Cover created by Transcriber, using an illustration from the original book, and placed in the Public Domain.

ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY

There are some who
follow the arts from poverty
and necessity, also for gain,
and for love of the art; but
those who pursue them from
love of the art and true
nobleness of mind are to
be commended above all
others.—Cennino Cennini.

Sidney Farnsworth
1920

ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY

BY
SIDNEY FARNSWORTH

Illustrated with Drawings
and Diagrams by the Author

NEW YORK

GEORGE H. DORAN COMPANY

Printed in Great Britain

PREFACE

This book is the outcome of a series of articles which appeared in Drawing and Design. At the suggestion of the Editor of this periodical, the whole of the chapters originally published have been entirely rewritten and considerably enlarged; at the same time a large amount of quite new matter has been added.

The additions that have been made include a chapter on the development of writing in the past, together with a number of alphabets based on historical examples. I have also added a brief sketch of the history of Illumination, as I felt that the book would not be complete without some reference to this side of the subject. Some attention has been given to the colours and gilding methods of the mediæval artists, and it is hoped that the notes given may be of interest to the student. Extensions have also been made in connection with the use of colours and materials by the student to-day.

Chapters on the further development of illumination, the illumination of the printed book, and printed book decoration, are also amongst the additions. The chapters on the application of lettering and decoration from the commercial standpoint have also been developed considerably, and at the end of the book some notes have been added on books for further study.

I have tried to write in as simple a manner as possible, so that the youngest student should have no difficulty in understanding the instructions that are given.

So many books have been written on the subject of Illumination that it may seem quite superfluous to add yet another to the long list. Still, I think that a work treating the matter from the present-day standpoint ought to be of some service to the student who is desirous of practising this art to-day.

I have felt for some time past that there was a need for a work that would deal with the various ways in which this art could be applied in a time like the present. I have found that most of the books that have been written on Illumination treat the subject either from the standpoint of the archæologist or merely from that of the amateur. It is simply the result of a sincere desire to supply what I feel to be a real need that this book has been written, and in the hope that it may serve as a handbook and guide for the serious worker.

It has not been written with the idea of introducing a quick and easy method of becoming expert in the art of illumination. Success, in this, as in anything else of importance, can come only through hard work.

I have endeavoured to foster interest and enthusiasm, so that the student may not look upon the hard work entailed with this subject merely as a certain amount of drudgery to be got through. To one who is keenly interested in any particular study hard work often becomes a pleasure, and it is only when such is the case that the full benefit is derived from such study.

Illumination has a value in the present day as well as it had in the past. The developments of this art are seen in many of the common-place things of to-day. In some cases the development has been carried so far as to lose almost its identity with the original craft from which it has sprung, but the connection is there all the same.

The art of the book began with the illuminated manuscript, the early printed books being based entirely on the manuscripts that preceded them; and the same thing may be said with regard to the application of decoration to printed lettering generally.

The practice of illumination in the present day should result in something more than weak imitations of illuminated borders which were produced in the mediæval period. Illumination ought to be a real living art to-day.

There are numerous ways in which it could be used as a craft at the present time, quite apart from the many ways in which it could be applied commercially.

With regard to the study of lettering, there is a great need for more serious attention to be given to it. We are so surrounded by bad lettering that it is well that an effort should be made to get better results, and, as a means to this, some study of the beautiful forms of lettering used in the past should be of the greatest service. For this reason I have tried, by giving some examples, to direct the student’s attention to at least some of the fine styles of lettering that were employed in centuries gone by.

It is a great pity that the splendid book-hands of the past should have fallen into disuse, to say nothing of the beautiful decoration that accompanied the writing. It would, undoubtedly, be a good thing if some further encouragement were given to serious study of the well-formed lettering that was produced during the mediæval period.

I trust that this small work may, in some slight measure, be the means of fostering increased interest in lettering and illumination. I am deeply conscious of its many imperfections, and I only hope that, in spite of its many faults, it may be of some use to the reader who is interested in this art. If the study of it is the means of creating greater zeal and energy in the production of good work in this direction, I shall feel that my efforts have not altogether been in vain.

