ACCOUNTING
THEORY AND PRACTICE

A TEXT-BOOK FOR COLLEGES AND
SCHOOLS OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

BY

ROY B. KESTER, Ph.D.

CERTIFIED PUBLIC ACCOUNTANT; PROFESSOR OF ACCOUNTING,
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS,COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

VOLUME I

(FIRST YEAR)

SECOND EDITION

Third Printing

NEW YORK
THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY
1922

Copyright, 1917, by
The Ronald Press Company

Copyright, 1922, by
The Ronald Press Company

All Rights Reserved

To My Father and Mother

An Appreciation of Their Steadfast
Interest in My Work

PREFACE

The basic soundness of the method of instruction in Accounting developed in this book has received substantial demonstration throughout five years of test. The Introduction to the first edition contained the following statement regarding the development of the subject:

“The method of approach as given in this volume is perhaps not orthodox but it has seemed that the student, given an understanding of the purpose which the accounting records are to serve, will be able to make that record with real intelligence instead of by rule-of-thumb. Accordingly, the balance sheet and the profit and loss statement are presented first, as the goal towards which all record-keeping looks. The student is taught to analyze business facts and conditions from the very beginning. He is then led, step by step, through the use of non-technical terms, into the ledger, where he sees the way in which the data which he has been using are summarized. The books of original entry are next explained, and the method by which the information is classified as it is brought onto the books. Finally, the business papers and documents which constitute the source of all entries are described.”

To quote again from the original Introduction: “The subject is developed in such a way that the student knowing something of bookkeeping has little or no advantage over the one without such knowledge. This book has been written for the use of students in our colleges and universities desiring a first course in accounting. It gives the scope of the work in accounting offered in the first year of the School of Business of Columbia University.”

The method then advocated and used in a few institutions has become quite generally accepted. It has justified itself by the ease and extent to which students without any previous training in accounting have grasped the essentials of the subject. Experience with the book in the classroom, however, and changing ideas with regard to manner of presentation and sequence of material, have shown as desirable a rearrangement of some parts and an addition of new material in places. Accordingly, a systematic revision has been made.

The arrangement of the subject matter of the first portion of the book has been altered but slightly. The use and function of the balance sheet and profit and loss statement have been somewhat amplified. The working sheet has been introduced earlier than in the first edition to afford an easy summary of the period’s results. It should later on be made a part of the regular work of summarization. The controlling account is also explained earlier so as to afford more practice in its use. The accounting features of the partnership and of the corporation are given continuous treatment. Here a new chapter has been added, which discusses certain features of the corporation not treated in the original book such as the issue and sale of treasury stock and of bonds, bond interest as related to premium and discount, sinking fund, sinking fund reserve, redemption of bonds, etc.

The material presented in the last quarter of the book deals with the interrelations of accounting, financial management, buying, and marketing. Thus the chapters dealing with the handling of cash, notes receivable and payable, cash discounts, and balance sheet valuation, treat of the relations between accounting and financial management. Several chapters at the end treat of some special methods of accounting practice and of the basic principles of single entry. In this portion of the book new chapters on balance sheet valuation and on buying have been added.

Entirely new problem material has been furnished, carefully graded and related so far as possible to the subject matter of the chapters of the text. For the convenience of the student this material is separated from the text, and grouped in three appendices. A few of the problems have been drawn from the examinations of various state boards and the regents of the University of the State of New York, and from other miscellaneous sources, to all of which acknowledgment is due. The author is indebted to Mr. George B. Kelley for assistance in building up a large part of the practice material. It need hardly be said that a fundamentally sound knowledge of accounting cannot be gained without ample practice work. Theory can never be sure of itself until put to the test of practice.

The author desires to acknowledge again his debt to the many friends whose counsel and aid counted so largely in the first writing of this book. In the revision he finds himself still further indebted to many instructors in all sections of the country for criticism and suggestion. He desires especially to express his appreciation of the active co-operation of his associates on the Columbia staff of instructors in First Year Accounting, in particular Miss Nina Miller and Messrs. Ralph T. Bickell and E. Gaylord Davis. In the actual work of revision Messrs. Eskholme Wade, John Jaffee, and Raymond Gatchell have given valuable assistance.

Roy B. Kester

Columbia University,
New York City,
July 22, 1922

CONTENTS

FORMS

Accounting—Theory and Practice

CHAPTER I
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS—PROPRIETORSHIP

Records and Their Functions.—As far back as our knowledge reaches, records of some sort have been kept and used and they have frequently formed the basis on which our knowledge rests. In a broad sense a record may be defined as a written memorial, a register or history of events, a testimony. Even though the desire to make and hand on to the future a record of achievement is a deep-seated characteristic, record-making has seldom been an end in itself. Knowledge of what has been done has always been a starting point and a guide for future achievement. The longhand or narrative record is indispensable in some fields of knowledge; the shorthand or statistical record is equally necessary in others. The statistical method and accounting are, without question, most potent agencies for the advancement of human knowledge and for the control of human relationships. They provide the basis in fact on which judgments must largely rest. This book, therefore, may begin by sketching the relation of accounting to some of the larger fields of human endeavor—the economic organization of society and the law—to point out its place in the business unit and briefly state the basic function it performs therein.

The Business Unit.—To carry on its various activities, economic society has organized itself into numberless separate units or business organizations. These units are the means through which society operates, their ultimate purpose being the easy and efficient satisfaction of human economic wants. Individual business units, conducted as they are by members of society, are under the broad general supervision of society as a whole. This is evidenced everywhere by the laws, licenses, and regulations by which society attempts to regulate the activities of the individual for the larger interest of society as a whole. As business is conducted in most parts of the world, it is highly individualized rather than communized. There is a growing tendency, however, for society to exercise a larger control and supervision over all types of individual activity, particularly with a view to conserving the welfare of its members. The business unit is thus the medium through which society works to satisfy its economic wants.

Internal Organization of the Business Unit.—Society early found that only by means of a highly specialized division of its activities was it possible to satisfy without waste its rapidly increasing economic wants. Individual business units are thus organized for the purpose of carrying on some one or more of these greatly subdivided activities. Within itself the business unit is organized into departments or divisions for the efficient and thrifty handling of its work. The two large divisions in any business undertaking have to do with what the economist calls the production and exchange of wealth, that is, commodities, services, and so forth. In carrying on these activities of production and exchange it has usually been found desirable to segregate into separate departments certain major functions which are common both to production and to exchange. What the major departments may be depends very largely upon the size of the business unit, its relative complexity of organization, and to some extent on the individual ideas of its managers. Throughout the business world one notes, however, a quite general departmentization under the following heads:

• 1. Finance
• 2. Procurement or production
• 3. Marketing or distribution
• 4. Personnel
• 5. General administration

There are two main activities under the control of the finance division of a business: (a) the problem of original investment, including that of location and acquisition of a plant suitable for the conduct of a contemplated business; and (b) the problem of operating finance, that is, of providing the business with a fund of working capital for its efficient operation. The financing of purchases, sales, credits, operating expenses, and so forth, comprises a large part of the work of finance of an operating or going concern.

In the second of the major departments, that of procurement or production, one finds these activities: (a) the purchasing of the stock-in-trade to be dealt in, if the concern is a trading business; or (b) the manufacture of the stock-in-trade, if the concern is a manufacturing business.

In the department of marketing or distribution, the following activities center: (a) those having for their purpose the creation of a market or demand for the commodity dealt in—the sales organization, the advertising activities, and so forth; (b) the actual selling of the commodity; and (c) the transportation and delivery of the product.

In the personnel department are included the human relations between employer and employee. The hiring and training of the employee, his classification and rating, his welfare and promotion, are the major activities here.

The function of the department of general administration is in the main that of supervision and management of the business as a whole. The general manager must have a view of all of the activities of the business. He must see that the various departments through which its activities are carried on are properly correlated, that it is so organized that its departments function smoothly and efficiently in the performance of their several duties. A consideration of the means employed by the general manager for the proper performance of his duty indicates the place of accounting in the business unit.

Place of Accounting in Business.—In a small business where the owner and manager is in close and intimate contact with these several departments, or perhaps where he focuses all of them within himself, he has no need of special means of keeping himself informed concerning the activities of his assistants, nor does he require an elaborate system of records to indicate the condition and state of the business at any time. In large businesses, however, where the volume and complexity of the commercial activities make it impossible for the executive, on whom rest the responsibilities for the successful conduct of the business, to have an intimate personal knowledge of all phases of the business, it is very necessary that some means be employed for supplying him with this vital information. Two types of information are necessary to him: (1) information about the business unit itself, its activities and condition; and (2) information about general economic conditions in the country, and particularly about other businesses in the same line of activity as his own. It is the function of accounting to supply information of the first type; it is the chief purpose of statistics to supply information of the second type. The accounting department, therefore, deals largely with the internal activities of the business, while the statistical department provides knowledge of the external relations of the business. A proper control and management of business affairs cannot be exercised without the information supplied by both departments. In the accomplishment of its function to supply the internal information, the accounting department reaches out into all of the main departments indicated above for data from which to make its record of the various activities of the business unit.

Purpose of Accounts.—Accounts record the business history of a concern. Their main purpose is to secure information concerning the results of business activity and endeavor. The record required for this purpose can be condensed and made very brief, although the full history of every business comprises a multitude of transactions with a great mass of details. The whole scheme and method of account-keeping is designed chiefly to collect the detail and use it mainly for building up a summary which shall give in rapid review the entire record for the fiscal period.

Account-keeping is to the bookkeeper what shorthand is to the stenographer—an abbreviated method of making the record. The uses to which the records are put, however, differ radically. Stenography abbreviates the writing of the spoken word with a view to its transcription into longhand; accounting records business transactions in abbreviated form with a view to summarizing them further so as to secure a bird’s-eye view of the operations of the business as a whole and to use it in the formulation of administrative judgments and policies.

