Transcriber's Note:

Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation in the original document have been preserved.

On [page 10] , Simononetti was changed to Simonetti.

On [page 20] , Attus Naviu was changed to Attus Navius.

On [page 28] , SERVUS was changed to SEVERUS.

On [page 54] , Prætextate was changed to Prætextata.

On [page 104] Cagliastro was changed to Cagliostro.

On [page 126] Æmon and Antigones was changed to Hæmon and Antigone.

RAMBLES IN ROME.

"If you are visiting Rome, you will find in this book a high-class companion and guide. Try it, and see the difference between the mere guide-book produced by the trade to sell, and the chatty, masterly production of a writer of ability and taste."—C. H. Spurgeon.

Rambles in Rome

An Archæological and Historical Guide
TO THE
MUSEUMS, GALLERIES, VILLAS, CHURCHES,
AND ANTIQUITIES OF ROME AND
THE CAMPAGNA.

By
S. RUSSELL FORBES,
Archæological and Historical Lecturer on Roman Antiquities.

Fifth Edition,
Revised and Enlarged; embracing all the Recent
Excavations and Discoveries.

WITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

LONDON: THOMAS NELSON AND SONS.
EDINBURGH; AND NEW YORK.

ROME: S. RUSSELL FORBES, 93 VIA BABUINO.
1887.

RAMBLES IN ROME.

CORRECTIONS, ALTERATIONS, AND DISCOVERIES
TO SEPTEMBER 1889.

[Page 9]. Some of the columns of the Temple of Neptune have been isolated.

[Page 45]. Plan.—A is the Shrine of Janus. B, Inscription to Constantinus II., 357 A.D. C, Pedestal to Statue of Constantine (Eusebius, E. H., ix. 9, "Life of Constantine I.," 40 and 48). D, Inscription to Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius.

[Page 56], sixth line from bottom, for at the same time read in 1503.

[Page 60], sixth line from bottom, for S. Bonaventura read the Ædem Larum.

[Page 72], line 19, for inside read outside.

[Page 76], line 23, for Scipio read Regulus.

[Page 77], sixth line from bottom, for second read third, 299–296.

[Page 103]. The Apollo Theatre is pulled down.

[Page 118], line 21, for Monsignor Macchi read the Maggiordomo; also at page 124, third line from bottom.

[Page 121]. Vatican Galleries.—Second line, for 3rd and 4th objects read—3. S. Giovanni della Salle, founder of the Christian Brothers Schools, by C. Manani, 1888. 4. Jesuits Martyred in Japan, by Peter Gagliardi.

Second Room.—No. 12, read S. Grata of Bergamo, with the head of her lover, S. Alexander of the Theban legion, by Peter Loverini, 1887.

[Page 126]. Hall of Busts.—For 280 read 273, the young Augustus. For 282 read 272, and for 285 read 292.

[Page 127]. Cabinet of Masks.—For 427 read 425. For 428 read 427. After Alcamenes, line 10, read 436, Venus of Cnidos, by Praxiteles. For 436 read 441. Omit 441, Ganymedes, and for 442 read 443.

[Page 129]. Chiaramonti Corridor.—For 635 read 636. Omit 416, Augustus as a Youth. Insert 372a, A Fragment from the Parthenon, by Phidias. Omit 112, Venus of Cnidos. For 484 read 483, Cupid. 639 read Sœmia.

[Page 130]. Braccio Nuovo.—For 92 read 38B. For 96A read 97A. Insert 112, a fine bust of Juno as queen of heaven.

[Page 136]. Torlonia Museum closed to the public.

[Page 140], line 19, for by the new road read Via Luciano Manara.

[Page 147]. Borghese Gallery.—Permission necessary. To be obtained at the palace, on the days the gallery is opened, before 1 P.M.

[Page 160]. Kircherian Museum.—The objects have been arranged in cases on the walls instead of down the centre of the rooms. Third Room.—For at end on left read in front of the window.

[Page 175]. Capitoline Museum.—36. Omit whose bust it now supports; insert a porphyry fragment. 41. For Antoninus Pius read Claudius. 49, 50. After Pius read destroyed in 1665 by Alexander VI.

[Page 179]. Omit 23. Mercury.

[Page 180]. Terra-cotta Room.—Omit a large jar, down to urn.

[Page 181]. Omit the case, line 21, down to Pia.

[Page 183]. Courtyard.—For 2 and 3 read 4 and 6; for 3 and 18 read 5 and 7; for 7 read 9; for 8 and 13 read 18 and 10.

Lower Corridor.—For 3 read 4; for 5 read 8; for 7 read 18; for 8 read 21; for 10 read 23; for 14 read 35; for 15 read 36; for 16 read 37; for 17 read 38; for 18. Porphyry read 39. Original.

No. 3. A votive altar dedicated to the imperial house, on the left side of which is a personification of the Via Appia reclining on a wheel, similar to Trajan's Relief on the Arch of Constantine.

No. 6. Egyptian statuette, with the cartouch of Rameses II., found on Via Nazionale. The base upon which it stands is inscribed to Fabius Cilone, prefect of Rome under Septimius Severus, who had performed the annual sacrifice to Hercules at the Ara Maxima, at the entrance to the Circus Maximus. No. 13 is a companion inscription, a circular vase offered by Catius Sabinus, prefect of Rome, who performed the annual sacrifice at the great altar of Hercules. It was found at the back of S. Maria in Cosmedin.

No. 17. Inscription to Hercules the leader of the Muses by the Consul M. F. Nobilior, 189 B.C., from the temple which stood in the Portico of Philip, now S. Ambrogio.

Nos. 2 and 3 in the courtyard are the two Egyptian lions from the Temple of Isis, which in the sixteenth century were placed at the foot of the ascent to the Capitol, and removed here in 1885.

Nos. 13 and 14. Two columns from the same temple found in 1883.

No. 32. Sphinx in red granite. 33. Vase in basalt, Villa Hadrian. Altar sacred to Isis. On the left side is Harpocrates, the god of silence; on the right, Anubis, the Egyptian Mercury. 34. Sphinx in basalt, with the cartouch of Amasi II., 550 B.C. 44 and 51. Monkey-gods of Pharaoh Nectanebus I., 370 B.C. 49. Crocodile in red granite. With the exception of the vase, all these objects came from the Temple of Isis and Serapis on the Campus Martius, founded, B.C. 100, by Apuleius II., and rebuilt by Domitian (Suetonius, "Dom." v.).

Hall of Mosaics.—On right in entering, inscription to Nerva, by Septimius Severus, A.D. 194, used in 1676 by the city Conservatori to record their privileges.

8. Mosaic Head of an Athlete. 9. The Sea with fish, and a border of foliage and birds, from the Baths of Olympia, Viminal Hill. 10. The Rape of Proserpina (the names of the horses are written in Greek), from a tomb on the Via Portuense. 12. Representation of a Bath, from the Prætorian Camp. 14. Hercules conquered by Love. 18. A veiled woman presenting a statuette to a seated nude figure, probably Mercury: a beautiful work. 24. Personification of the Month of May. 27. An Inundation of the Nile. 28. A Ship entering a Port. In the centre of the room,

ALTAR OF THE LARES.

In the month of August 1888, on the Via Arenula, the new street leading to the new Ponte Garibaldi, at the corner of the Via di S. Bartolomeo dei Vaccinari, the last street on the right which leads up to the reputed House and School of S. Paul, at the depth of twenty-seven feet (which shows how the soil has accumulated here), another of the Lares Compitales of the time of Augustus was discovered. It is a square marble altar with a beautiful cornice, which is, unfortunately, broken. On the front is a relief representing four men at a sacrifice, with bay crowns upon their veiled heads. A bull and a pig are by assistants being led up to sacrifice—the bull to the Genius Cæsarum, and the pig to the Lares. On each side of the altar is the figure of a youth, the titular deities; and at the back a crown.