Sidney Farnsworth.

The Island,
Little Waltham,
Near Chelmsford.

INTRODUCTION

“In all great arts, as in trees, it is the height that charms us; we care nothing for the roots or trunks; yet they could not exist without the aid of these.” This quotation from Cicero may as well be applied to the art of illumination as to anything else. The fact, however, that the tree cannot exist without the aid of the trunk and roots, shows how important these are; and no one who intends giving serious attention to the tree in its entirety can afford to neglect these.

It is only through careful study of the art of illumination that it is possible to understand fully the construction that enters into the growth of this art. When some knowledge has been gained of the manner in which this work has been done in the past, through practical experience, it is then that a real appreciation is felt for the choice work of the mediæval period.

“Perfect illumination,” says Ruskin, in one of his Lectures on Art, “is only writing made lovely;... But to make writing itself beautiful—to make the sweep of the pen lovely—is the true art of illumination.” Certainly it is only when the student is able to produce writing that is attractive in itself, that it is permissible to add decoration to it. The decoration should be the natural outgrowth from the writing.

A page of well-formed lettering makes good pattern, and is not merely pattern, as it serves also the purpose for which it was intended, viz., to be read.

It is when he has gained the mastery of the pen, in making well-formed letters with good arrangement on the page, that the student may consider that he has well started on the road to the production of good illumination.

For the construction of well-finished lettering it is essential that a mastery of the tool and materials employed should be acquired. It is when the pen becomes almost a part of the writer, so that he is able to concentrate all his energy on the writing, giving scarcely any attention to the pen itself, that he may claim to be proficient in the use of the pen.

If there is one thing more than another that one feels when examining some of the best illuminated work of the past, it is that the writer was a master of the pen as a letter-making tool. He did his work well; his books were transcribed in a workmanlike manner, and the decoration which followed seems to come quite naturally from the writing itself.

It is for this reason that so much attention has been given to the use of the quill and reed pen in the formation of good writing.

Students are frequently at a disadvantage from inability to handle the pen properly. To help, in some measure, to remedy this, the student is shown how to make sharply-defined strokes before attempting to form letters. At the same time no particular manner of holding the pen has been insisted upon.

In the Introduction to his “Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful,” Burke says: “I am convinced that the method of teaching which approaches most nearly to the method of investigation is incomparably the best; since, not content with serving up a few barren and lifeless truths, it leads to the stock on which they grew; it tends to set the reader himself in the track of invention, and to direct him into those paths in which the author has made his own discoveries, if he should be so happy as to have made any that are valuable.”

This has been the ideal that the present writer has tried to keep ever before him in writing the instructions that are given in the succeeding pages. His aim has been to direct the student in the right way, and then to encourage him to study the subject for himself. Whether he has been successful in this endeavour must be left for the reader to judge.

The study of calligraphy, in connection with illumination, ought to be helpful in making the ordinary handwriting more legible. Before the age of printing, the book-hand developed alongside of the ordinary cursive handwriting, and possibly the fact that the book-hand has been lost may be advanced as a reason why most of the handwriting to-day is so degenerate. A careful study of some of the fine models of book-hands of the past cannot but be beneficial. It will certainly enable the student to appreciate beautiful forms of lettering, and its influence should soon be apparent in the lettering in general use. This should result in better sign-writing, better lettering in our magazines and papers, in short, better lettering all round.

Undoubtedly it would be a good thing if the children in our schools could be taught to form some of the fine book-hands of the past with the quill pen. It is certainly, to a great extent, due to the lack of a practical knowledge of some of the splendid forms of lettering used in the past, that the general lettering in use at the present time is so bad. It ought not to be at all impracticable for this suggestion to be carried out.

After the student is able to make well-formed letters with the quill and reed pen, and arrange them well, the use of decoration and the further development of illumination should follow naturally.