In a large business there are executive duties within each of the five main departments. Accounting must supply the information on which each departmental executive will base his judgments and policies. The student will see, therefore, that the accounting department brings together a record of the activities of each of the main departments of a business. He will see, too, how the final output or product of the accounting department must be a summarization and interpretation of these departmental activities in order to provide a basis for the various executives on which to formulate their judgments and business policies. Accounting is, therefore, a handmaiden of the executives in the conduct and management of the business. It is the purpose of this volume to develop the technique of the bookkeeping and accounting record and to indicate some of its uses in the management of business.

Relation of Accountancy to Economics.—Economics is sometimes defined as the science of wealth, by which is meant a body of classified knowledge relating to wealth in the aggregate. Under the present-day political and social system, the ownership of wealth is very largely private. Furthermore, the division of labor, as industry is now organized, has been carried to a very high degree. Because of these facts the present elaborate organizations for producing wealth have given rise to an urgent need for some effective means of keeping record of their activities.

The effort of every individual engaged in industry is to increase wealth. He labors to extract the raw materials from nature, to shape and mould them so as to supply the wants of his fellowmen. He then distributes them by means of markets and exchanges so as to secure the greatest possible returns for his effort. As competition becomes keener and the margin of return per unit of product becomes smaller, he has to increase his volume of business to secure the same amount of profit as when he did a lesser volume of business.

To produce goods it is necessary to use the saved wealth of former periods to pay the expenses of materials, labor, management, etc., of the present period. One must consume wealth to produce wealth. After his product is made, he must seek the best market for its exchange or sale. This necessitates the use of a complex system of transportation and communication. Finally, during the whole process of production and exchange the estimated returns from the article must be distributed among the several parties engaged in their creation. To make this distribution on the basis of estimated returns, gives rise to the need—the absolute necessity—of an accurate record of the costs of the activities and processes all along the line. The record, then, of the value of the rights and properties of the various parties to the production and distribution of wealth, as society is now organized for its economic well being, is the special field assigned to Accountancy as related to Economics.

Relation of Accountancy to Law.—The determination of the rights of the several parties to the creation, exchange, and ultimate consumption of a product is the field of Law, more particularly Business Law. The determination by means of its records of the value and extent of these rights is the province of Accountancy as related to Law. Accountancy is thus seen to be the handmaiden of both Economics and Law. None of them can progress far without the help of the other two. All being related to, and arising out of manifold human endeavors, their progress and development is dependent upon, and limited only by, the progress of these endeavors.

The Fundamental Problem of Accountancy.—The aim of all private businesses being the increase of wealth, the first problem of accountancy is to determine how much wealth is invested in a given enterprise and what ownership or proprietorship exists at given periods, so that by comparison the increases and decreases in the proprietorship may be known. When accurate information is obtained, an intelligent plan of action can be adopted to remedy such ills of the business as are shown and to increase any profitable line of activity. Accordingly, proprietorship and its changing values are the basic problems of accountancy as well as of business.

Definition of Terms.—Before proceeding to a definition or determination of proprietorship, it is necessary to understand what is meant by the terms “assets” and “liabilities.” The root idea of the word “assets” is “sufficiency.” Specifically, assets are the “entire property of all sorts, of a person, association, or corporation applicable or subject to the payment of debts.” Similarly, the liabilities of a person, firm, or corporation are his or its pecuniary obligations or debts. Proprietorship is the difference between the value of the assets and the amount of the liabilities, and is defined and measured by the equation:

Assets - Liabilities = Proprietorship

This proprietorship equation is a basic formula. It is also written:

Assets = Liabilities + Proprietorship

It will thus be seen that proprietorship represents the equity of the owners of an enterprise in its assets. The assets are first applied in paying the claims of creditors of the business, and whatever of them remains belongs to the owners of the business.

Development of the Proprietorship Equation—The Balance Sheet.—To indicate the basis of the standard form of the proprietorship equation, several illustrations will be given. The equation is in its simplest form when it indicates proprietorship in a new business immediately after the owner has invested cash to provide the business with capital. For example, assume that on January 1, 19—, James T. Runyon starts business by investing $5,000 cash capital in the enterprise.

Here the proprietorship equation is:

Assets (cash $5,000) = Proprietorship ($5,000)

As yet there are no liabilities. However, in order to carry on his business, Runyon must purchase a stock of merchandise and equipment for his store. Accordingly, he purchases store furniture and fixtures from Lowell Brothers for $500, of which he pays $250 in cash, and owes the balance. He also buys a stock of groceries for $2,500 from Reid Murdock & Co. on 10 days’ time. He now has more assets than the original $5,000 cash, but he has become indebted for the additional amount, so that the amount of his proprietorship has not changed—as is shown by the following equation, somewhat more complex than the first:

Runyon now begins operations and after six months finds that his activities have comprised the purchase of delivery equipment for $300 cash; sale of goods amounting to $6,000; the payment of $1,000 cash for rent, clerk hire, and advertising; and sundry purchases of stock-in-trade and other items as needed. As a result he now has $1,000 cash on hand; customers owe him $3,000; his stock of goods still on hand is worth $2,100; he owes creditors $1,000 for goods bought and his clerks $50 for services rendered.

It is readily seen that as the number of assets and liabilities increases, the method of showing them that was used above becomes awkward and cumbersome; therefore, still using the equation, we make the following vertical tabulation to determine and show proprietorship:

This method of expressing the proprietorship equation is called a “Balance Sheet,” or “Financial Statement.”

Further analysis of the above information discloses the amount of Runyon’s purchases and of his payments to creditors. Taking the transactions involving cash, we find that he had $5,000 to start with and received $3,000 from sales, or $8,000 in all. He bought furniture and delivery equipment for $800, and paid expenses of $1,000, in all $1,800. There is therefore a balance of $6,200 to be accounted for. $1,000 cash is still on hand, so that he must have paid creditors $5,200. Since he still owes creditors $1,000 for goods bought, his purchases must have been in all $6,200.

The ability to make accounting statements and to analyze accounting data for various purposes constitutes a very important part of the equipment of the accountant.

CHAPTER II
ASSETS, LIABILITIES, AND CAPITAL

Before discussing the form and content of the balance sheet and some of its major uses, the chief classes of assets, liabilities, and proprietorship or capital will be explained so that the student will have an intelligent notion of what is meant by each asset, liability, and capital item.

Kinds of Assets.—Accounting terms are not wholly standard. An account title is often used in one business to include items not mentioned under that title in another business. One finds also terms and titles peculiar to particular businesses. However, there is a tendency towards a standardization of the terms used in balance sheets. It is the purpose here to present and explain those which are common to practically all businesses. These include the asset titles Cash, Notes Receivable, Accounts Receivable, Merchandise, Investments, Deferred Charges or Expense Assets, Furniture and Fixtures, Delivery Equipment, Buildings, and Land.

Cash. Cash includes all kinds of money and usually whatever serves as a medium of exchange, which is in the possession or control of the business—deposits in banks, moneys in the safe and cash drawers, and sometimes funds in the possession of agents. Checks received in the regular course of business and not yet deposited in the bank are usually classified as cash.

Notes Receivable. The formal promises to pay, made by others for debts owed the business, are classified under the general title Notes Receivable. Time drafts drawn on the debtors of the business and accepted by them may be included under this title, although they are sometimes shown under a separate title, such as Acceptances Receivable. This is particularly true when the acceptances are trade acceptances. It will be seen later that the promissory note has a somewhat different legal status from the open account claim against a debtor, and should therefore be classified under such title as will indicate the exact nature of the item.

Accounts Receivable. These usually represent the claims of the business against its trade customers for goods sold on open account and not paid for. The term is, however, broader than this, being sometimes used—although the practice is to be deplored—to include all claims against debtors except those which are in the form of notes.

Merchandise. This asset represents the stock-in-trade in which the business deals. It is of course a sort of revolving asset, that is, merchandise is purchased and sold continuously, so that the stock-in-trade is constantly being turned over. The rate of turnover is very important, as will later be seen.

Investments. This asset represents the stocks and bonds of other companies, municipalities, school districts, and so forth, owned by the business. As a usual thing there are seasons of the year when the cash funds of a business are built up and lie idle in the bank unless they are invested in securities of some sort. These securities can be reconverted into cash when the business requires a larger fund of cash.

Deferred Charges. Certain types of expenditure are necessary in every business to secure operating supplies. Fuel must be purchased for heating and power purposes; brooms, oil, waste, and other similar supplies are needed for cleaning and maintaining the business plant; stationery, stamps, wrapping paper, twine, cartons, packing materials, and so forth must always be on hand; insurance policies giving protection against fire are usually purchased for from one to three years and so are seldom completely used up at any given date. All items of this sort, necessary for the operation of the business but not dealt in as stock-in-trade, are called “expense assets.” The portions of these assets on hand at a given time, the use of which will be deferred to a later period, are classified as “deferred charges.”

Furniture and Fixtures. A business plant must be equipped with furniture and fixtures suitable for the display of the stock-in-trade, for the accommodation of customers, for the care and protection of the necessary records of the business, for the efficient performance of duties by the employees, and for other similar purposes. Assets of this type which are not a permanent part of the business plant but are removable should the business desire to change location, are listed under the title of Furniture and Fixtures. This may be subdivided to suit conditions. Sometimes several titles—Store Furniture and Fixtures, Office Furniture and Fixtures, Factory Furniture and Fixtures, Machinery and Tools—are used.

Delivery Equipment. If a business delivers its commodities it will usually have its own delivery equipment. This may comprise horses, wagons, harness, automobile trucks, and so forth. The delivery equipment may be used for both inbound and outbound deliveries.

Buildings. All buildings owned by the business, whether used for business purposes or not, will usually be classified under the asset title Buildings. Store, office, factory, warehouses, residences owned and rented to employees—all assets of this type are to be listed here.

Land. This item represents land—city lots, plant sites, and so forth—owned in fee simple or subject to mortgage. Sometimes when a plot of land is leased for a term of years and a lump sum payment made at the beginning of the lease, the asset may be included either under the title Land, or under the broader title Land and Leaseholds.