Above the relief in front is the inscription,—

LARIBVS . AVGVSTIS
CIVS . C. M
MANIVS C. l. iuSTVS
MAG. VICI ANNI . NONI

It was dedicated to the Lares of Augustus by four officials of a street nine years after Augustus had restored the street shrines. That was in 6 B.C. (Dion Cassius, lv. 8); so this altar was erected in A.D. 3.

On the right side under the cornice is inscribed,—

P . CLODIVS . P

and on the left side,—

S . L . L . SALVIVS .

evidently the names of two of the officials.

The altar stands on a travertine base, on which is written,—

maGISTRI . VICI . ÆSCLETI . ANNI . VIIII

which is valuable as giving us the name of the street Vicus Æscletus, Beech Street.

"Nec rigida mollior æsculo."

Horace, Odes, iii. 10.

"Altior ac penitus terræ defigitur arbos,

Æsculus in primis."

Virgil, Georgics, ii. 290.

This is the first mention we have of this street. The victors of the Pythian games were crowned with a chaplet made of beech leaves before the bay (laurel) was used; hence Ovid,—

"Æsculeæ capiebat frondis honorem."

Met. i. 449.

Suetonius ("Augustus," xxx.) says, "He divided the city into regions and streets, ordaining that the annual magistrates should take by lot the charge of the former, and that the latter should be superintended by wardens chosen out of the people of each neighbourhood." Pliny ("N. H.," iii. 9) says, "The city is divided into fourteen regions, with two hundred and sixty-five cross streets under the guardianship of the Lares."

The pedestal of the Apollo, leader of the Muses (No. 516), in the Vatican Museum, is an altar dedicated to the Laribus Augustis, Genius Cæsarum, by four street officials; on the left of which is the Genius of Augustus, similar to the statue, 555, in the Sala Rotonda.

If the Jewish tradition is correct, that the House of S. Paul was at the angle of the Via S. Bartolomeo dei Vaccinari and the Via degli Strengari; and if the Romish Church tradition is true, that he had a school (room shown) at the Church of S. Paola alla Regola, on the Via S. Paola alla Regola, a continuation of the Via S. Bartolomeo dei Vaccinari; then we have at last arrived at the name of the street where the apostle dwelt for two whole years in his own hired house, 62 to 64,—namely, the Vicus Æscletus, probably so called because it led to a grove of beech trees, Æsculus being corrupted into Æscletus.

Pliny (xvi. 15) speaks of this grove: "Q. Hortensius, the dictator, on the secession of the plebeians to the Janiculum (A.U.C. 466), passed a law in the Æsculetum, that what the plebeians had enacted should be binding on every Roman citizen."

Second Room.—The walls are encased with inscriptions. On the left is a fragment of a Roman calendar, found in 1888 near S. Martino di Monti. It represents the 1st to 3rd, 18th to 29th of April, and 1st to 4th of May. On the door is part of a Lex Horreorum of the time of Hadrian. These magazines were situated near Monte Testaccio. On the right of window inscription of Lucius Aquilinus Modestus, master of the guild of timber merchants at Ostia. On the door opposite, inscription dedicated to the imperial house by a college of health found near Monte Testaccio.

Third Room.—In the centre is the pedestal of the statue of Cornelia, the mother of the Gracchi, which Pliny (xxxiv. 14) tells us was erected in the Portico of Octavia, where it was found in 1879. On right of door, fragment of the inscription recording Hadrian burning the bonds in Trajan's Forum in 118; a part of the inscription is in Trajan's Forum. By the window, inscription to Aulus Septicius Alexander, a seller of floral wreaths on the Via Sacra. By the next window, a dedication to Concord by Marcus Artorius Geminus, prefect of the military treasury, from the Temple of Concord in the Forum. Inscription to Nero and Poppæa, wishing them good health, on behalf of the governor of the Balearic Islands, A.D. 60. Fragment of a Fasti, A.D. 220. A fragment of the Maffeiano Calendar. On the next wall, inscription of Lucius Considius Gallus, prætor for the strangers, etc.

[Page 184]. Hall of Inscriptions: First Room.—No. 11. Sarcophagus representing hunting of wild animals. 18. Cippus to Faustina the elder, erected by an official of the treasury, found near the Temple of Saturn in the Forum. 19. Head of Giuba II., King of Numidia. 26. Base dedicated to Hercules Victorious. 28. Sarcophagus of a boar and stag hunt. 30. Sarcophagus, Hunt of the Calydonian Boar, from third room. (See at foot of page 183.)

Near the door, inscription of a monument to Marcus Calpurnius Piso Frugi, B.C. 88, restored by Trajan. Over the door, inscription of the guild of bargemen of Ostia, A.D. 193.

[Page 185], line 2, for 2 read 3; for 6 read 4; for 12, 13 read 15, 17; for 15 read 19.

[Page 186], line 7, for 5 read 20.

[Page 187]. Hall of Emperors.—A fine head of Augustus, found, 1889, on Via Merulana, represents him crowned with a wreath of myrtle in commemoration of the ovation celebrated by him (Pliny, xv. 38).

[Page 192]. Ghetto.—The Via Rua and other streets of the Jews' Quarter have been demolished.

[Page 194]. The new bridge, Ponte Garibaldi, is approached by the new Via Arenula.

[Page 196]. The Spada Palace is closed to the public.

[Page 199]. The Pons Cestius is being rebuilt.

[Page 201]. The Ponte Rotto has been destroyed by the municipality, and a new bridge, Ponte Palatino, has been built alongside the site of the old one.

[Page 208]. The Wall of the Latins.—This is now best seen from the new road, Via di Porta S. Paolo.

[Page 212]. The Cloaca Maxima.—For 530 read 615. The exit is now covered by the new embankment of the Tiber.

[Page 222], line 14, for by entering the stonemason's yard, read in the new excavations.

[Page 248]. Museo Urbino.—Not yet opened to the public.

[Page 254], line 11, for close by read in the Via Urbana.

[Page 255], tenth line from bottom, for we come to where read at the junction of the new Via Cavour, the Via Giovanni Lanza; and

[Page 258], line 21, for Paul read Pius.

NEW NATIONAL MUSEUM—[Page 265].

The Government is forming in the old monastery, amidst the ruins of the Baths of Diocletian, a museum, composed of the objects found on Government property since 1870. It promises to be one of the most interesting collections in Rome. Amongst the objects of primary importance we may mention the Ceres, found in the Stadium of Domitian on the Palatine, 1878. The Apollo Ægioclus from Hadrian's Villa. The bronze Meleager by Lysippus, found in February 1885 amidst the ruins of the Thermæ of Constantine on the Quirinal Hill. The Boxer, also in bronze, found in the same place in April of the same year. This is the most realistic statue preserved from ancient days. The youth Bacchus, in bronze, found in the Tiber, September 1885; probably by Praxiteles, or of his school.

[Page 269]. Ludovisi Museum closed to the public.

[Page 284], last line but 13, for palace read Prætorian Camp.

[Page 299]. Sixth line. At the tenth mile carriages cannot now pass into the Via Appia Nuova. From the eighth to the eleventh mile it is now practicable to walkers only.

NEW ETRUSCAN MUSEUM—[Page 305].

The Government have formed in the Villa of Papa Julio a museum of the objects recently discovered at Civita Castellana, the ancient Etruscan city of Falerii. Our young friends will remember the Schoolmaster and his Pupils. The objects are arranged in cases round the rooms, and are of great interest; but they are considerably mixed as regards their epochs. Three periods are represented—Native, Etruscan, and Greek. Instead of these being arranged in distinct cases, they are mixed up in nearly every case. Some of the vases are fine works of art, whilst all are interesting. The wooden coffins, hollowed out of trees, should be examined; also the skull with the gold band, which formerly supported four false teeth.

[Page 315]. Dr. Forbes's excursion is on Friday.