There is undoubtedly a place for illumination to-day, and even in connection with the illuminated manuscript book, which should certainly possess the first place amongst the work of the modern illuminator. There is not the slightest suggestion there that the illuminated manuscript should usurp the place of the printed book, but there is no reason why it should not be in use at the same time. One of the great charms that a fine manuscript possesses is its uniqueness, not being one of many, as in the case of the printed book. Then again, some things, as, for example, Poetry and Romance, are rendered in a much more sympathetic fashion in the illuminated manuscript than in the printed book.

There are many ways in which the art of illumination might be applied to-day, as well as in the usual illuminated testimonial. Several suggestions are given in the following pages for different ways in which it may be employed.

In the decoration of the printed book the services of the artist who is well-trained in the use of good lettering and book-decoration should be of value to the printer. Although there is no need for the printer to endeavour to imitate the work of the illuminator, there ought, certainly, to be room for a well-developed style of decoration that could be used with a good form of type.

A few centuries ago, before printing was used for the production of books, illumination as a part of calligraphy was an important craft. Books were not only beautifully written but they were also richly decorated with gold and colours. The writing of long manuscripts was very slow work, compared with the increased speed of production afforded by the printing press; but, notwithstanding this, it appears to have been important that the writing should be rendered more beautiful by the enrichment of decoration. Unfortunately, although methods of book-production are now so speedy, most of the lettering is of the barest and crudest kind. Book-decoration seems to be, in most cases, confined to illustration, and even this does not often form an altogether inseparable part of the book.

With regard to the various developments on the purely commercial side, the study of pen- and brush-formed lettering cannot but be of the greatest service to the commercial artist who requires lettering for posters, labels, book-covers, and the many things that require lettering.

In fact, lettering enters so largely into decorative design that the study of some of the fine forms of lettering is of paramount importance to any artist who desires that the lettering that he uses should be of good construction. So many drawings have been spoiled through the introduction of weak and badly formed lettering that the need for training the student to produce lettering that is well-finished and of good form should be obvious to everyone.

Without doubt one of the great things in lettering is to allow the tool to have its way. Pen-formed lettering should be of a form easily constructed with the pen, and should not pretend to be a brush-formed lettering, and vice versâ.

It is for this reason that in the first chapter so much attention has been given in noting the influence that the tools and materials employed have had on the shaping of the letters.

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ILLUMINATION
AND ITS DEVELOPMENT
IN THE PRESENT DAY

CHAPTER I
THE INFLUENCE OF THE TOOL

Calligraphy and Illumination are inseparably bound up with each other. The art of Illumination cannot be severed from that of Writing. One cannot imagine the decoration apart from the writing. Undoubtedly this sprang from a desire to beautify the writing. Man sought to make his manuscripts beautiful, and the result was a form of illumination, at first very primitive, but gradually developing into the beautiful art that we are so familiar with in the choice manuscripts of the middle ages.

When commencing the study of the art of illumination it is extremely important that it should be approached from the proper standpoint. It is to be feared that this has not always been the case. The lure of the bright gold and colours has often led both teacher and taught astray, and the proper use of the pen in writing has been almost entirely neglected.

Instead of allowing the tool to have its own way, it has been forced to form laborious shapes that are not suited to its construction at all. The decoration, it is to be feared, has been looked upon as a sort of spice to be added as a finishing touch, instead of being a vital growth springing naturally from the writing. Until it be viewed from this standpoint, no real progress can be made. If a building is to be soundly constructed, the first thing to see to is that the foundations are well laid. The same principle applies in this case. The decoration, if it is to be living and real, must have a starting-point for growth. The student should see that this is a sure foundation and not a tottering, shaky structure. Well-formed writing should be the first consideration.

Ordinary hand-writing is a development of the kind of writing used by the old calligraphers. Generally speaking, the connection between the two is not recognised. Probably if this were so calligraphy of the present day would be much better than it generally is. The fact that it is generally referred to as “printing” shows how the connection has been lost. Drawing is thought to be more akin to it than hand-writing. It is no uncommon sight to see a student carefully drawing the shapes of the letters and then filling them in with a fine mapping pen. If the individuality of the pen as a letter-making tool were recognised this kind of thing would not occur.