Kinds of Liabilities.—Just as with assets, there is not entire uniformity in terminology for the various classes of liabilities. The more common types of items met with are: Notes Payable, Accounts Payable, Accrued Expenses, Mortgages Payable, Bonds Payable, and so forth.

Notes Payable. These represent the formal promises to pay, signed by the business or its owners. They represent the formal claims of others, that is, creditors, against the business. Just as with notes receivable, it is sometimes desirable to make a more distinct classification of notes payable. In such cases the titles Acceptances Payable, Trade Acceptances Payable, Long-Term Notes Payable, etc., are used.

Accounts Payable. Under this title are listed the liabilities to creditors on open account, as distinguished from those formally acknowledged by a written promise to pay. These include obligations to trade creditors for merchandise, supplies, equipment, and property of almost any kind purchased for use by the business. In a broad sense an account payable includes any item for which the business is liable.

Accrued Expenses. Accrued Expenses represent usually the accumulating but unpaid claims against the business for service rendered it, as distinguished from the Accounts Payable, which usually represent purchases of an asset of one kind or another. Thus the amounts due at a given time to employees for work done since the last date of payment of their wages, salaries, or commissions, to the landowner for the rent of leased premises, to lenders for interest on moneys borrowed, are items properly to be listed under this title.

Mortgages Payable. These represent the claims of creditors against particular properties owned by the business but against which the creditors have been given a lien or preferred claim as security for the borrowed or unpaid amount. Mortgages are evidenced by a formal legal document and are usually recorded in the county clerk’s office.

Bonds Payable. These are a type of long-term mortgage which is split into lots of more or less standard amount and so made available to a larger number of holders than is usually the case with the ordinary mortgage payable. This type of liability is limited almost exclusively to corporations.

The student should realize that usually the owner or owners of a business enterprise have both assets and liabilities other than those employed in the business. These personal properties and obligations of the owners are not to be taken into account when showing the proprietorship of a business unit or enterprise. They are to be considered only in showing the total proprietorship of any individual owner, when of course all of his properties, both inside and outside of the business, must be listed.

Kinds of Proprietorship.—Proprietorship, called also Net Worth, is shown under such titles as Capital, Investment, Capital Stock, Surplus, Undivided Profits, Reserves, and so forth. The title used depends largely on the type of organization under which the business is operated.

Capital. Under this title is shown the amount of the investment of each owner in a single proprietorship or partnership business. To show each owner’s share in the ownership the title Capital is preceded by his name. Illustration of this is given on pages [19 and 20].

Investment. This title usually is synonymous with capital. Sometimes it is used to indicate the amount of original investment in the business as distinguished from the present investment.

Capital Stock. Under this title is indicated the sum total of the portions of net worth owned by the shareholders as evidenced by stock certificates and subject to their individual control. On [page 20] is given an explanation of the way in which the proprietorship or net worth of a corporation may be composed of two (or more) parts: (1) the capital paid in by the owners; and (2) the capital, representing profits made but not distributed to the owners. While capital stock usually represents the capital contributed by the owners, it sometimes arises from other sources, such as the distribution of a stock dividend; but the portion of the net worth owned and controlled individually by the owners is the capital stock.

Surplus. In a corporation this represents the second portion of the net worth, as indicated in the preceding section. Surplus is sometimes defined as the excess of the net worth over the capital stock. In other words, it is the difference between the assets and the sum of the liabilities and the capital stock.

Undivided Profits. This is a term used chiefly in financial institutions to indicate the portion of the net profits concerning the disposal of which no action has been taken.

Reserves. Under this title are included whatever portions of the surplus are set aside or reserved for specific purposes.

Where Surplus, Undivided Profits, and Reserves appear as parts of Net Worth, they together represent the difference between Net Worth and Capital Stock. The reason for the careful segregation of these items from the Capital Stock is given in the explanation of the corporate form of organization, on [page 20].

Types of Business Organization.—Before proceeding with a discussion of proprietorship as it appears on the balance sheet, the three general types of business organization will be treated briefly, because the manner of indicating proprietorship is dependent to a certain extent on the type of organization. These types are: (1) the single or sole proprietorship, (2) the partnership, and (3) the corporation.

The Single Proprietorship.—The simplest form of business enterprise is that conducted by a single proprietor. This form is well adapted to businesses where the capital necessary for efficient production is small, where the processes are simple and capable of being handled by the average individual, and where the risks are slight. Very few legal obstacles are placed in the way of the individual desiring to go into business for himself, nor is a great deal required of him. In some cases registration and a license are necessary. The observance of the general laws, concerning the payment of taxes and of local regulations concerning disease and fire is all that is usually expected. Subject to the general restrictions which ordinary business acumen and foresight impose, one can enter practically any field of enterprise, as a single proprietor, have entire freedom and privacy in the conduct of his business, and share with none the results of his endeavor.

On the other hand, these conditions oftentimes prove to be decided disadvantages. As industry is at present organized, many fields of activity demanding large capital and many kinds of technical knowledge, are closed to the single proprietor. Freedom of action carries with it sole responsibility, and oftentimes the counsel and advice of others would prevent the disasters which sometimes overtake the single owner of a business.

The Partnership.—A partnership is “a contract of two or more legally competent persons to combine their money, property, skill, and labor, or some or all of them, for the prosecution of some lawful business and to divide the profits and bear the losses in certain proportions.” There are different kinds of partnerships, as will later be shown, but the essence of each from the point of view of a working organization is mutual agency, each partner being the agent of the others, and, within the limitations of the partnership agreement, capable of acting as a principal for the firm. The partnership is subject to practically as few restrictions as the individual. In some localities, to secure the right to sue and be sued in the firm name, it is necessary to file in a public office a brief statement of the firm name and the names of its members.

The chief advantages of the partnership are larger capital and therefore access to fields closed to the individual; the combining of the business wisdom, skill, and knowledge of several individuals; the subdivision of duties and therefore the opportunity for specialization. While in the view of the business community the partnership is an entity or a business unit, it is not so in the sight of the law, each member of the firm being held liable to creditors for the entire debts of the partnership as if it were his sole business. If any one member has to pay the firm debts, he has a claim against his copartners for contribution.

Some of the disadvantages of this type of organization are the possibility of friction among the partners and consequent delay of action; the extension to the firm of credit based not on the firm property but rather on the total property of the members, and the consequent liability of each partner and his entire private fortune for the debts of the firm.

It is important to note that the partnership agreement should be very carefully drawn to cover in detail the relations of the partners, their duties and their rights, particularly as to their shares in the profits or losses of the firm.

The Corporation.—The corporate type of business organization is distinguished from the other types discussed:

1. By the freedom of each owner from the personal liability for the debts of the business to any greater extent than his stock interest in the business, though frequently in financial corporations, and in a few states for all corporations, his liability is double that stated.

2. By each share of ownership being evidenced by a formal document called a certificate of stock.

3. By each owner being allowed a voice in the affairs of the business only to the extent of his stock ownership therein.

4. By the necessity of securing from the proper authorities permission to do business.

5. By the necessity of complying strictly with the terms of this permit and submitting to certain requirements such as the filing of annual reports, payment of special taxes, and the like.

The owners of a corporation, or its stockholders as they are called, conduct the business through a board of directors which they elect for that purpose and they review its management periodically, usually annually. In this way they exercise indirect supervision over the business. This remoteness of personal interest and supervision has been somewhat overcome by electing to the board only those largely interested in the business, and by retaining on the board those whose ability as managers has been tried and proved. The board usually hires and delegates to others the active management of affairs.

The advantages of the corporate form of organization are: (1) it limits the liability of its owners; (2) it lends itself well to accumulation of the large funds of capital necessary for the promotion of large-scale enterprises; and (3) it secures through its board of directors a convenient and effective means of centralized control and management.

Showing the Proprietorship of These Types.—The methods of showing in the balance sheet the proprietorship for these three types of organization differ somewhat. The title under which proprietorship is listed is Capital. In a single proprietorship such title is preceded by the proprietor’s name, as shown in the following illustration:

In a partnership the capital is not shown in one item, each partner’s interest being stated separately, thus:

In a corporation, proprietorship is shown by the aggregate of the outstanding shares of stock, which are valued at a fixed par, or cost, under the single title Capital Stock, and if the proprietorship is greater than that indicated under this title, the excess is listed separately under the title Surplus or some of the other proprietorship titles already explained. This method of showing proprietorship is prescribed by law and is an effort to inform creditors, or those who may become creditors, that the corporation has observed the legal requirement not to distribute to stockholders any of its original capital. Hence, the capital stock of the corporation must be listed separately from the other items of proprietorship. Any changes in proprietorship during the life of the corporation are taken care of under these other titles, somewhat as illustrated below.

CHAPTER III
THE BALANCE SHEET

Purpose and Use.—The balance sheet of a business is designed to show its financial condition at a given time. As previously illustrated, it marshals the assets in one list or schedule, and the liabilities in another. The difference between the totals of the two schedules gives the present or net worth of the business. In compiling a balance sheet it is not sufficient to give simply the figures of proprietorship or net worth; schedules of assets and liabilities must be drawn up to show the items making up that net worth. From the viewpoint of a prospective investor or purchaser, a banker to whom the business has applied for a loan, or a concern considering the advisability of extending it credit on a bill of goods, it makes all the difference in the world to know that with a net value of $10,000 the business has assets of $15,000 and liabilities of $5,000; or to know that its assets are $260,000 and its liabilities $250,000.

The ratio of total assets to total liabilities is almost as important information to an investor, purchaser, banker, or creditor as is the character of the assets and liabilities. If the assets are in properties for which there is not a ready market and the liabilities are claims which mature soon and will have to be met, the situation is unfavorable. If there are large values invested in easily salable assets; if there is a large balance of cash on hand after meeting current claims and providing for those which will soon mature; if other liabilities are of a more permanent nature, such as mortgages or long-time notes not requiring immediate attention—the situation may show evidence of too large a capital, or of inefficient management as indicated by the failure to invest a part of the surplus cash in properties from which some return might be secured.