ROMAN DIRECTORY.

Preface.

The object of our work is to describe in a practical manner the points of interest in and around the Eternal City. One half of our life has been spent in studying Rome on the spot. For our guides we have had the classic authorities and recent excavations; and it has been with us a labour of love to work out from our authors the meaning of the ruins uncovered, and impart the information thus obtained to others.

The excavations of the last few years have thrown an entirely new flood of light upon the existing remains and Roman history, and have proved beyond doubt that there is a great deal more truth in the early history of Rome than has generally been supposed. It has been our privilege to watch the excavations year after year, and elucidate the remains found; and our labours have been rewarded with some not unimportant discoveries. We state nothing without citing classic authority to bear us witness, and the authority so cited agrees in a marvellous way with the ruins discovered. We feel that our efforts have been appreciated by the many hundreds whom we have guided to these classic spots, and we hope our book may be likewise valued by those who cannot come to Rome.

These Rambles will enable the visitor who is making a brief stay in Rome to see the principal objects of interest in a short time.

By following the instructions given much time will be saved, and the Rambler will not have to go over the same ground unnecessarily.

Visitors whose stay is limited to a few days should select the subjects they are most interested in; whilst others, who have "plenty of time," are advised to divide the Rambles according to the time at their disposal.

S. R. F.

Rome, December 1886.

List of Illustrations.

Contents.

FIRST IMPRESSIONS.

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME—THE PLAN OF OUR RAMBLES—HEALTH AND CLIMATE—USEFUL HINTS—THE TIBER—HOW ROME BECAME RUINS—THE WALLS OF ROME—THE GATES—ROMAN CONSTRUCTION[xi-xxvii]

RAMBLE I.

THE CENTRE OF ROME.

PIAZZA DEL POPOLO—THE OBELISK—S. MARIA DEL POPOLO—THE CORSO—S. LORENZO IN LUCINA—POST OFFICE—ENGLISH CHURCH—COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS—MONTE CITORIO—PARLIAMENT HOUSE—OBELISK—TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE—S. MARIA IN VIA LATA—THE SEPTA—THE DORIA GALLERY—TOMBS OF ATTIA CLAUDIA AND BIBULUS—THE MAMERTINE PRISON—THE FORUM OF JULIUS CÆSAR—THE ROMAN FORUM AND ITS RUINS—THE VIA SACRA—TEMPLES OF ROMULUS, VENUS AND ROMA—TEMPLE OF THE PENATES—HOUSE OF JULIUS CÆSAR—BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE—S. FRANCISCA ROMANA—THE PALATINE HILL AND THE PALACE OF THE CÆSARS—ARCH OF TITUS—THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN—THE FORUM OF CUPID—PEDESTAL OF NERO'S COLOSSUS—META SUDANS—ARCH OF CONSTANTINE—THE COLOSSEUM[1–102]

RAMBLE II.

IN TRASTEVERE.

THE BRIDGE AND CASTLE OF S. ANGELO—THE TOMB OF HADRIAN—S. PETER'S—THE SACRISTY—THE CRYPT—THE DOME—THE VATICAN—SCALA REGIA—SISTINE AND PAULINE CHAPELS—STANZE AND LOGGIE OF RAPHAEL—THE PICTURE GALLERY—THE MOSAIC MANUFACTORY—THE MUSEUM OF SCULPTURE—THE INQUISITION—PORTA S. SPIRITO—S. ONOFRIO AND TASSO'S TOMB—MUSEUM TIBERINO—THE CORSINI AND FARNESINA PALACES—PORTA SETTIMIANA—VIA GARIBALDI—S. PIETRO IN MONTORIO—PAULINE FOUNTAIN—VILLA PAMPHILI DORIA—S. CECILIA IN TRASTEVERE—CHURCH OF S. CRISOGONO—STAZIONE VII COHORTI DEI VIGILI—CHURCH OF S. MARIA IN TRASTEVERE—PONTE SISTO—FARNESE AND CANCELLERIA PALACES—STATUE OF PASQUINO—CHIESA NUOVA—CIRCO AGONALE—OBELISK—S. AGNESE—S. MARIA DELLA PACE—S. AGOSTINO[103–145]

RAMBLE III.

BY THE TIBER.

VIA RIPETTA—MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS—THE CAMPUS MARTIUS—THE BORGHESE GALLERY—HILDA'S TOWER—THE PANTHEON—BATHS OF AGRIPPA—S. MARIA SOPRA MINERVA—COLLEGIO ROMANO—KIRCHERIAN AND PRE-HISTORIC MUSEUMS—"THE GESU"—TEMPLE OF HERCULES—THE CAPITOLINE HILL—ARA CŒLI CHURCH—TEMPLES OF JUPITER CAPITOLINUS AND JUPITER FERETRIUS—THE TARPEIAN ROCK—TEMPLES OF CONCORD AND JUNO—THE TABULARIUM—ROME FROM THE TOWER—THE SEVEN HILLS—MUSEUMS AND PICTURE GALLERY OF THE CAPITOL—THEATRE OF MARCELLUS—DECEMVIRAL PRISONS—PORTICO OF OCTAVIA—THE GHETTO—CENCI PALACE—THEATRE OF BALBUS—POMPEY'S THEATRE—CÆSAR'S DEATH—STATUE OF POMPEY—SPADA PALACE—S. PAUL'S HIRED HOUSE—FABRICIAN BRIDGE—ISLAND OF THE TIBER—PONS CESTIUS—TEMPLES OF JUNO, PIETY, AND HOPE—HOUSE OF RIENZI—PONTE ROTTO—HORATIUS'S BRIDGE—TEMPLE OF PATRICIAN CHASTITY—ROUND TEMPLE OF HERCULES—S. MARIA IN COSMEDIN—EMPORIUM—MONS TESTACCIO—PROTESTANT CEMETERY—THE AVENTINE HILL—CHURCHES OF IL PRIORATO, SS. ALEXIUS, SABINA, PRISCA, SABA—THE CIRCUS MAXIMUS—S. ANASTASIA—ARCH OF JANUS (?)—ARCH OF THE SILVERSMITHS AND CATTLE-DEALERS—S. GIORGIO IN VELABRO—CLOACA MAXIMA—S. TEODORO[146–213]

RAMBLE IV.

UNDER THE EASTERN HILLS.

VIA BABUINO—PIAZZA DI SPAGNA—TREVI FOUNTAIN—PIAZZA SS. APOSTOLI—COLONNA GALLERY—FORUM AND COLUMN OF TRAJAN—FORUM OF AUGUSTUS—TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR—ACADEMIA DI S. LUCA—FORUM OF NERVA—ALTAR OF MINERVA—SITE OF THE HOUSE OF POMPEY—TORRE DI CONTI—HOUSE OF LUCREZIA BORGIA—S. PIETRO IN VINCOLI—THE GOLDEN HOUSE OF NERO AND THE BATHS OF HADRIAN—THE BASILICÆ OF S. CLEMENT—TEMPLE OF MITHRAS—EGYPTIAN OBELISK—THE BAPTISTERY—THE LATERAN MUSEUM AND GALLERY—S. JOHN LATERAN—SCALA SANTA—VILLA WOLKONSKY—THE AMPHITHEATRE—S. CROCE IN GERUSALEMME—THE SESSORIUM PALACE—S. STEFANO ROTONDO—NERO'S MEAT-MARKET—S. MARIA DELLA NAVICELLA—ARCH OF DOLABELLA—VILLA CŒLIMONTANA—SS. GIOVANNI AND PAOLO—TEMPLE OF CLAUDIUS—THE VIVARIUM AND SPOLIARIUM—RESERVOIR OF NERO—CHURCH OF S. GREGORIO[214–248]

RAMBLE V.

ON THE HILLS, EAST.