It may be interesting to consider briefly some of the early influences at work in the production of writing.

BABYLONIAN CHARACTERS.

Showing the influence of the tool on the shapes of the Characters.

Fig. 1.

In [Fig. 1] some examples of early Babylonian characters are shown. In these early days the common writing material was clay. The characters used in writing were rough pictures of different objects which were drawn in outline. Thus the sign for “king” was a rude drawing of a man crowned; this was scratched on the surface of the soft clay with a pointed tool. One can quite understand how these characters could be constructed with a series of impressions in much less time than it would take to draw them in outline. Then again it must have been much easier to draw on the soft clay in this way. A square-pointed stylus was used for this purpose, and, with the wedge-shaped impressions thus produced, the characters could be formed quite easily. Not only was the scribe able to write with greater speed, but the way in which the characters were produced was more methodical. The character for “king,” when made with the wedge-shaped impressions, was constructed as shown in (b). One can easily recognise the same form placed horizontally, instead of vertically, as was originally the case. In course of time the characters became somewhat simplified. The next step in the development of the character is shown in (c). The final form is shown in (d), this being very much simplified. In like manner the signs represented in (e) and (h) were used to denote “star” and “sun” respectively. The development of these is seen in (f) and (g), also in (i) and (j). The reason for calling attention to these characters is to show how the shapes are influenced by the tool and the material employed. This is a most important factor in the formation of letters.

Where soft clay was used as a material, and the characters were formed by making impressions with a stylus, one would naturally expect that these signs would take the form of a series of indentations rather than flowing lines as from a brush or pen.

In the case of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, shown in [Fig. 2], a difference is at once noticed. These characters were at first small pictures carved on stone. The hieratic characters were simple interpretations of these formed with a reed pen. It is quite obvious, to all who care to observe, how easily these characters could be formed, especially when they are compared with the earlier signs. In this case the influence is quite different from that of the Babylonian characters. Instead of a series of impressions, one notices long flowing strokes characteristic of the pen. It is interesting to note how the essential quality of the more elaborate character is obtained with simple pen-strokes. Although the hieroglyphic is often quite complex there is still a likeness retained in the hieratic form.

EGYPTIAN HIEROGLYPHICS.

Showing the development into the Hieratic or pen-formed Characters.

Fig. 2.

The reed pen used by the Egyptian scribes was the forerunner of the modern pen. It was formed from the hollow stalk of grasses that grew in marshy districts. Sometimes pens were made from hollow canes and bamboos. This kind of pen is still used in the East.

The material used for writing upon was known as papyrus. This was made from the pith of a species of reed, the Cyperus Papyrus of Linnæus. This was, in early days, cultivated in the Delta of Egypt. It was used for several different purposes, one of the most important being for writing-material. This was prepared by cutting it into strips and placing these side by side, with another set placed across them at right angles. The two layers were stuck together and the whole pressed and dried, and the surface smoothed to make a sheet of writing-material.

It is a most difficult matter to state when the quill pen was first used. Probably the earliest allusion to it occurs in the writings of St Isidore, Archbishop of Seville, who lived in the early part of the seventh century. The following is the quotation in question:

“Instrumenta scribæ calamus et penna; ex his enim verba paginis infiguntur; sed calamus arboris est, penna avis, cujus acumen dividitur in duo.”

(“The tools of the writer are a reed and a quill; for by these words on pages are impressed; the reed is of wood, the quill from a bird, and its point is divided into two.”)

But of course it is extremely probable that quill pens were in use at a much earlier period than this. It is well known that metal pens were used by the Romans, as a number of these, made of bronze, are in existence at the present time.

For general writing purposes tablets coated with wax were used by the Greeks and Romans. A stylus with one end pointed and the other flattened was used to write with, the writing being done with the sharp point and erasures made with the flattened end.