Form and Content.—Questions of the kind raised above are not usually capable of definite answer from the information contained on the balance sheet alone. Oftentimes information as to the volume of business done, future plans for expansion or contraction of business operations, and so forth, is needed in addition to that supplied by the balance sheet. Of immediate interest to us, however, is the information contained in the balance sheet. Here two main problems are met: that relating to the form of the balance sheet, and that concerned with the content of the balance sheet.

By form of the balance sheet is meant its physical appearance—the arrangement and classification of its items. The form is not standard. In this country there are few legal regulations governing the way in which the records of a business are to be kept or its reports are to be made. Some efforts have been made, however, to establish a more or less standard form of balance sheet and to secure the use of standard titles in the balance sheet so that wherever found those titles can be relied upon to mean one and only one thing. Because balance sheets are not always drawn up for similar purposes, such regulations should not be too inflexible. The form of any business statement or report should always have regard to the purposes it is to serve. Standardization of form is desirable within this limitation.

By content of the balance sheet is meant the items that are admitted to it and the basis of their valuation.

These two problems of the balance sheet—form and content—are fundamental and will be briefly considered here.

Titles—Main and Group.—Instead of “Balance Sheet,” other terms are used as names for the statement itself, such as “Financial Statement,” “Statement of Resources and Liabilities,” “Statement of Assets and Liabilities.” Within the statement, Resources is an alternative title for Assets; and Net Worth, Present Worth, and Net Assets, for Proprietorship. For the present, use of the terminology previously employed will be continued, with the substitution, however, of the term Net Worth for Proprietorship.

The title of a statement should be full; it should include the name of the business enterprise and date, and should appear somewhat as follows:

Shongood & Goodwell
Balance Sheet
December 31, 19—

As stated, this should be followed by the schedules of Assets, Liabilities, and Net Worth. Since the statement is a formal one, due regard should be had for its general appearance, which should be neat and attractive. Further consideration will be given to some of these features in Chapters [XXVI] and [XXVII].

Classification and Arrangement.—As indicated above, the balance sheet is used to picture the financial condition of a business at a given time. Some of the questions which arise in determining the financial condition of a business have already been mentioned. The chief use to which a balance sheet is put is the determination of the solvency of the business for purposes of getting credit extensions. By solvency is meant the ability of the business to pay its debts when due. Regardless of how great the excess of assets over liabilities is, if it is tied up in assets which cannot be used for the payment of debts, the creditors of the business will become impatient and may ask a court to take the control of the business away from its owners and place it in the hands of a representative of the court and the creditors, who will conduct the business for the purpose of converting assets into cash to a sufficient extent to pay all debts.

A balance sheet should therefore be so arranged that the condition of the business, viewed from the standpoint of its ability to pay its debts, will be clearly and easily determinable. Cash is usually the only medium used for the payment of debts. In the regular course of business, debts are incurred which come due at different dates. Hence it is not necessary to have on hand at a given time cash sufficient to pay all of the debts of the business. Certain classes of debts will not wait. The sums owed employees for services must usually be paid when due. The debt to the government for taxes, to the public service company for heat, light, and power, to the landlord for rent, to the bank for money borrowed—all these debts must usually be paid immediately as they come due.

The cycle of business operation includes the purchase of merchandise, the payment of operating expenses, and the conversion of merchandise into cash through sale, either directly, as when the sale is for cash, or indirectly as when credit is extended a customer and cash is later collected from him. This cycle or turnover of merchandise recurs constantly in the management of the financial affairs of a business. It is necessary so to order the buying and selling of goods and the collection of accounts from customers that there will be on hand at all times sufficient cash to pay the expenses of operating the business and the debts contracted in the purchase of merchandise. This is the vital and fundamental problem of the business executive. In the solution of that problem it may sometimes be necessary to borrow funds from the bank. Before lending money, the banker assures himself that the business will be in a position to repay the borrowed money when due.

The balance sheet, accordingly, should be so arranged that the condition of the business as related to its ability to pay its debts will be apparent. This requires a classification or marshaling of the assets which are concerned in the trading cycle on the one side, and the liabilities which must be assumed in conducting the business during the trading cycle, on the other.

At the head of the list of assets is the item Cash, the most liquid of all, as it can be used directly for the payment of debts. Following Cash come in order Notes Receivable, which, with proper indorsement, can be sold to the banker and converted into cash almost immediately; Accounts Receivable, which represent the claims against customers for merchandise sold and which are collectible within the term of credit extended to the customer; and finally, the Merchandise on Hand, which must be sold either for cash or on credit and then converted into cash by the collection of the outstanding accounts. Sometimes, also, there is included in this group the asset Investments, representing stocks and bonds of other companies which can be converted into cash by sale on a stock exchange. On such securities, and also on the notes receivable, there is usually at the date of the balance sheet some interest which has accrued and may not yet be collectible. It is customary to include the amount of this interest receivable in the same group with the assets from which it arises.

This group of assets, comprising Cash, Notes and Accounts Receivable, Merchandise, and so forth, is called the group of Current Assets. Asset items are classified as current if conversion into cash is expected within three to six months. These are the assets to which the current creditors of the business will have to look for the payment of their claims.

The claims of current creditors are usually included under the titles Notes Payable, Accounts Payable, and Accrued or Unpaid Expenses. The classification of a creditor in the current liability group is usually determined on a time basis. Thus, all debts that will have to be met within six months’ or one year’s time from the date of the balance sheet are usually classed as Current Liabilities.

The excess of current assets over current liabilities is called the working capital of the business; that is, an amount of the current assets equal to the current liabilities will have to be used for the payment of these debts, leaving the excess or difference free for use within the business. While it is not possible to determine, without considering all the circumstances in a given case, how large this working capital should be, the standard rule-of-thumb is that it should equal the amount of the current liabilities. It will thus be seen that the standard ratio of current assets to current liabilities is two to one. The solvency of a given business is always judged by a comparison of the current asset group with the current liability group.

The next main group of assets is given the title Deferred Charges. The content of this item was explained on [page 12]. Thus, if a management has paid some of its expense bills in advance—rent for January paid during December, for example—when showing its financial condition as at the end of December it is proper and necessary, in order to make an accurate showing, that all such prepaid expenses be listed as assets; for, had the payment not been made until the service which it purchased had been used up, the asset cash would have been larger by the amount of the prepaid expenses.

Similarly, with regard to the Accrued Expenses mentioned on [page 14], whatever expenses have been incurred that properly belong to the past period, such as wages due but unpaid, are liabilities; for the cash would be smaller by the amount of such postponed or accrued items had the claims been met during the period. The close relationship of both deferred charges and accrued expenses to cash is thus apparent—the one as an indirect addition to the cash, the other as an indirect deduction from or claim against cash. Accordingly, deferred charges are shown on the balance sheet immediately following the group of current assets, whereas accrued expenses are listed with the current liabilities as noted above.

The next group of assets is called Fixed Assets. Under this title are listed those assets which are used for carrying on the business but are not bought for the purpose of being resold. A certain amount of capital must be invested in the physical business plant. Furniture and fixtures, delivery equipment, buildings, land, machinery and tools, and so forth, must be purchased before the business can commence operating. It is assets of this type that comprise the class of fixed assets. There is a corresponding group among the liabilities which are known as Fixed or Long-Term Liabilities. All debts maturing a year or more after the date of the balance sheet are classed as fixed liabilities. As examples of this class, we have long-term notes payable, mortgages payable, bonds payable, and so forth.

The difference between the fixed assets and the fixed liabilities indicates the amount of owner’s capital which has been invested in the business plant.

The final group of assets is called simply Other Assets, and includes all assets which cannot be classified in any other groups, such as good-will, patents, trade-marks, accounts and notes receivable having a credit term longer than six months, and other similar items. If there are any liabilities not capable of classification in the two groups of liabilities given above, they may be put in a group called Other Liabilities.

For the purpose of an easy showing of these various groups and their titles, it is customary to list the amounts of the several detailed items of each group in an inner money column, and to extend the total into the adjoining money column on the line of the last item in the group. A similar arrangement is made of the groups of liabilities so that not only the items in the various groups but the group totals as well are available. The totals of the various groups give the grand totals for the assets and the liabilities respectively.

The balance sheet as now classified and arranged provides first a formal title, giving the name of the business and the date of the balance sheet; then the assets, under which appear the groups Current Assets, Deferred Charges, Fixed Assets, and Other Assets; under the liabilities appear the groups Current Liabilities, Fixed Liabilities, and Other Liabilities. The showing of Proprietorship or Net Worth under the three different kinds of ownership has already been set forth. The illustration on [page 31] shows a typical form of classified balance sheet. This should be studied carefully, as it is the type which will be used hereafter.

The Problem of Content.—The form of the balance sheet serves the purpose of making easily available the information contained in the balance sheet. Form is of little value unless the content is accurate. What a balance sheet contains is, after all, far more important than its form. The problem of content comprises a consideration of two points: (1) the proper inclusion of all items, both assets and liabilities, belonging in the balance sheet; and (2) the correct valuation of the items so included.

With regard to the first, it may be said briefly that care must be exercised to see that all assets belonging to the business and having value, and that all claims against the business of whatever nature, are included.

Assuming that a given balance sheet contains a list of all the assets and all the liabilities, the further problem of the proper valuation of these items must be considered. A balance sheet in which the title Cash includes counterfeit bills, N. G. (that is, uncollectible) checks and other similar items, would not be considered a reliable balance sheet. Similarly, the basis for the valuation of each of the asset items must be investigated and determined correct before the balance sheet may be considered to represent the true financial condition of the business. It is the experience of every business that it cannot collect all of the credits extended to customers. Regardless of how carefully credit is granted, it will be found that some customers do not pay their debts. Accounts and notes receivable must, accordingly, be valued with a proper consideration for the estimated amount of the uncollectible portion. The stock of merchandise on hand must be valued according to the standard formula, at cost or market, whichever is the lower. The deferred charges group of assets will show the value of the unconsumed portions of the assets purchased, with due regard to the time element. Thus, a three-year insurance policy purchased at the beginning of the year will at the close of the year be valued at two-thirds of its original cost. The fixed asset group will be valued at cost less depreciation, which represents the amount of the loss in value of the assets due to wear and tear, lapse of time, and obsolescence.