THE PINCIO—THE FRENCH ACADEMY—CHURCH OF TRINITA DEI MONTI—VIA SISTINA—PIAZZA BARBERINI—BARBERINI GALLERY—MONTE CAVALLO—THE QUIRINAL PALACE—THE ROSPIGLIOSI PALACE—COLONNA GARDENS—CAPITOLIUM VETUS—TORRE DELLE MILIZIE—VIA MAGNANAPOLI—S. AGATA—S. LORENZO IN PANE E PERNA—THE HOUSE OF PUDENS, THE BATHS OF NOVATUS, AND THE CHURCH OF S. PUDENZIANA—SCENE OF TULLIA'S IMPIETY—BASILICA OF S. MARIA MAGGIORE—CHURCH OF S. MARTINO—SETTE SALE—THE AUDITORIUM AND GARDENS OF MÆCENAS—ARCH OF GALLIENUS—S. ANTONIO—NYMPHÆUM OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS—TOMBS OF MÆCENAS AND HORACE—BATHS OF GALLIENUS—S. BIBIANA—THE AGGER OF SERVIUS TULLIUS—THE PRÆTORIAN CAMP—TEMPLE OF FORTUNA PRIMIGENIA—PIAZZA DI TERMINI—BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN, AND CHURCH OF S. MARIA DEGLI ANGELI—VIA NAZIONALE—S. PAUL'S WITHIN THE WALLS—FELICE FOUNTAIN—THE NEW MINISTRY OF FINANCE—FLAVIAN TEMPLE—THE UNFAITHFUL VESTAL'S TOMB—SALLUST'S VILLA—VILLA LUDOVISI—CHURCH AND CEMETERY OF THE CAPPUCCINI—TABLE OF EGYPTIAN OBELISKS IN ROME[249–271]

RAMBLE VI.

THE APPIAN WAY.

THE PORTA CAPENA—THE VALLEY OF THE MUSES—BATHS OF CARACALLA—S. BALBINA—SS. NEREO AND ACHILLEO, SISTO, CESAREO—VIA LATINA—S. JOHN'S AND THE LATIN GATE—COLUMBARIA OF HYLAS AND VITALINE—TOMBS OF THE SCIPIOS AND CORNELIUS TACITUS—THE COLUMBARIA OF THE HOUSEHOLD OF CÆSAR—ARCH OF DRUSUS—PORTA APPIA—TOMBS OF GETA AND PRISCILLA—CHURCH OF DOMINE QUO VADIS—TOMB OF ANNIA REGILLA—CATACOMBS OF S. CALIXTUS AND HEBREWS—TEMPLE OF CERES AND FAUSTINA—VILLA OF HERODES ATTICUS—CATACOMBS OF DOMITILLA, SS. NEREUS AND ACHILLEUS—BASILICA OF PETRONILLA—CHURCH AND CATACOMBS OF S. SEBASTIANO—TOMB OF ROMULUS—CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS—TOMB OF CECILIA METELLA—TOMBS, TEMPLES, AND VILLAS ON THE VIA APPIA—THE THREE TAVERNS—APPII FORUM[273–299]

RAMBLES IN THE CAMPAGNA.

Porta del Popolo:—Villa Borghese—Villa di Papa Giulio—Acqua Acetosa—Ponte Molle—Villa of Livia—Veii—Monte Mario—Villas Mellini and Madama. Porta Salara:—Villa Albani—Catacomb of S. Priscilla—Antemnæ—Ponte Salara—The Anio—Fidenæ. Porta Pia:—Porta Nomentana—Villa Torlonia—Church and Catacomb of S. Agnese—S. Costanza—Ponte Nomentana—Mons Sacer—Tomb of Virginia—Basilica and Catacomb of S. Alexander. Porta S. Lorenzo:—The Roman Cemetery—Basilica of S. Lorenzo—Ponte Mammolo—Hannibal's Camp—Castel Arcione—Aquæ Albulæ—Ponte Lucano—Tomb of the Plautii. Tivoli:—Villa D'Este—Temples of Sibyl and Vesta—The Glen and Falls—Pons Vopisci—Villa of Quintilius Varus—The Cascades—Ponte dell'Acquoria—Villa of Mæcenas—Temple of Hercules—Hadrian's Villa. Porta Maggiore:—The Baker's Tomb—The Aqueducts—Tomb of Helena (?)—Gabii—Ponte di Nona—Villa of the Gordian Emperors—Tomb of Quintus Atta. Porta S. Giovanni. First Excursion:—Via Appia Nova—Painted tombs—S. Stephen's—The Aqueducts—Pompey's Tomb—Albano—Ariccia—Genzano—Lake and Village of Nemi—Palazzolo—Lake Albano—Castel Gandolfo—Site of Alba Longa (?)—Vallis Ferentina—Marino—Grotta Ferrata—Cicero's Villa. Second Excursion:—Frascati—Tusculum—Rocca di Papa—Monte Cavo. Porta S. Sebastiano:—Via Appia. (See [page 258].) Porta S. Paolo:—Pyramid of Caius Cestius—S. Paul's outside the walls—Remuria Hill—Tre Fontane—The Viaduct of Ancus Martius. Ostia:—Street of Tombs—Houses—Warehouses—Temples—Docks—Palace—Walls of Ancus Martius—Museum—View from Tower of the Castle—Castel Fusano—Pliny's Villa[302–349]

VISITOR'S ROMAN DIRECTORY.

ARTISTS IN ROME, ENGLISH AND AMERICAN—ARTISTS, NATIVE AND FOREIGN—CARRIAGE TARIFF—GALLERIES, MUSEUMS, AND VILLAS OF ROME—HOTELS RECOMMENDED—PUBLIC LIBRARIES—MASONIC—ORDERS REQUIRED, AND WHERE OBTAINABLE—OMNIBUS ROUTES IN ROME—PROTESTANT CHURCHES IN ROME—POSTAL NOTICES—LIST OF EMPERORS—LIST OF KINGS OF ROME[350–358]

FIRST IMPRESSIONS.

To get a good idea of Rome and its topographical situation, take a carriage and drive for three hours through the principal streets; more can be learned in this way than in any other.

Start from the Piazza di Spagna; drive down the Via Babuino to the Piazza del Popolo, up to the Pincio, for a view of Rome, looking west; then along the Via Sistina, up the Quattro Fontane, to the right, down the Via Quirinale; stop in the square for the view. Proceeding to the Via Nazionale, turn up it to the left as far as the Quattro Fontane; then turn to the right past S. Maria Maggiore direct to the Lateran, from the front of which see the view eastwards; then follow the Via S. Giovanni down to the Colosseum, passing by the most perfect part. By the Via del Colosseo, Tor di Conti, Via Croce Bianca, Arco dei Pantani, Forum of Augustus, and Via Bonella, you reach the Forum, under the Capitoline Hill. Continuing by the Via Consolazione and Piazza Campitelli, follow the line of streets to the Ponte Sisto; crossing this, proceed up the Via Garibaldi to S. Peter in Montorio. Grand view of Rome and the Campagna, looking north, east, and south.

Return to the foot of the hill; turn to the left down the Lungara to S. Peter's; drive round the square; then down the Borgo Nuovo to the Castle of S. Angelo. Crossing the bridge, take the Via Coronari to the Circo Agonale; then on to the Pantheon, and by the Minerva to the Piazza di Venezia; thence up the Corso as far as the Via Condotti, up which street you return to the Piazza di Spagna, after having thus made the most interesting drive in the world.

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME.