Egyptian Hieratic Writing.

Ivory Stilus.
Silver Stilus, bound with gold wire.
Ancient Roman Bronze Pen.
Ancient Reed Pen.

The skins of animals have been used as a writing material since quite an early period, and the use of vellum was probably an improvement upon this. Pliny, in his “Natural History,” tells the story, on the authority of Varro, of how Eumenes II., King of Pergamus from 197 to 159 B.C., was desirous of extending the library in his capital, but the Ptolemies, being jealous, stopped the export of papyrus, thinking by this means to prevent the royal library from growing. Owing to the lack of papyrus, skins were employed and, necessity being the mother of invention, the manufacture of vellum came about. Whether any real importance can be attached to this story or not, it is certain that Pergamus was a great centre for the manufacture of vellum. In fact, the word “parchment” is derived from charta Pergamena, i.e., “paper from Pergamum.”

It is easy to see how this ideal writing-material, with the quill pen, must have had a great influence upon the formation of letters. Generally speaking, the writing on parchment or vellum is crisper and more sharply defined than that on the papyrus.

There is not the slightest doubt that the influence of the tool and the writing-material had a great deal to do with forming the shapes of the letters. Good lettering was seldom or never consciously designed, but was the result of certain influences at work.

In the development of lettering in the past, the pen, as a letter-making tool, has played a most prominent part. A reed or quill pen cut with a broad nib, so as to give crisp thick and thin strokes, is an ideal tool for the formation of letters, but one thing is necessary: the pen must be allowed to have its own way. The letters should not be designed first and copied with the pen afterwards. If the lettering is to be pen-formed, let it be formed with the pen; it should come straight from the pen.

The capabilities of the pen as a letter-making tool should be carefully studied. The reed or quill pen should be used, and one of the best ways to become intimate with the pen is to cut it to shape for oneself. One is thus able to understand the possibilities of this tool as a means for the formation of letters, in a much more intimate manner than if a ready-made tool is placed in the hand. The first thing to endeavour to grasp is how to cut and use the pen. After this has been mastered, the next step should be the formation of letters. This is followed by forming letters into words. Then comes writing and designing with masses of writing. Not until the student is thoroughly familiar with the use of lettering should he attempt to add any decoration to it. A fine piece of writing in black, or black and red, on vellum or fine hand-made paper is a piece of decoration by itself, but a bad piece of lettering cannot be made beautiful, however much ornament be added afterwards. The first step towards the study of illumination proper comes then, and attention should be given to the place of the initial letter and the part it has played in the past as a starting-point for the decoration in the MSS. of the mediæval period. At first a good deal can be done with the use of black and red only, or black, red, and blue. Then come simple decoration with gold and colours; the use of raised burnished gold; the application of illumination for commercial purposes; and the illuminated MS. book.

CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF WRITING IN THE PAST

Before describing the method of cutting and using the pen, it may possibly be instructive to survey briefly the development of writing through the centuries.

The alphabet, as we know it, has been traced right back to that used by the Phœnicians. In fact, until a comparatively short time ago, it was thought by some that it could be traced back to the Egyptian hieroglyphics, but in the light of recent discoveries this theory is no longer tenable. The origin of our alphabet is therefore still a matter for research, although there seems to be no doubt concerning its descent from the Phœnician alphabet.

The Roman alphabet seems to be a direct descendant from this, and it is from the Roman alphabet that the lettering that is in use to-day has been derived.

Roman writing was divided into two distinct classes: the formal book-hand, and the cursive hand which was the common hand-writing of the people.

MAJUSCULE WRITING

The book-hand first took the form of majuscules, which in turn were divided into Square Capitals, Rustic Capitals, and Uncials. After this came the modified forms of Uncials caused by the admixture of minuscules.

Cadmus gives the Greeks an Alphabet.

(Tradition relates that letters were first introduced into Greece by a Phœnician named Cadmus.)

By way of explanation it may be here mentioned that, in both Greek and Latin palæography, capital letters are termed “majuscules,” while small letters are known as “minuscules.”