In determining liabilities, providing they have all been included, there is not the danger of an understatement, because their amount is subject to verification on the basis of the creditors’ claims. For obvious reasons the liabilities are seldom overstated.

General Principles Governing Form and Content.—In drawing up a balance sheet, the form must be flexible enough to meet whatever requirements for information may be placed upon it. Thus, a balance sheet to be presented to the banker as the basis of a loan should be carefully classified so as to show clearly the financial condition, and sufficient detail should be given to indicate the basis used in valuing the various items. A balance sheet drawn up for publication may, on the other hand, contain less detailed information and less attention need be given to its form. A balance sheet drawn up for use within the business itself may well contain very full information and its form should be such as will accurately portray the status of affairs. A balance sheet which shows on its face that cognizance is taken of uncollectible accounts and of the loss in fixed assets due to depreciation, is much more valuable as a financial statement than one lacking that information, provided of course it is to be used to indicate that consideration has been taken of those elements. Excepting for the general remark that regard must always be had to the purpose for which the balance sheet is drawn up, no hard-and-fast rule can be laid down in the matter of the relative fullness of detail with which it should be made.

Illustration. To illustrate the features of the balance sheet discussed in this chapter, the following statement showing the financial condition of the partnership of Jackson & Edwards is given:

Jackson & Edwards
Balance Sheet June 30, 19—

CHAPTER IV
THE COMPARATIVE BALANCE SHEET

Comparison of Net Worths.—The aim of every business enterprise is to increase its net worth. If James Runyon at the beginning of the year is worth $5,000 and at its close $7,500, it is evident that he has increased his wealth by $2,500. Very little information is given him or anyone else as to the manner in which the increase took place, except that it came about in the ordinary course of business. No criterion is given by which to compare effort with result. An increase of $2,500 may or may not be commensurate with the labor expended in effecting it. However, since a business is not likely to remain stationary, there is a degree of satisfaction in knowing merely the extent of the change in its net worth. The taking of an inventory, the appraising of the value of the assets from time to time, and the setting of the liabilities for the same dates over against them, is the method of determining the corresponding net worths. A comparison of these net worths shows their increase or decrease during the period. A further analysis of the individual items may be made. A comparison of each asset at the beginning of the period with its value at the end of the period, shows the increase or decrease in that item. A similar comparison of each liability item brings out the increase or decrease during the period.

How a Gain or Loss May Be Evidenced.—During a period a gain or increase in net worth may come about in one of four ways:

1. The assets may remain the same and the liabilities may decrease.

2. The liabilities may remain the same and the assets may increase.

3. The assets may decrease but the liabilities suffer a greater decrease.

4. The assets may increase but the liabilities undergo a smaller increase.

Provided no more money has been invested in the business, and none has been withdrawn, there has been in all the above instances an increase in net worth, that is, a profit has resulted. If the reverse of the above relationships obtains, there has been a decrease in net worth, or a loss.

The following statements illustrate the points discussed above.

Aaron Conners
Balance Sheet,
June 30, 1921

One year later Conners’ financial condition is shown to be:

Aaron Conners
Balance Sheet,
June 30, 1922

The various types of information essential to judging the financial condition as disclosed by the above balance sheets will now be discussed.

Comparison of Balance Sheets.—A comparison of balance sheets gives more information than merely the amount of profit for the year. It indicates trends in the business. Thus a comparison of the notes and accounts receivable for the two years may give some indication of the vigor with which collections are pressed. If the volume of business done, that is, the amount of sales made, was about the same during the two years, and if there are more uncollected accounts at the close of the second year than at the close of the first, it would tend to show that collections were less satisfactory during the second year. Investigation may show that this is due to general conditions of business in the country rather than to failure to push collections vigorously. If there is any marked change in the amount of the stock of merchandise on hand it would invite inquiry. If the stock is much larger at the end of the second year than at the end of the first, it might indicate that the business man is speculating in merchandise, that he considers the buyer’s market during the year particularly favorable and has laid in an abnormally large stock. A banker with large experience in similar businesses can formulate a fairly accurate judgment of how much working capital a concern should have invested in merchandise. With that as a criterion he can tell the normal amount of merchandise the business should carry.

A comparison of current liabilities for the two periods will indicate the extent to which borrowed working capital is being used. Thus, an unusual increase in stock-in-trade may be offset by an equally large increase in current liabilities, and so would indicate that the merchant has done his buying on credit or has used borrowed working capital to increase his stock. The danger of this is apparent in a fluctuating merchandise market, particularly if the swing is generally downward. A comparison of the working capital for the two periods gives useful information. A decrease in the amount of working capital may indicate an investment of it in fixed plant which, if continued, will lead to trouble with current creditors. An increase in working capital may point to the advisability of greater sales effort.

A comparison of fixed assets for the two periods will show the increase or decrease in the plant investment. If this has been offset by a corresponding increase or decrease in fixed liabilities, no additional capital of the owners has become tied up in fixed plant, while the reverse is true if there is not that correspondence between fixed assets and fixed liabilities. Where the ratio between current liabilities and fixed liabilities has increased, it may point to the desirability of funding some of the current debt. Short-term liabilities have apparently been incurred for the purpose of extending the fixed plant. It is usually desirable to convert, that is, fund these current liabilities into long-term liabilities in order to conserve working capital to pay current debts.

Thus it is seen that a proper understanding of the items in the two balance sheets and of their various interrelationships will oftentimes give very valuable information. Banks and business houses which are called upon to extend credit, maintain regular files of credit information, including periodic balance sheets, concerning their present and prospective customers, so that they can judge fairly accurately the condition of the businesses.

The Comparative Balance Sheet—Its Content and Form.—A comparison of the above balance sheets shows an increase of net worth of $2,354.25 during the year. It shows also that this profit is accounted for by an increase of $2,932.50 in the assets, which is offset by an increase of $578.25 in the liabilities, leaving a net increase of $2,354.25.

The two statements thus separated do not lend themselves easily to a comparison of individual items. Accordingly, a method of showing the comparison known as the “Comparative Balance Sheet” form is used. This brings all the data into juxtaposition and so makes comparison easy. The balance sheet for the current year is shown first, followed by that for the preceding year. The increase and decrease column uses the current year as a basis for comparison with the preceding year.

Aaron Conners
Comparative Balance Sheet,
June 30, 1922 and June 30, 1921

While it is true that a great deal of valuable information can be secured from a comparative balance sheet, and that this form of balance sheet locates definitely the changes in the asset and liability items, summarizes those changes, and shows the net profit, it nevertheless fails to disclose the forces within the business organization which have brought about the changes—it sets forth effect or result but not cause. A supplementary or rather a complementary statement is needed to show the reasons for the changes. This is discussed in the following two chapters.

CHAPTER V
THE ECONOMIC OR PROFIT AND LOSS
ELEMENTS OF A BUSINESS

Fuller Information Needed.—As indicated in [Chapter IV], in the summarization of the business transacted during a given period, it is not usually sufficient to know how much net worth has changed; nor is the whole story told when it is known exactly what items are responsible for the change, that is, which of the properties are worth more and which are worth less at the end than at the beginning of the period. Additional information is necessary to account for the changes shown by the comparative balance sheet.

The proprietor who knows simply that his cash is $1,000 less now than it was at the corresponding time in the last fiscal period, has not the kind of control over his business that his competitor has who knows that the $1,000 was expended for an increased stock of goods, or that an outstanding liability of that amount has been settled, or that his expenses for the period have been larger by $1,000 than for the former period. His competitor may be worse off but he at least has the advantage of knowing the reason for his being so. He has made a correct diagnosis of the pulse beat of his business. If he cannot heal its ills or secure aid for it, he can at least have the satisfaction of giving it a respectable burial, and the autopsy will then disclose that he failed to take advantage of his information until it was too late.

However, the point should be clearly held in mind that the proprietor who knows exactly what is happening in his business is in a position to exercise a definite and sure control over it. Hence, the accounting department, to justify its existence, should aim to give full information as to what is taking place within the business and what eventually will be the result in its financial life. Only in this way can the department serve as a means of control.

Kinds of Records.—A business must have assets and usually must incur liabilities; a plant must be used, stock-in-trade must be bought, and sold, and usually sufficient capital must be provided for the extension of credit to customers. Capital for the payment of the operating expenses of the business, the maintenance of the plant, the payment of salaries and wages of employees, and so forth must at all times be provided. While it is true that the balance sheet shows the financial condition of the business, it gives little information as to the volume of business operations. It indicates the net worth and may even indicate the increase or decrease in net worth if the comparative balance sheet is used. Yet as to how that increase or decrease in net worth came about, little or no information is given. The balance sheet, in other words, is static; it indicates a quiescent state. It is a snapshot, showing the wheels of business momentarily stopped.

To give a full survey of the operations during a given period, a motion picture of the events between the dates of the balance sheets must be shown. Such a picture is dynamic. It gives a realization of the whirl and bustle of business being carried on. It pictures volume, content, and extent, whereas the balance sheet indicates the state arrived at as of a given moment. For purposes of management, which must control all the phases of business activity, a balance sheet is insufficient. A review of the factors producing results up to a given time must be had. Accordingly, the accounting department must supply not only information as to the present state of the assets and liabilities, but also information which indicates how the changes in assets and liabilities since the last fiscal period were brought about—what volume of transactions occurred, what expenditures of assets and energy were necessary to accomplish the results attained. This information, for purposes of internal management, is more vital than that concerning simply the present status of assets and liabilities. It is complementary to that obtained by a comparison of net worths and it is therefore explanatory of the changes in net worth.