Rome commences at a point—Piazza del Popolo—and spreads out southwards like a fan, the western extremity being occupied by the Vatican, and the eastern by the Lateran; both these head-quarters of the Papacy are isolated from the rest of the city. Modern Rome occupies the valley of the Campus Martius, which was outside ancient Rome, and the hills that abut it. Rome is divided into two unequal parts by the river Tiber, which enters the line of the walls, with the Popolo on its left. For a short distance it flows southwards; then it makes a great bend to the west; then again takes a southerly direction; and at the island again turns westerly. One mile south of the Popolo Gate is the Capitoline Hill, the Arx of ancient Rome, dividing, as it were, Old from New Rome. It rises two hundred yards east of the Tiber, and from it in an eastern direction lie the other six hills, curving in a horse-shoe form round the Palatine till the Aventine abuts the river. Of the hills, the Palatine, Capitoline, Cœlian, and Aventine were only isolated mounts, the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline being three spurs jutting out from the high tableland on the east side of Rome. These hills can easily be distinguished from the Tower of the Capitol; but the best way to understand them is to walk round them. Then it will be seen that they are hills indeed; and if we take into consideration that the valleys have been filled in from thirty to forty feet, and that the tops of the hills have been cut down, we may get some idea of their original height. Rome still occupies four of them; but the Aventine, Cœlian, and Palatine are left to ruins, gardens, and monks.

The original Rome was on the Palatine, and as the other hills were added they were fortified; but it was not till the time of Servius Tullius that the seven were united by one system of fortifications into one city. The plan was simple. From the Tiber a wall went to the Capitoline, and from that to the Quirinal; across the necks of the three tongues the great agger was built, then across the valleys from hill to hill till the wall again reached the river under the Aventine. The aggers across the valleys were built right up towards the city, so that the hills on either side protected the walls and gates commanding the approach. Of all the maps of Rome that have been published, the new one accompanying this work is the only one which correctly shows the line of the Servian fortifications.

THE PLAN OF OUR RAMBLES.

From the Piazza del Popolo four great lines of thoroughfare intersect the city, and passing up one of these for a few hundred yards we may count five lines. First we take the centre thoroughfare; then the two lines on its right; then the two upon its left: in this way, by dividing Rome up into five Rambles, pointing out as we go along every place of interest to the right and left, we mark out for a day's work no more than can be thoroughly done. Having thus seen the city, we take the environs outside each gate, commencing at the Porta del Popolo and working round by the east, with the exception of the Porta Appia, which leads out on to the Appian Way. As this Way presents so many points of interest, and as no visitor should think of leaving Rome without "doing it," we have made it a special Ramble for their benefit.

HEALTH AND CLIMATE.

Perhaps the health of no city in the world is so much talked about by people who know nothing whatever of the subject, as Rome. We meet with many visitors entertaining all sorts of curious ideas of the health of Rome—what they may and may not do; and when we ask them their authority they cannot give any, but "they have heard so." There seem to be mysterious ideas and impressions floating about that get lodged in some minds no one knows how. People get ill in Rome, of course, just as in any other place; but more than half the sickness is caused through their own imprudence, such as getting hot and going into cold places, and going "from early morn till dewy eve" without rest and refreshment. In all hot climates certain precautions should be observed, and then there is no fear.

We ourselves have lived many years in this much-abused climate, never knowing any illness, and enjoying far better health than when residing in London. O ye rain, mud, and fog!

The well-known Roman physician, Dr. C. Liberali, M.D., in his "Hygienic Medical Hand-book for Travellers in Italy," says:—"The climate of Rome is in the highest degree salubrious and favourable to all, but especially to delicate persons; but they should follow the advice of a skilful physician of the country."

People rush through Europe at express rate, eat all sorts of things that they are unused to at unusual hours, over-exert themselves, change the whole course of the living to which they have been accustomed, get ill, and then say, "It's the climate of Rome."

There is no doubt that malaria fever does exist in the neighbourhood of Rome, but only during the three hot months; and as there are no visitors at Rome then, they are not likely to get it. It does not walk about the streets seeking whom it may devour, as some people suppose.

The fever visitors get is ague fever, like that known in the Fen districts, and this is invariably taken through imprudence.

USEFUL HINTS.

Avoid bad odours.

Do not ride in an open carriage at night.

Take lunch in the middle of the day. This is essential. It is better to take a light breakfast and lunch, than a heavy breakfast and no lunch.

No city in the world is so well supplied with good drinking water as Rome. The best is the Trevi water. Do not drink Aqua Marcia; it is too cold.

If out about sunset, throw an extra wrap or coat on, to avoid the sudden change in the atmosphere. There is no danger beyond being apt to take a cold. Colds are the root of all evil at Rome.

Do not sit about the ruins at night. It may be very romantic, but it is very unwise. There is no harm in walking.

Close your windows at night.

If you get into a heat, do not go into the shade or into a building till you have cooled down.

Do not over-fatigue yourself.

Follow these hints, and you will avoid that great bugbear, Roman fever.

"A hint on the spot is worth a cart-load of recollections."—Gray.

THE TIBER.

The work of clearing the bed of the Tiber has at last commenced. It is proposed to clear away the accumulation of the mud at different parts, remove some of the old masonry that stands in the bed of the river, and widen it at certain points. We very much doubt if this will have any effect upon the floods, as during the republic and empire, when there was not all this accumulation, Rome was flooded several times. The valley of the Tiber, in which Rome stands, is very low, forming, as it were, a basin which is easily overflowed. It would be advisable if the authorities were to clean out the old drains, and put swing trap-doors over their mouths, so that the drainage might flow out, and the river prevented from flowing in. Every winter some part of the city is under water, which is caused by the river rushing up the drains into the city, and not by the overflow of the Tiber. This inpouring might easily be stopped.

Some people think that treasures will be found in the bed of the Tiber, but this is a delusion. Nothing of any value has ever been found in the river, and it is not likely that anything of value was thrown there. Small objects only have been found in the recent dredging. The story of the seven-branched candlestick being thrown into the river is a delusion, for we have direct evidence to the contrary. (See [p. 89].)

The piers of the bridges show that the actual bed of the river has not been much raised; indeed the stream flows so fast that everything is carried down to the sea.

Punch says anticipations may be entertained of finding the footstool of Tullia, the jewels of Cornelia, the ivory-headed sceptre of the senator Papirius, and the golden manger of the horse of Caligula.

The length of the Tiber is 250 miles. It rises due east of Florence, in the same hills as the Arno. Its bed at the Ripetta in Rome is 5.20 metres above the sea, and it discharges at the rate of 280 cubic metres a second. The fall from Rome to the sea is 4.20 metres, or about thirteen feet, and it flows about five miles an hour.

"'Behold the Tiber!' the vain Roman cried,

Viewing the ample Tay from Baiglie's side;

But where's the Scot that would the vaunt repay,

And hail the puny Tiber for the Tay?"

Sir Walter Scott.

The river was originally called the Albula, from its colour, and it was named Tiberis, from King Tiberinus of Alba Longa, who was drowned in it, and became the river-god (Dionysius, i. 71).

The ancient Romans looked upon their river with veneration; their poets sang its praises, its banks were lined with the villas of the wealthy, and its waters brought the produce of the world to Rome.

HOW ROME BECAME RUINS.

"The Goth, the Christian, time, war, flood, and fire,

Have dealt upon the seven-hilled city's pride."

Rome was founded in the year 753 B.C., and it gradually increased, as we all know, till it became the capital of the world. By a summary of dates we will endeavour to give an idea of the manner in which Rome became ruins.

In July 390 B.C. it was devastated by fire. Up to 120 B.C. it was subject to numerous raids by the Northerners, who, with the help of civil war, and a devouring fire in 50 B.C., caused the destruction of several of its most splendid buildings. In 64 A.D., during the reign of Nero, a terrible fire ravaged the city for six days; and again in 89 A.D. another fire took place, lasting three days. In the reign of Commodus a third fire occurred, which consumed a large portion of the city. In 330 A.D. Constantine took from Rome a number of monuments and works of art to embellish Constantinople. From 408 to 410 A.D. Rome was three times besieged by the Goths, under Alaric, who plundered and fired the city; and in 455 A.D. the Vandals took possession of Rome and plundered it. On June the 11th, 472 A.D., the city was captured by the Germans, under Ricimer, and in 476 A.D. the Roman Empire was broken up.

