchandise to trade on my own account; and, observed, that when I should have accumulated sufficient profit, I might return to my own country without assistance from any one. However, the fear of being discovered, joined to a strong wish to re-visit my native land, induced me to decline his generous offers. I considered, moreover that, as my departure for the interior of Africa was not authentically known, even that circumstance would be buried in oblivion, were I to perish, and the observations I had made would be lost to my country. Influenced by these considerations, I resolved to endeavour to return as speedily as possible. As the opportunity on which I relied, was likely to occur soon, I did not neglect to take advantage of the short time which would probably be at my disposal. I visited the great mosque on the west side of the town; it is larger than that on the east, but is built in the same style. The walls are in bad repair, their facing being damaged by the rains, which fall in the months of August and September, and which are always brought on by easterly winds, accompanied by violent storms. Several buttresses are raised against the wall to support them; I ascended the tower, though its staircase, which is internal, is almost demolished. I returned several times to make my notes, for in this little frequented spot I was not afraid of being observed. During these travels, I always endeavoured to conceal myself while writing, lest I should awaken the suspicion of the Moslems: I always endeavoured to get into a wood, or placed myself under the shade of a bush or a rock, when I wished to commit what I thought worthy of remark to writing.[6]
From the tower I had an extensive view over an immense plain of white sand, on which nothing grows except a few stunted shrubs, the mimosa ferruginea, and where the uniformity of the picture is only here and there broken by some scattered hills or banks of sand. I could not help contemplating with astonishment the extraordinary city before me, created solely by the wants of commerce, and destitute of every resource except what its accidental position as a place of exchange affords. The western quarter of the mosque seems very ancient, but the whole façade on that side is in ruins. There are also some vaulted arcades, from which the whole of the plaster facing is detached. This mosque is constructed of sun-dried bricks, of nearly the same form as those made in Europe. The walls are rough-cast with a kind of coarse sand, similar to that of which the bricks are made, mixed with the gluten of rice. In some parts of the desert there is found a very hard ash-coloured earth, in which sand predominates. This earth has been used in making the bricks for the mosque. The rest of the edifice appears to have been built after the western part was in ruins. Though the new part is very well for a people ignorant of architecture, it is greatly inferior to the ancient remains.
I was surprised to find in the ancient part three galleries, each supported by ten arcades, as well built as if they had been the work of a skilful architect. The arches are six feet wide and ten high; there the plaster is in an excellent state, and appears to have been white-washed. The style and the position of this building connect it with the ruins. I am inclined to think that the mosque consisted originally of this part only, and that additions were afterwards made to it.
The eastern part is composed of six galleries; those of the west are supported by nineteen pillars. The apertures are each six feet and a half wide, and ten or eleven high. The workmanship, though pretty well executed, is, as I have already observed, far from equalling that of the other quarter. The first three galleries on the east side, are one hundred and four ordinary paces[7] long, and about two and a half broad: the three next are only sixty-four long. The length of those on the west is only thirty nine paces. They lead to the great tower, which faces an inner court, closed on the west by the ruins. It is of a square form, but terminates in a small truncated pyramid, which is also built of brick and surmounted by a pot of baked earth. Its height may be estimated at fifty or fifty-five feet from the base to the summit. The steps of the staircase, which is constructed internally, are supported by pieces of wood fixed in the walls and covered with earth. The dilapidated state of the staircase prevented me from ascertaining the exact number of the steps, but I observed the traces of thirty-two.
SKETCH OF THE PLAN OF THE GREAT MOSQUE OF TIMBUCTOO, AND VIEW TAKEN FROM THE E. N. E.
1, 4, 3, DETAILS OF THE GREAT MOSQUE OF TIMBUCTOO; 4, 5, PLAN AND FRONT OF THE HOUSE OF SIDI ABDALLAH CHEBIR, IN WHICH MR. CAILLIÉ RESIDED.
The walls of the mosque are fifteen feet high and twenty-five or twenty-six inches thick. The top of the wall of the east front is indented in the form of battlements, the salient parts of which are surmounted by pots of baked earth, similar to that on the summit of the tower.
Another massive tower, of a conical form, surmounts the front wall. It is about thirty feet high. On the dome, projecting pieces of wood are perceptible, the use of which seems to be to unite the masonry.
The roof of the mosque has a terrace like that of the tower, and is moreover surrounded with a parapet eighteen inches high.
The roof of the building is supported by rafters, formed of the trunks of the ronnier tree split into four, and placed at the distance of a foot from each other. Pieces of salvadora wood, brought from Cabra, where it grows in great abundance, cut to the length of the intervals between the rafters, are placed obliquely in double rows, crossing each other. Over these are laid mats made of the leaves of the ronnier, which are covered with earth.
This mosque has five gates of different sizes on the eastern side, three on the south side, and two on the north. On the western side the ruins form at once the boundary of the mosque and of the city. On the eastern and northern sides, the floor of the building is level with the ground; but on the south is an ascent of four steps.
On the eastern wall, in the interior of the building, there are some ornaments made of yellow clay. They are in the form of a chevron or triangular festoon, two feet high, with an opening of a foot and a half. They commence about eighteen inches above the ground. The pillars supporting the arcades in front, have some ornaments of the same material tolerably executed, but very much defaced. A kind of niche, in the centre of the eastern wall, is destined for the marabout who officiates at prayers. In another similar niche there is a large wooden pulpit, into which the priest ascends by two or three steps, on the days when he reads certain passages of the Koran. The floor of the mosque was covered with mats, on which the people kneel during prayers.
Conceiving that the description alone would not convey an adequate idea of the construction of this mosque, I ventured to make a sketch of it, as well as of the town; both would, I thought, convey a better idea than words alone of the objects with which I wish to make the reader acquainted[8].
To make my sketch of the mosque, I sat down in the street in front of it, and, covering myself in my large wrapper which I folded over my knees, I held in my hand a sheet of white paper close to a leaf of the Koran. When I perceived any one approaching, I hid my drawing, and looking at the leaf of the Koran I appeared to be absorbed in devotion. The passers-by, far from suspecting me, regarded me as one of the elect, and applauded my zeal[9].
The eastern mosque is much smaller than that on the western side. It is surmounted by a square tower, similar in form and dimensions to that of the western mosque. The walls are entirely stripped of their parget. Many buttresses have been erected to support the building. It has three arcaded avenues. The galleries are six feet wide and thirty feet long.