The Net Worth Section Expanded.—In its operation of buying and selling goods, a business executes many different types of transactions. As was indicated in [Chapter I], in the development of the proprietorship equation, some types of transactions have no effect on proprietorship, that is, they involve neither a profit nor a loss; while other types of transaction—the really vital types, because it is for these that the business is carried on—involve a change in proprietorship, either increasing or decreasing it. Goods are bought for one price and sold at a price sufficiently higher to pay for all the expenses of operating the business and leave a reasonable margin of profit. For example, goods may be bought for $1,000 and sold for $1,800, bringing about an increase of $800 in the sum total of the assets. This $800 may represent temporarily an increase in proprietorship but the increase must be used first to meet the expenses of operating the business during the period in which the sale is made, after which the net result represents the real or permanent increase in proprietorship. The temporary increase of $800 is offset by a temporary decrease of, say, $600 for operating expenses. It is vital to business management to have information not only concerning the net increase in proprietorship but also concerning these temporary increases and decreases. To give this information the net worth section of the balance sheet might be expanded as in the illustration given below.

Edwin Markham
Balance Sheet, December 31, 19—

In the net worth section of this balance sheet, the capital with which the owner started operations for the year is given first. To this is appended a summary of the operations for the year resulting in a net increase in proprietorship which, added to the beginning capital, gives the capital in the business at the end of the year. This method of setting up the information concerning the operations of the business is not used to any extent because the information is of such vital importance that it deserves more display. Accordingly, a separate statement, known as the “Statement of Profit and Loss,” or “Statement of Business Operations,” is drawn up to explain the balance sheet net worth item, Net Increase in Proprietorship for the year, which shows just the amount of the net profit. The detail of this item is given in this complementary statement. The above illustration is given merely for the purpose of pointing out the relationship between the statement of operations and the balance sheet. From this it will be seen that the statement of profit and loss is really a part of the net worth section of the balance sheet.

Temporary Proprietorship Records.—The proprietorship records, indicating as they do the sources of changes in net worth, are kept day by day as transactions take place, are summarized at the close of the period, and the net result is determined. They are called temporary because, as is seen, they do not at the time of record have regard for the final change in proprietorship. At the end of the regular periods, to determine the total or final change, the temporary proprietorship records are closed or transferred to the summarized record called the “Profit and Loss Summary.”

Referring to the case of Aaron Conners discussed in [Chapter IV], assume that the accounting department furnishes the following additional information from its records:

During the year from July 1, 1921 to June 30, 1922, Conners bought $22,362.50 worth of goods; his sales amounted to $28,465.20; he paid for help $3,050.50; his other expenses were $2,405.45; and he estimated the wear and tear on furniture at 10%, or $52.50. As shown in his statement for 1922, he had $10,260 worth of merchandise on hand on June 30, 1922.

The analysis of this information explains the changes in his net worth during the year. The goods he started with plus those purchased during the year are the total goods to be accounted for, which amounted to $30,862.50 ($8,500 + $22,362.50 = $30,862.50). These goods were accounted for by his sales during the year and the amount on hand. Knowing how much was on hand June 30, 1922, viz., $10,260, he determined that the goods sold must have been the difference or $20,602.50 ($30,862.50 - $10,260 = $20,602.50). The price which he received for these goods sold was $28,465.20; hence, his profits from sales were $7,862.70, the difference between selling price and cost.

We find, also, that the expenses he incurred in selling his goods and conducting his business generally were $3,050.50 for clerk hire, office help, delivery boys, etc.; and other expenses, such as rent, taxes, repairs, delivery upkeep, supplies, heat, light, and the like, amounted to $2,405.45. He estimated that his store fixtures depreciated in value $52.50. All these items, representing costs of doing business, amounted to $5,508.45 ($3,050.50 + $2,405.45 + $52.50 = $5,508.45), which subtracted from his profits from sales, $7,862.70, gives him a net gain of $2,354.25 ($7,862.70 - $5,508.45 = $2,354.25). This gain tallies with the increased proprietorship of that amount shown by the balance sheet of June 30, 1922.

Without regard to a form which would be technically correct, the data of the preceding paragraphs may be shown as follows:

The technical form of the summary of the temporary proprietorship elements will be presented in the next chapter.

CHAPTER VI
THE PROFIT AND LOSS SUMMARY

Type of Information Needed.—The need and purpose of the information to be furnished by the temporary proprietorship records was pointed out in [Chapter V]. Without information of this sort, proper control of business operations cannot be exercised. These records supply a summarized picture of the activities of the business during a definite period, which have as their goal the increase in proprietorship—the making of a profit. In attaining this goal, two main types of activities or operations are entered into, usually classified under the heads of: (1) income or earnings, by which is meant those activities which immediately and directly increase proprietorship; and (2) expenses or outgo, comprising those activities which decrease proprietorship. Expenses are the costs incurred in securing income, and are therefore deductions from it. A fuller explanation of these terms will now be given.

Income.—Income is usually of two types: operating and non-operating. These terms are always relative; that is, what is an operating income in one business may be a non-operating income in another business. The term “operating income” is used to indicate the main sources of income in a given business. It is always the duty of the accounting department to indicate the sources of income. Thus in a trading or mercantile business, the selling of goods to customers is the main source of income. In a professional business, the selling of services, often titled “professional fees,” is the main source; in a brokerage or commission business, commissions earned; in institutions, tuition and other fees; in a financial business, interest earnings; in a society, membership fees. These are typical titles for indicating the main source of income in the several kinds of undertakings mentioned.

While sales are the major source of income in a trading concern, there may be supplementary sources. It may own stocks and bonds from which income may be derived. In a manufacturing or mining enterprise the company may own dwelling houses and rent them to its employees. Conditions of travel and communication may also force it to provide stores, places of amusement, and so forth for its workers. From all these supplementary activities it will derive income. As it was not organized primarily for these purposes, but chiefly to manufacture, or mine a commodity, the income from these collateral activities is classed as non-operating income.

The distinction, then, between operating and non-operating income is, as mentioned above, always a relative one and will be determined in any given instance on the basis of major activities and supplementary or minor activities. Some of the titles under which income is recorded will now be explained:

Sales. Under this title is recorded the amount of sales of the stock-in-trade in a merchandising or manufacturing concern. The two elements included here, namely, the decrease of the asset merchandise and the increase of proprietorship—the true income element—will be discussed later.

Sales Returns. This title does not represent income but, as its name indicates, shows the amount of the goods sold which have been returned because of dissatisfaction with the quality or condition of the goods or some error in sending the wrong kind.

Sales Allowances. These are similar to sales returns in that they indicate a deduction from the sales income for the allowances made to the purchasers who for one reason or another have just cause to be dissatisfied with the goods but agree to retain them providing an allowance from the original selling price is made.

Interest Income. Under this title is recorded the income from money loaned or credit extended. Notes receivable and bonds are the usual sources. Sometimes open accounts receivable also bring interest.

Rental Income. Under this title is recorded income received from the lease of premises, lands, or buildings.

Professional Fees. Under this title is recorded the income from charges made for professional services.

Commissions Earned. Included under this title is the income received from services rendered in the selling of commodities for a principal.

Purchase Discount. This represents the deduction allowed from the original charge for paying a debt in advance of the date named in the purchase contract.

Expenses.—Expenses are also of two types: operating and non-operating. The same distinction is made here as with income. Those expenses incurred in securing operating income are operating expenses, while those incurred in securing non-operating income or for other purposes are called non-operating expenses.

To secure control over the operating and non-operating types of activities, it is necessary to compare operating income with operating expenses, and non-operating income with non-operating expenses, in order to measure the return by the effort expended in securing that return. Some of the more common titles under which the record of expenses is made are as follows:

Salaries (Wages). Under this title is included the cost of the services rendered by employees. This may be classified in accordance with the department in which the service is rendered; for example, factory wages, salesmen’s salaries, office salaries, and so forth.

Traveling Expenses. The costs of railroad fare, entertainment, and so forth, when traveling in the interests of the business.

Advertising. The cost of publicity in making known the commodities offered for sale by the business.

Buying Expense. The costs incurred in making purchases for the business. These may comprise the salaries of buyers and all expenses in connection with maintaining a purchasing department.

Rent. The cost for the use of premises not owned.

Plant Maintenance. The cost of upkeep, repairs, and so forth, on the plant used by the business. The cost, by purchase or manufacture, of light, heat, and power is included here.

Depreciation. The decrease in value of a fixed asset due to wear and tear, lapse of time, obsolescence, etc.

Bad Debts. The amount of outstanding accounts receivable which have proven or are judged to be uncollectible.

Sales Discounts. The cost incurred because of the financial policy of charging a customer a smaller amount than the amount of the bill, provided he pays by a given date.

Telephone, Telegraph, Stationery, Postage, Interest Cost, Commissions Paid, and so forth. These all indicate by their titles the nature of the expense or cost items.

The student should understand that expenses may be set up in very much greater detail than that indicated by the above titles. Usually the title under which record of an expense is made will indicate with sufficient clearness its character.

The Profit and Loss Summary.—As indicated in [Chapter V], the profit and loss summary shows the manner in which the net worth of the business has been changed as the result of operations of the business, as distinguished from changes brought about through withdrawal or investment of capital. Although it is really a part of the balance sheet, which shows financial condition, because of its importance it is, however, set up as a separate statement. It amplifies and fills out the record shown by the balance sheet. It is a supplementary record because it gives additional information, and is complementary to the balance sheet because it rounds out and completes the story of business life there recorded.

Just as with the balance sheet, the main problems of the profit and loss summary relate to: (1) its form; and (2) its content. After an explanation of some of the terms used in connection with the summary, these two problems will be discussed.

The Fiscal Period.—Because of the work involved and the frequent incompleteness of the records at the close of each day, a daily statement of condition is very seldom made up. The business experience of a particular enterprise determines the frequency of preparation of these statements. Whatever the period may be between statements, be it a month, three months, a half-year, or a year, it is called the fiscal period, i.e., it is the period at the end of which records are summarized for the purpose of ascertaining the profit or loss for the period. For purposes of comparison with preceding and following fiscal periods, under similar conditions, the fiscal period should be, and usually is a period of regular length—a half-year or year being perhaps the most common, though in many enterprises it is customary to draw up supplementary monthly statements.