About 590 A.D. continual wars with the Lombardians devastated the Campagna. In 607 A.D. the Bishop of Rome was made Pope. In 755 A.D. the Lombards again desolated Rome; and up to 950 A.D. it was held successively by the Emperor Louis II., Lambert Duke of Spoleto, the Saracens, the German king Armilph, and the Hungarians. In 1083 it was taken by Henry IV. of Germany; and in 1084 it was burned, from the Lateran to the Capitol, by Robert Guiscard. From the eleventh to the sixteenth century many of its buildings were turned into fortresses by the nobles, who made continual war upon each other; and during the "dark ages" the Romans themselves destroyed many monuments, in order to make lime for building their new palaces and houses.

Thus we see that when, in 55 B.C., Julius Cæsar, with his "Veni, vidi, vici," conquered the little island now called Great Britain, Rome contained in ruins many evidences of past splendour, and whilst the Romans were overrunning the rest of Europe, their empire was hastening to decay. We, the savages of those days, have ever since been growing in strength and wisdom, laying the foundations of future empires, overturning others, but not with the idea of "universal conquest," but simply for a "balance of power." Ancient Rome, by the help of invaders, flood, fire, the Popes, and its inhabitants, was reduced to ruins, which have been in considerable part preserved by an immense accumulation of soil, which, again, caused them to be forgotten till recent explorations once more brought them to light.

Modern Rome stands thirty feet above the level of Ancient Rome, and is a strange mixture of narrow streets, open squares, churches, fountains, ruins, new palaces, and dirt. Built during the seventeenth century, the city is situated in a valley which formed part of the ancient city, and lies to the north of it, being divided from it by the Capitoline Hill, and offering to the visitor attractions which no other city can boast. The germ of the old Roman race which civilized the world is still alive, and is quickly rising to a new life—lifting itself, after twenty centuries of burial, from the tomb of ignorance and oppression. Here is the centre of art and of the world's past recollections; here is spoken in its purity the most beautiful of languages; here are a fine climate and a fine country; and here are being strengthened the power and the splendour of united Italy.

THE WALLS OF ROME.

FIRST WALL—ROMA QUADRATA.

The city of Romulus, upon the Palatine Hill, was called from its shape Roma Quadrata. It occupied the half of what we know as the Palatine, and was surrounded by a wall built up from the base of the hill, and on the top of the scarped cliff: this wall can be still traced in part. It was formed of large blocks of tufa, hard stone, and must not be confounded with the remains of the Arcadian period, on the Palatine, composed of soft tufa.

"Romulus called the people to a place appointed, and described a quadrangular figure about the hill, tracing with a plough, drawn by a bull and a cow yoked together, one continued furrow" (Dionysius, i. 88).

"He began to mark out the limits of his city from the Forum Boarium, so as to comprise within its limits the Great Altar of Hercules. The wall was built with Etruscan rites, being marked out by a furrow, made by a plough drawn by a cow and a bull, the clods being carefully thrown inwards, the plough being lifted over the profane places necessary for the gates" (Tacitus, xii. 24).

When the Sabines were approaching to attack the Romans, in revenge for carrying off their women, Romulus strengthened the wall of Roma Quadrata, and the Capitoline Hill was occupied as an outpost.

"He raised the wall of the Palatine Hill by building higher works upon it, as a farther security to the inhabitants, and surrounded the adjacent hills—the Aventine, and that now called the Capitoline Hill—with ditches and strong palisades" (Dionysius, ii. 37).

"The city was difficult of access, having a strong garrison on the hill where the Capitol now stands" (Plutarch, "Romulus," 18).

This hill was taken by treachery, and was not previously occupied by the Sabines. It was called the Hill of Saturn, but after its capture the Tarpeian Hill.

"While the Sabines were passing at the foot of the Capitoline Hill, to view the place, and see whether any part of the hill could be taken by surprise or force, they were observed from the eminence by a virgin"—"Tarpeia, in execution of her promise, opened the gate agreed upon to the enemy, and calling up the garrison, desired they would save themselves"—"After the retreat of the garrison, the Sabines, finding the gates open and the place deserted, possessed themselves of it" (Dionysius, ii. 38, 39).

After peace was agreed upon, the two kings, Romulus and Titus Tatius, reigned jointly, and surrounded the Palatine and Capitoline Hills with a wall. The other hills, at this period, were not walled.

SECOND WALL—THE WALL OF THE KINGS.

We give it this title because it was built by the two kings jointly; considerable portions still remain on the Palatine, under S. Anastasia, and near the Forum of Augustus. The walls of Romulus and Tatius would naturally be of similar construction to the original wall of Romulus; there was but little difference in this short time.

"Romulus and Tatius immediately enlarged the city.... Romulus chose the Palatine and Cœlian Hills, and Tatius the Capitoline, which he had at first possessed himself of, and the Quirinal Hills" (Dionysius, ii. 50).

Numa erected the Temple of Vesta "between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills; for both these hills had already been encompassed with one wall; the Forum, in which this temple was built, lying between them" (Dionysius, ii. 66).

The other hills were inhabited, and surrounded at different times with walls, forming fortresses outside the city for the defence of the city proper.

Numa "enlarged the circuit of the city by the addition of the Quirinal Hill, for till that time it was not enclosed with a wall" (Dionysius, ii. 62).

Ancus Martius "made no small addition to the city by enclosing Mount Aventine within its walls, and encompassing it with a wall and a ditch. He also surrounded Mount Janiculum with a wall" (Dionysius, iii. 44).

Florus says: "He [Ancus Martius] encompassed the city with a wall." Again: "What kind of a king was the architect Ancus? how fitted to extend the city by means of a colony [Ostia], to unite it by a bridge [the Sublicius], and secure it by a wall?"

"The Quiritian trench also—no inconsiderable defence to those parts, which from their situation are of easy access—is a work of King Ancus" (Livy, i. 33).

THIRD WALL—AGGERS OF SERVIUS TULLIUS.

These seem to have been commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and completed by Servius Tullius, and so called by his name.

"He [Tarquinius Priscus] was the first who built the walls of the city [of which the structure was extemporary and mean] with stones, regularly squared, each being a ton weight" (Dionysius, iii. 68).

Tarquinius (616 B.C.) "intended also to have surrounded the city with a stone wall, but a war with the Sabines interrupted his designs" (Livy, i. 36).

"He set about surrounding with a wall of stone those parts of the city which he had not already fortified, which work had been interrupted at the beginning by a war with the Sabines" (Livy, i. 38).

"He [Servius] surrounded the city with a rampart, trenches, and a wall, and thus extended the Pomœrium," 578 B.C. (Livy, i. 44).

"As the Esquiline and Viminal Hills were both of easy access from without, a deep trench was dug outside them, and the earth thrown up on the inside, thus forming a terrace of six stadia in length along the inner side of the trench. This terrace Servius faced with a wall, flanked with towers, extending from the Colline to the Esquiline gate. Midway along the terrace is a third gate, named after the Viminal Hill" (Strabo, v. 3).

"Tullius had surrounded the seven hills with one wall" (Dionysius, iv. 14).

The seven hills were not surrounded, strictly speaking. Each hill formed a bastion, and aggers, or curtains of earth faced with stone, were built across the valleys, uniting these bastions. The Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal, being ridges jutting out of the table-land and not isolated hills, had one long agger built across their necks.

"Some parts of these walls, standing on hills, and being fortified by nature itself with steep rocks, required but few men to defend them, and others were defended by the Tiber.... The weakest part of the city is from the gate called Esquilina to that named Collina, which interval is rendered strong by art; for there is a ditch sunk before it, one hundred feet in breadth where it is narrowest, and thirty in depth. On the edge of this ditch stands a wall, supported on the inside with so high and broad a rampart that it can neither be shaken by battering-rams nor thrown down by undermining the foundations. This rampart is about seven stadia in length and fifty feet in breadth" (Dionysius, ix. 68).