Need for the Physical Inventory.—Again, because of the work involved, especially where the product dealt in is small in value and sales are numerous—as in stores dealing in clothing, food, and the like—no record of the cost of each article is kept as it is sold, only the sale price being recorded. It is not possible, therefore, to determine from the records as usually kept, the cost of the goods on hand at a given time. The records are kept in this way, not because systems of accounting cannot be devised to make both records, but because the results obtained by such systems are not justified by their cost when other and less expensive means can be used with almost as satisfactory results.

The customary method of finding the cost of goods sold was indicated in [Chapter V]. Summarized, it requires that from the sum of goods on hand at the beginning and those purchased since, there be subtracted the goods on hand and unsold at the close of the period. This last item, the goods on hand and unsold, is secured by making an actual count and valuation of such goods at the close of the fiscal period. The expedient of physical inventory-taking is therefore brought in as an aid to the accounting records, but only in the interests of economy.

Form of Profit and Loss Summary

General Principles Governing Make-Up. The profit and loss statement, as the complement of the balance sheet, is just as formal in character and the same general considerations govern as the make-up of the balance sheet, viz.: (1) the general purpose it is to serve; (2) the likelihood of obscuring essential facts through too great detail; and (3) the general appearance is to legibility, clearness of form and expression, and arrangement on the page.

Title. The heading of the summary must show the name of the business, followed by the title of the summary and the statement of the exact period covered by it. It was noted in [Chapter V] that whereas the balance sheet is a statement of financial condition as at a given date, the profit and loss summary is a statement of operations which have taken place during a given period. Hence, it is not sufficient merely to state the date of the close of the period. If, as is usually the case, the fiscal periods are of uniform length in a given business, the phraseology “For the Period Ending ...” will be sufficient for use within that business. It is better, however, for all statements of operation to indicate the length of the period covered. A typical heading for the profit and loss summary is indicated below:

James R. Robinson & Company
Statement of Profit and Loss For the Six Months’ Period Ending December 31, 19—

Arrangement. The arrangement of the summary has already been indicated. The income from operations, that is, the operating income, is shown firsthand, and is followed by the operating expense, and then by the amount of the difference or the net result of operation. Next is shown the non-operating income, followed by the non-operating expense. The net result of this combined with the net result from operations gives the net result for the period, which is the figure shown on the balance sheet, the detail of which is explained by the profit and loss summary.

Content of Profit and Loss Summary.—The content of the profit and loss summary is determined by the need of information for purposes of management. A profit and loss summary which is sufficient for a small business, where the proprietor is in intimate contact with all phases of the business, would not give sufficient information for the proper control of a large business, where the managing executives are dependent for their information as to the various phases of business activity on reports made to them. There is, however, a fairly standard outline or skeleton in accordance with which this summary is usually drawn up. It is the purpose here to explain that outline.

The first section of the statement has for its purpose the separation of the sales item into its two elements, referred to above: (1) the Cost of Goods Sold, which indicates the amount by which the asset merchandise has been decreased through sale of goods; and (2) the Gross Profit or the excess of selling price ever cost, out of which must be met the costs of operating the business before the net change in proprietorship can be determined. This section is usually spoken of as the “trading” section of the statement. The set-up of this section shows, accordingly: (1) the Sales item, from which is shown deducted the amounts of sales returns and sales rebates and allowances in order to arrive at the figure of net sales; and (2) the Cost of Goods Sold, under which is listed the cost of goods sold as explained in [Chapter V]. This cost requires the showing of the initial inventory, the purchases for the period, the inward costs of laying down the merchandise at the place of business, such as insurance on goods in transit, freight and cartage costs, and so forth. From the sum of these items will be shown deducted the returned purchases and the amount of the final inventory, the difference indicating the cost price of goods disposed of by sale. With the “inward” cost of goods is sometimes included the sum total of all buying expenses. In other cases, particularly where a complete purchasing department is maintained, a separate buying expense section is set up to summarize these costs.

Following this trading section comes the formal statement of operating expenses which are usually classified for purposes of information into the groups: Selling Expenses, General Administrative Expenses, and Financial Management Expenses. Under each one of these groups should be listed the detailed items. Thus, under the selling expense group should be shown such items as salaries to salesmen; the traveling expenses incurred by them; the cost of publicity, advertising, and so forth; the sales management expense; and the delivery expenses, although these expenses are sometimes set up in a group by themselves.

The student will note that under the head of selling expenses are grouped all of the direct costs incurred in making sales.

Under the general administrative expenses should be shown such items as office salaries, stationery and supplies, postage, telephone and telegraph, light, heat, insurance, depreciation, and all other items which cannot be charged to definite departments of the business but must be borne by the business as a whole.

Under financial management expense should be listed the various items of expense which represent the financial activity of the business as related to its major purposes and which are operating financial expense items. Here will be shown such items as interest on money borrowed for operating the business; sales discounts granted customers in order to secure cash payments from them at an earlier date than the limit of the normal credit period allowed them; collection costs, and so forth.

A final section of the operating portion of the profit and loss statement lists the items of income arising out of the management of the working capital finances of the business. Interest received on customers’ notes and on cash balances in the bank, and purchase discounts, are usually the only items of income under this head.

The difference between gross profit on sales and the sum of these operating expenses minus the financial income, is the operating profit of the business, sometimes called Net Operating Profit.

The section following this is devoted to the marshaling of the items of Non-operating Income and Expense. Whichever of these two groups is the larger is set up first, and from its total is deducted the total of the other group. The net amount is then shown extended under the item of net operating profit, to which it is added if it is a net income item and from which it is subtracted if it is a net expense item. The resulting figure is the Net Profit for the period.

Occasionally there are extraordinary items of profit or loss not to be classified under any of the above heads, which have to be shown in additional sections of the profit and loss statement. These are matters which will be taken up later.

It should be noted that the above paragraphs outline a simple statement of profit and loss for a commercial or trading business as distinguished from an industrial or manufacturing enterprise, the statement for which is somewhat more complex even in its general outlines.

Algebraic Content of the Profit and Loss Statement.—An algebraic presentation of the profit and loss statement is oftentimes valuable. The cost-of-goods-sold portion becomes:

• (1) Initial Inventory + Purchases
• - Final Inventory = Cost of Goods Sold
• (2) Sales - Cost of Goods Sold = Gross Trading Profit

The rest of the statement is covered by the following equation:

• (3) Gross Trading Profit
• - (Selling Expenses
• + General Administrative Expenses
• + Financial Management Expense
• - Financial Management Income)
• ± (Non-operating Income - Non-operating Expense)
• = Net Profit

The Disposition of the Net Profit.—The net profit for the period belongs to the proprietor and constitutes an increase in his proprietorship or investment, unless he has already drawn out some of these profits as they accrued. In this case, his drawings must be subtracted from the net profit indicated before showing the increment to his net worth. Accordingly, a final section of the profit and loss statement may give the disposition of the net profit and its appropriation or addition to the previous net worth or proprietorship item. This section, when used, is known as the appropriation section. If the business is a partnership, this section should show in detail the distribution of net profit among the several partners according to the agreement among them as to the proportions in which they are to share gains or losses. If a corporation, it should give the disposition made of the net profit in the way of dividends to the stockholders, and any other appropriation made of these profits, including transfer to surplus.

Two illustrations—one very simple, the other more complex—typical of profit and loss summaries are given for the guidance of the student.

Illustration 1

Aaron Conners
Statement of Profit and Loss For the year ending June 30, 1922

Illustration 2

Kimball and Morey
Statement of Profit and Loss For the Year Ending June 30, 19—

The Two Methods of Determining Net Profit.—It is particularly important to note that the profit shown by the profit and loss statement must be the same as that developed by the comparative balance sheet, since both cover the same period and constitute merely two ways of developing the same result. For this reason they are valuable in proving the correctness of results, acting as checks against each other. The student must bear in mind, however, that the increase or decrease in net worth as shown by the comparative balance sheet must always be adjusted by taking account of additional investments or withdrawals of capital before the net profit for the period can be determined, and therefore before this figure can be used as a check against the amount of net profit shown by the statement of profit and loss.

The accounting department keeps both classes of records, viz., the asset and liability records and the temporary proprietorship or income and expense records, not because both are needed to develop the amount of net profit—either class would do this—but because both are needed for the additional information which they give and which is valuable and necessary for the intelligent management of the business.

CHAPTER VII
INTERRELATION BETWEEN THE ECONOMIC AND
THE FINANCIAL ELEMENTS OF A BUSINESS,
AND SOME INTER-RATIOS

Various Aspects of the Temporary Proprietorship Records.—The profit and loss statement has been explained as a summary of the temporary proprietorship records kept for the purpose of registering the changes in net worth as they occur from day-to-day, and also for the purpose of noting the source or cause of many of the changes in assets and liabilities. The temporary proprietorship records may be regarded as the chronicle or history of the economic life of the business. The efforts of the business to produce income with the least possible outgo in the form of costs or expenses, may be viewed as the work of forces or agencies striving towards that end. Every effort is offset by the cost of that endeavor, and unless the result of the effort be more than its cost, its aim, viz., the increase of net worth, is not accomplished.

Relation between Profit and Loss and Financial Elements.—These income-producing efforts are the agencies that bring about the changes in the values of assets and liabilities. Expenses and costs are incurred for the purpose of securing income. Every expense or cost that is settled causes a diminution of business assets, usually of the asset cash. If not settled, it causes an increase in the liabilities, usually the accounts payable, for the business becomes bound by or liable for it. Both of these conditions result in a decrease in the net worth.

On the other hand, every item of income, as when a sale of goods is made, is reflected in an increase of assets or a decrease of liabilities. The result of every sale is usually an increase in the cash or in the claims against persons, the accounts receivable. The sale may sometimes result in a lessening of liabilities through a cancellation of the claims of creditors by means of the claims against customers arising out of the sale. This would be true when goods are bought from, and sold to, the same person. Thus there is constantly a direct interrelation between the financial and the profit and loss elements of every business.

Exchanges within the Asset and Liability Groups.—All changes in individual assets and liabilities, however, are not always the result of business or economic forces. There may be an even exchange of one asset for another asset, as when delivery equipment is purchased for cash. The asset Delivery Equipment is increased by the same amount as the asset Cash is diminished. Or if a bill of goods is purchased on credit, an increase of assets is exactly offset by an increase in liabilities. These changes are illustrated in the second example in [Chapter I], showing Runyon’s proprietorship.

It is seen, therefore, that the changes in individual assets and liabilities are not so certain an index of changes in proprietorship as those registered by the temporary proprietorship records. The vital history of a business is its profit and loss record, the story of its economic life. As a means of control this is of first importance because it chronicles the causes of most changes in financial condition. The statement of financial condition may be looked upon as a picture of the framework, the skeleton of the business personality, upon which is superimposed its economic structure. When both the financial framework and the profit and loss summary are given, it is possible with reasonable accuracy to tell the whole history of the business activities for the period covered.

Confusion between Profit and Loss and Balance Sheet Items.—The beginner frequently has trouble in making a proper classification of income items and sometimes of expense items. Take Interest Income as an example. The asset Cash Received is confused with the title Interest Income, which denotes the source of the cash received. The accounting department maintains both types of records. The receipt of cash arising out of interest income would be classified and recorded under two heads: (1) the asset Cash, to indicate the increase in that asset; and (2) the temporary proprietorship record Interest Income, to give the profit and loss information necessary for purposes of management.

Similarly, the beginner oftentimes confuses the sales income record with the cash record of a cash sale transaction. Also, when cash is disbursed for expense purposes, the decrease in the asset is often confused with the expense record. When an expense is incurred it brings about either a decrease in assets, usually cash if the transaction is settled at once; or an increase in liabilities, usually an accrued expense item if the transaction is not immediately settled. Accordingly, in making the record the accounting department must show the decrease in the asset or the increase in the liability in the balance sheet group of records and the source of that decrease or increase under some expense title in the profit and loss group of records. Familiarity with the titles appearing in the profit and loss statement should prevent this confusion.

Illustration.—To show the interactions between the balance sheet and the profit and loss groups of records, the following illustration is given. There is shown first a comparative balance sheet, indicating the condition of a business at the beginning and the end of a period. This comparative balance sheet, it will be noted, shows a net profit of $33,250. There is also given a statement of profit and loss, showing the sources of the income and the expenses of the business. The statement indicates a net profit of $33,250 for the period. By starting with the financial condition as indicated by the balance sheet at the beginning of the period and working into it the operations for the year as shown by the statement of profit and loss, and by using the balance sheet at the end of the period as a goal, we can trace the probable interaction of the two types of records for the period.

Jackson L. Gordon
Comparative Balance Sheet
December 31, 1922 and December 31, 1921

Jackson L. Gordon
Statement of Profit and Loss For the Year Ending December 31, 1922

Interrelation Between Sales Income, Accounts Receivable, and Cash. In these two statements, if to the outstanding accounts at the beginning of the period we add the net sales for the period as shown in the profit and loss summary, and if from their sum we deduct the sales discounts allowed customers and the accounts outstanding at the close of the period, as shown by the comparative balance sheet, we arrive at the amount of cash received from customers during the year. This is shown by the following statement:

Interrelation Between Purchases, Accounts Payable, and Cash. The amount of cash paid for merchandise during the year may be arrived at similarly, as indicated by the following statement:

Interrelation between Cash and Other Balance Sheet and Profit and Loss Items. If to the amount of cash on hand at the beginning of the period we add the cash received from customers, as determined above, and that received from interest income, as indicated by the profit and loss statement, we arrive at the total cash available for use during the period.

Cash expenditures have been made for the following purposes:

1. Payments to creditors for merchandise of $287,000 as above.

2. Inward freight and cartage $15,000, as shown by the profit and loss statement.

3. Sales salaries $19,000. (This amount is determined by considering the expense of $20,000, as shown by the profit and loss statement, in conjunction with the unpaid sales salaries, as shown by the comparative balance sheet. Thus, if to the unpaid sales salaries amounting to $1,500 at the beginning of the period, we add the sales salary expense of $20,000 incurred during the period and from their sum we subtract the amount of unpaid salaries, $2,500, at the end of the period, we arrive at the amount of $19,000 spent for salaries during the period.)

4. Advertising $30,000.

5. Sundry selling expense $10,000.

6. Office salaries $10,500.

7. Insurance $3,750. (This amount is also determined by considering the amount of unexpired insurance as shown by the comparative balance sheet in conjunction with the cost of insurance used during the current period, as shown by the profit and loss statement. It will be noted that $250 worth of insurance was in force at the beginning of the period, that $3,000 worth of insurance was used during the period—hence it must have been necessary to buy additional insurance amounting to $2,750 during the period. When we find, however, that there is unexpired insurance at the end of the period amounting to $1,000, it will be seen that there must have been purchased during the period $3,750 worth of insurance.)

8. Sundry office expense $2,000.

9. Interest cost $10,000.

10. Plant and equipment $25,000. (It will be noted from the comparative balance sheet that there has been a net increase of only $7,500 in plant and equipment. While $25,000 was added to the plant and equipment asset during the year, there was a decrease in value due to depreciation, amounting to $17,500, as shown by the profit and loss statement. This depreciation expense is reflected as a decrease in the value of the asset Plant and Equipment and does not therefore decrease the asset Cash.)

11. Notes payable $5,000—the decrease being shown by the comparative balance sheet.

12. Mortgage payable $50,000—also shown on the comparative balance sheet.

If from the total cash available for use there is deducted the cash expended, as indicated above, the difference should indicate the amount of cash on hand at the close of the period. This balance of $10,000, as indicated by the tabulated statement below, is the amount shown by the comparative balance sheet as being on hand.

By a careful study of the interrelations between various items as explained above, the student will see that the interactions between all of the transactions for the year as set forth in the comparative balance sheet and the profit and loss statement, have been indicated and proved. The proof is secured in the tie-up between the figure of cash as shown by the cash statement, and that shown in the comparative balance sheet statement as cash on hand at the end of the period.

Inter-Ratios and Their Uses.—Before leaving the study of the balance sheet and profit and loss statement and their interrelations, it is desirable to explain certain ratios between items found on both statements. These are ratios which are watched very carefully in judging the financial condition of a business. Their significance is apparent.

1. Merchandise Turnover. By merchandise turnover is meant the rate at which the merchandise stock is moved or turned over by sale during the fiscal period. The ratio expressing the rate of turnover is found by dividing the cost of goods sold, as shown in the profit and loss statement, by the average inventory carried for the year. Where there are available only the figures of opening and closing inventory, the amount of the average inventory is taken as one-half of the sum of these two inventories. The rate of turnover varies in different businesses, ranging as high as 15 or 20 in some and as low as 1 or 2 in others. The value of a rapid turnover is apparent. One dollar invested in merchandise where the rate of turnover is 10 is equivalent to $10 invested where the rate is only 1. The more work a dollar does, the greater the profit possibilities.

2. Working Capital Turnover. The amount of sales as indicated by the profit and loss statement, divided by the working capital—the excess of current assets over current liabilities—as determined from the balance sheet, is called the “working capital turnover.” This indicates the rate at which the working capital is used in securing sales. Where the amount of working capital on hand varies markedly at different periods of the year, the average should be used as the basis for estimating the rate of turnover.

3. Accounts Receivable to Sales. The fraction represented by dividing the amount of outstanding accounts at the end of the year by the volume of sales during the year, indicates the portion of sales which has not yet been collected in cash. If this fraction is multiplied by the length of the fiscal period, expressed in months, and the result compared with the normal credit term allowed customers, it will indicate the trend of collections. For example, if the outstanding accounts at the close of the period are $150,000, the sales for the year are $1,200,000, and the normal credit period is 30 days, it will be seen that by the above ratios the $150,000 of outstanding accounts represents on the average the sales for approximately 1½ months

	150,000
	————	× 12 months = 1½ months.
	1,200,000

Since the credit term is only 30 days, the indication is that collections are slow and should be pushed more vigorously. It must be understood that this ratio indicates merely a trend and must be judged in the light of other significant facts in the business.

4. Profits to Net Worth. The net profit for the period divided by the net worth at the beginning of the period is used to indicate the per cent of earnings on the capital invested.

Other Ratios.—For the purpose of watching the progress of business operations, it is customary to develop the following ratios:

• 1. Cost of goods sold to net sales.
• 2. Gross profit to net sales.
• 3. Selling expenses to net sales.
• 4. General administrative expenses to net sales.
• 5. Net financial management expenses to net sales.
• 6. Net profit to net sales.

These ratios, set up each fiscal period and compared with similar ratios for previous periods, indicate very definitely the trend of income and expenses and are useful in the determination of business policies.

CHAPTER VIII
THE ACCOUNT

The Goal of Account-Keeping.—Throughout the preceding chapters constant reference has been made to records or data of the business furnished by the accounting department. Knowing the use made of these data in the compilation of financial and profit and loss summaries, we shall trace the process of gathering that information in exactly reverse order; first, through the ledger, where it is grouped and summarized in accounts and made ready for the preparation of statements; then into the books of original entry, where the information is first sorted and classified for posting to the proper ledger accounts, with a view always to fit it ultimately into the final statements of financial and business condition; and finally, to the business papers arising out of the transactions, which are the basis or first source of all accounting records.

The Ledger and Its Content.—The ledger may be defined as the book of accounts. In it are collected most of the data needed for the final statements showing the financial condition of the business. By means of its account titles, it makes an analytical record of all transactions, according to the information desired, and through the mechanism of the account it groups and summarizes all data affecting each particular account, thus furnishing the proprietor with totals instead of items. In the ledger, therefore, must be kept two main classes of accounts, viz., those used for making up the balance sheet and those used for making up the profit and loss statement. The one group shows assets and liabilities, and the other temporary proprietorship increases and decreases brought about by the receipt of income and the payment of expenses. The ultimate or net proprietorship is determined by the summarization of all temporary accounts in the way shown in preceding chapters.