This grand agger can be traced almost in its entire extent, as also the smaller aggers. There seems to have been no wall—that is, stone or earth fortification—between the Aventine and Capitoline, the Tiber being considered a sufficient defence.

"The city, having no walls in that part next the river, was very near being taken by storm" (Dionysius, v. 23) when Lars Porsena advanced to attack the city, after having taken the Janiculum, intending to cross the river by the only bridge, which, as we know, was defended by Horatius Cocles, and broken down by the Romans in his rear.

The walls of Servius Tullius were strengthened at the time of the war with Gabii.

"Tarquinius Superbus was particularly active in taking these precautions, and employed a great number of workmen in strengthening those parts of the city walls that lay next to the town of Gabii, by widening the ditch, raising the walls, and increasing the number of the towers" (Dionysius, iv. 54).

"On the eastern side it is bounded by the Agger of Tarquinius Superbus, a work of surpassing grandeur; for he raised it so high as to be on a level with the walls on the side on which the city lay most exposed to attack from the neighbouring plains. On all the other sides it has been fortified either with lofty walls or steep or precipitous hills; but so it is that its buildings, increasing and extending beyond all bounds, have now united many other cities to it" (Pliny, iii. 9).

"After Camillus had driven out the Gauls, both the walls of the city and the streets were rebuilt within a year" (Plutarch, "Cam." 32).

"The legions being brought to Rome, the remainder of the year was spent in repairing the walls and the towers," 350 B.C. (Livy, vii. 20).

"They received a charge from the senate to strengthen the walls and towers of the city," 217 B.C. (Livy, xxii. 8).

After the republic was firmly established, and the boundaries of the state enlarged, the walls of the city became obsolete, and it was to all intents and purposes an open city until the time of Aurelian.

"All the inhabited parts around it [the city], which are many and large, are open, and without walls, and very much exposed to the invasion of an enemy. And whoever considers these buildings, and desires to examine the extent of Rome, will necessarily be misled, for want of a certain boundary that might distinguish the spot to which the city extends, and where it ends. So connected are the buildings within the walls to those without, that they appear to a spectator like a city of an immense extent" (Dionysius, iv. 13).

FOURTH WALL—THE WALL OF AURELIAN.

From the time of Servius to Aurelian the city, though much enlarged, had no new wall, though the boundaries had been extended. To continue our last quotation from Dionysius, who died 7 B.C., this is evident.

"But if any one is desirous to measure the circumference of it by the wall—which, though hard to be discovered, by reason of the buildings that surround it in many places, yet preserves in several parts of it some traces of the ancient structure—and to compare it with the circumference of the city of Athens, the circuit of Rome will not appear much greater than that of the other" (Dionysius, iv. 13).

The Pomœrium, or city bounds, was enlarged, as we know, by several emperors, some of their cippi, or boundary-stones, being still in situ; but there was no wall. Where the roads crossed the line of the Pomœrium, gates were built, between which there were no walls. The Romans considered the rivers Tigris, Euphrates, and Danube, the desert and the ocean, as the walls of Rome.

"When he [Aurelian] saw that it might happen what had occurred under Gallienus, having obtained the concurrence of the senate, he extended the walls of the city of Rome" (Vopiscus, in "Aur.," 21).

"Thus also Rome was surrounded by walls which it had not before, and the wall begun by Aurelian was finished by Probus" (Zosimus, i. 49).

Other quotations might be given to show that Aurelian surrounded the Rome of the empire with walls which it had not before his time. He incorporated with his wall everything that stood in his way,—tombs, aqueducts, palaces, camps, and amphitheatre. It was commenced and finished in nine years, and had twenty-two gates, nineteen of which still remain.

These present walls have been in part rebuilt, repaired, and strengthened at different intervals, as occasion might require, from the time of Honorius, who improved and added to the existing gates, to that of Totila, who "resolved to raze Rome to the ground. So, of the circuit of the walls he threw down as much in different places as would amount to about a third part of the whole" (Procopius, "Bello Gothico," iii. 22).

Belisarius "made hasty repairs," after which the Popes stepped in and took up the tale, and put up inscriptions, so that there should be no mistake about it. Leo IV. built the walls of the Leonine city, to protect it from the Saracens, besides repairing the Aurelian walls. The Leonine walls can still be traced, the ruins standing boldly out in the landscape at the back of the Vatican.

The present wall on the Trastevere side was built by Innocent X. and Urban VIII. The complete circuit of the present walls is between twelve and thirteen miles; they contain twenty gates, ancient and modern, nine of which are closed.

Whilst the Romans considered the defences of the city to be the Tigris, Euphrates, Danube, desert, and ocean, their power was at its zenith; but when for the defence of their capital it was necessary to surround it with a wall, "the decline and fall of the Roman empire" had already begun.

THE GATES.

In the third wall of Rome we learn from different authorities that there were in all eighteen gates, commencing from the northern point at the river bank,—Flumentana, Carmentalis or Scelerata, Catularia (afterwards Ratumena), Fontinalis, Sangualis, Salularis or Salutaris, Collina or Agonalis or Quirinalis, Viminalis, Esquilina, Mæcia or Metia, Querquetulana, Cœlimontana, Firentina, Capena, Lavernalis, Randuscula, Nævia, Trigeminia. The sites of most of these have been identified. These names are culled from various authors, no one author having given us a list of them.

Pliny gives us an account of the number of the gates in his time—thirty-seven in all—which has puzzled a great many writers; but, studying them on the spot, the description of Pliny is very plain and easily to be understood. He says (iii. 9):—

"When the Vespasians were emperors and censors, in the year from its building 827, the circumference of the Mœnia 'boundary' reckoned thirteen miles and two fifths. Surrounding as it does the seven hills, the city is divided into fourteen districts, with two hundred and sixty-five cross-roads, under the guardianship of the Lares. The space is such that if a line is drawn from the mile column placed at the head of the Forum to each of the gates, which are at present thirty-seven in number, so that by that way enumerating only once twelve gates, and to omit the seven old ones, which no longer exist, the result will be a straight line of twenty miles and seven hundred and sixty-five paces. But if we draw a straight line from the same mile column to the very last of the houses, including therein the Prætorian encampment, and follow throughout the line of all the streets, the result will then be something more than seventy miles."

The gates may thus be analyzed:—

Of the twelve gates in the outer boundary, eight still remaining are composed of work of an earlier date than the Wall of Aurelian. The twelve may thus be named: the four gates of the Prætorian camp (two of these partially remain, showing brick-work of Tiberius), Porta Chiusa or Viminalis, Tiburtina, Esquilina now Maggiore, Lateranensis, Latina, Appia, Ardeatina, Ostiensis.

Pliny (iii. 9) tells us that Tarquinius Superbus raised an outer agger on the eastern side of Rome. Traces of this still remain, and the tufa stones have been reused in Aurelian's work, whilst the Porta Chiusa is partly formed on the inside of these blocks, and was probably the work of the last of the Tarquins. The Porta S. Lorenzo, or Tiburtina, bears inscriptions of Augustus and Vespasian; Porta Maggiore, of Claudius, Vespasian, and Titus; whilst Porta Lateranensis and Porta Ardeatina were undoubtedly built, as the construction shows, by Nero; and the inner arch of the Porta S. Paolo, or Ostiensis, is of the time of Claudius.

Tacitus (xii. 23) says: "The limits of the city were enlarged by Claudius. The right of directing that business was, by ancient usage, vested in all such as extended the boundaries of the empire. The right, however, had not been exercised by any of the Roman commanders (Sylla and Augustus excepted), though remote and powerful nations had been subdued by their victorious arms."

"With regard to the enlargement made by Claudius, the curious may be easily satisfied, as the public records contain an exact description" (xii. 24).

ROMAN CONSTRUCTION.

When we speak of construction, we mean the material used in building and the way it is put together. The different historical periods of building are now classed into distinct dates, which have been arrived at by observing the material used, and the way it is used, in buildings of which there is no doubt as to the date of erection, and comparing it with others. The early Greek Period in Italy is marked by massive walls of masonry—walls built from the stone of the vicinity, the blocks being rough as hewn out of the quarry,—polygonal. The later Greek Period and the Etruscan are identical, being formed of square blocks of stone, headers, and stretchers. In the time of the kings of Rome the stones were squared, and were of tufa, lapis ruber, tophus. In the earliest walls they are close jointed; in the second period the edges are bevelled.

During the Republic the stones were also squared, but the material was of peperino. Lapis Albanus and other forms of working up the material were introduced. Pieces of stone, fixed together with cement, gave a new kind of wall called opus incertum. This was improved upon by facing the outside of the small pieces of stone and making them of one uniform size—small polygonal. Then the stones were cut into wedge shapes: the point being inwards, and being laid in regular rows it has the appearance of network, and is called opus reticulatum. This work, introduced in the last years of the Republic, went out of fashion after the time of Tiberius, but was revived by Hadrian, who always set his reticulated work in bands of brick like a picture frame, thus distinguishing his from the earlier work, the inside of the walls in those cases being concrete. The earliest brick building which we have is the Pantheon. Thus it was under Augustus that brick was first used by the Romans. It was his boast that he found Rome of brick, and left it marble; which is only true in a certain sense, for he did not build of solid marble, but cased veneering marble on to the brickwork.

One period of Roman brickwork can easily be distinguished from the others by measuring the number of bricks in a foot, and noticing their uniformity of size. This, of course, does not refer to ornamental brickwork. The brickwork of Nero is the best in the world—thin narrow bricks, tiles, with very little mortar between them. Before his time it was not quite so good; but after, it gradually declined till the cement is as thick as the bricks.

The stone used during the Empire was travertine, lapis Tiburtinus, but brick was the material generally used then. They are of two colours, red and yellow, according to the clay from which they were made. The walls were not of solid brick all through; but the interior was made of pieces—rubble-work—the outside course being entire brick, whilst at every four or five feet all through the construction were laid the great tie-bricks to keep the rubble-work from shifting. The brickwork was called opus lateritium. The great tie-bricks are usually stamped with the names of the consul or emperor and the maker, and these date the walls by measuring the number of bricks there are in a foot. In the fourth century another system—opera decadence—came into vogue, and walls were built with layers of brick and pieces of tufa-stone a little larger than our English bricks. This work continued down to the thirteenth century, when opera Saracenesca—tufa-stones without the bricks between—came into use. In the stone walls no cement was used; one stone was simply placed upon another, its weight keeping it in its place, and clamps were inserted to keep it from shifting. In the walls of Roma Quadrata we know of no clamps having been found; but in the wall of the two kings wooden clamps were found. In the walls of Servius Tullius iron clamps were found; and in the Colosseum clamps can still be seen in several places where pieces of the facing of the stone have been split off.

Tufa is found all over the Campagna, and is of volcanic origin. When the Alban Hills were active volcanoes, the ashes and scoriæ thrown up fell into the sea, now the Campagna. The pressure of water on it formed it into stone: where there has been a great pressure, it is very hard; where little pressure, it is softer; and where there was no pressure, it still remains a sort of sand—this mixed with live lime is the celebrated Roman cement. The softer tufa was used by the Greek colonists, and the hard stone by the kings of Rome. Some tufa from the neighbourhood of Gabii is dark gray, the other is brown and reddish. Peperino is also volcanic. It was ejected in the shape of hot mud from the volcano, and on cooling formed a good stone: this comes from the Alban hills, and was used in the time of the Republic.

Travertine comes from Tivoli, and is a petrifaction formed by the action of lime and sulphur on vegetable decay. This was not used as a building material to any great extent before the time of Cæsar. It is white, and becomes yellow on exposure. Silex is another volcanic stone very little used for building, but entirely for paving the roads both ancient and modern. This came out of the volcano as a red-hot stream of lava, and on cooling down became a capital paving material. The bed of the road was first properly prepared, and then it was paved with polygonal blocks of blue basalt called silex. The stones fitted close to one another. Many of the roads are in a good condition to this day; the best specimen is opposite the Temple of Saturn in the Forum, B.C. 175. This stone is used for opus reticulatum in some of the tombs on the Appian Way and at the Temple of Hercules; also for concrete.

TABLE OF CONSTRUCTION.

PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME
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RAMBLES IN ROME

RAMBLE I.

PIAZZA DEL POPOLO—THE OBELISK—S. MARIA DEL POPOLO—THE CORSO—S. LORENZO IN LUCINA—POST OFFICE—ENGLISH CHURCH—COLUMN OF MARCUS AURELIUS—MONTE CITORIO—PARLIAMENT HOUSE—OBELISK—TEMPLE OF NEPTUNE—S. MARIA IN VIA LATA—THE SEPTA—THE DORIA GALLERY—TOMBS OF ATTIA CLAUDIA AND BIBULUS—THE MAMERTINE PRISON—THE FORUM OF JULIUS CÆSAR—THE ROMAN FORUM AND ITS RUINS—THE VIA SACRA—TEMPLES OF ROMULUS, VENUS AND ROMA—TEMPLE OF THE PENATES—HOUSE OF JULIUS CÆSAR—BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE—S. FRANCISCA ROMANA—THE PALATINE HILL AND THE PALACE OF THE CÆSARS—ARCH OF TITUS—THE TEMPLE OF THE SUN—THE FORUM OF CUPID—PEDESTAL OF NERO'S COLOSSUS—META SUDANS—ARCH OF CONSTANTINE—THE COLOSSEUM.

THE CENTRE OF ROME.

PIAZZA DEL POPOLO.
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THE PIAZZA DEL POPOLO

is a circular open space, adorned with fountains, and surrounded with foliage. From this circle Rome spreads itself out like a fan southwards. The four principal lines of thoroughfare diverge from this spot—the Pincio, the Via Sistina, and the Via Quattro Fontane, leading to the Esquiline, on the extreme left, along the hills; the Via Babuino, leading into the Piazza di Spagna, on the left; the Corso, leading into the Forum, in the centre; and the Via Ripetta, leading into the oldest part of the present city, on the right: at the corners of the three latter are the twin churches S. Maria in Monte Santo, and S. Maria dei Miracoli, with domes and vestibules designed by Rinaldi, and completed by Bernini and Fontana. In the centre of the Piazza is an Egyptian obelisk, supported by a fountain with four lionesses at the corners spouting water. On the right, under the Terraces of the Pincio, are the statue of Rome by Ceccarini, of Neptune between two Tritons, and statues of Spring and Summer, by Laboureur. On the left are the statues of Autumn, by Stocchi, and Winter, by Baini.

THE EGYPTIAN OBELISK

of the Piazza del Popolo was brought to Rome by Augustus, and erected in the Circus Maximus. It is 78 feet 6 inches high, and was erected on its present site by Pope Sixtus V. in 1589. This was the first obelisk erected in Rome, having been brought by Augustus after the death of Antony and Cleopatra. Pliny (xxxvi. 16) says:—

"But the most difficult enterprise of all was the carriage of these obelisks by sea to Rome, in vessels which excited the greatest admiration. Indeed, the late Emperor Augustus consecrated the one which brought over the first obelisk, as a lasting memorial of this marvellous undertaking, in the docks at Puteoli; but it was destroyed by fire.

"And then, besides, there was the necessity of constructing other vessels to carry these obelisks up the Tiber; by which it became practically ascertained that the depth of water in that river is not less than that of the river Nile.

"The one that he erected in the Campus Martius is nine feet less in height, and was originally made by order of Sesothis. They are both of them covered with inscriptions which interpret the operations of Nature according to the philosophy of the Egyptians."