SQUARE CAPITALS

Probably the earliest Latin majuscule writing is that known as square capitals. These seem to be modelled on the same type of letter that was used for the fine inscriptions. Although the general opinion is that these are the earliest form, there is very little square capital writing in existence. The earliest specimen known has been attributed to the end of the fourth century, although it is thought that this form of writing had been in use some centuries before this. It was in use until the fourth or fifth century. There is not the slightest doubt that writing, when these letters were used, must have been comparatively slow work.

RUSTIC CAPITALS

Rustic capitals seem to be an attempt to write the letters by means of simple pen-strokes. Writing with this type of letter must have been much quicker than when the square capitals were used. This style of writing has been used in the earliest Latin MSS. now in existence, but, although this is the case, the general opinion seems to be that the square capitals were used first. The title “Rustic” is somewhat misleading, as it might lead one to suppose that these letters are rough in character, when they are generally written quite as carefully as the square capitals.

UNCIALS

Roman Square Capitals.
Rustic Capitals.
Uncials.
Half-Uncials.
Irish Half-Uncials.
English Half-Uncials.

Fig. 3.

The next stage is the use of the majuscules known as “Uncials.” These are true pen-formed letters. They seem to be based on the square capitals, but, in place of so many angles, curves are employed, these being much more adapted to the use of the pen. It is a round hand, and a very beautiful form of writing. The simplicity of the characters with their flowing curves is such that they may be easily formed with a sharply-cut reed or quill. The letters, A, D, E, H, M, and U, are the principal letters that show the characteristics of this form of writing. It seems to have been in common use as a book-hand in the fourth century. It is, however, thought by some that it is quite possible that it may have been in use as early as the third century, as in the oldest specimens that are known the lettering appears to be fully developed. One of the special distinctions of this kind of writing is the way some of the vertical strokes rise above, or fall below, the line of writing. From the fifth to the eighth centuries it was given the premier place as a literary hand. The early uncials, as also were the square capitals and rustic capitals, were written with a pen cut with a slanted point.

MIXED UNCIAL AND MINUSCULE WRITING

It must be remembered that all the time these majuscules, both capitals and uncials, represent only one side of the handwriting employed, viz., that used for the production of books. The ordinary handwriting of the people, known as “cursive” writing, was in extensive use at the same time. Very often this form of writing got mixed up with the other, and the result was a mixed style. For example, in some of the early majuscule MSS., notes have been found written in this style. This gradually came to be used as a book-hand, until soon very few of the early uncial forms were left.

HALF-UNCIALS

To this form of writing in its full development the title of “Half-Uncial” has been given. It was employed as far back as the fifth century for writing MSS. It may have been used because it could be written more quickly than the ordinary uncial; anyway, it seems to have been very extensively used as a literary hand. This style is very important, as it marks the beginning of the change from majuscule to minuscule writing. These characters were generally formed with a straight-cut pen.

IRISH HALF-UNCIALS

Writing in the British Isles was greatly different from that used on the Continent. On the Continent the hand was developed from the Roman cursive writing, while in England and Ireland the Roman Half-Uncial was the starting-point of development.

There is not the slightest doubt but that the rise of Christianity in the British Isles had a great deal to do with the development of the book-hand. It is a well-known fact that the Christian missionaries from Rome brought with them a number of MSS. which may have served as models for the native scribes. These were probably written in Roman half-uncials, which would account for the manner in which the Irish handwriting developed. Evidently no MSS. written in pure uncials came to Ireland; anyway, there seems to be no reason to suppose that such was the case, as no MS. of this type has been found that may be claimed to be purely Irish without any shadow of doubt.

Early Irish writing is in two forms, round and pointed. The round hand is distinctly half-uncial. Although it is most difficult to state the earliest date of the Irish MSS., the general opinion is that they date back at least as far as the seventh century. The famous Book of Kells is a well-known example of Irish half-uncials. The pointed writing was developed in the eighth and ninth centuries. This is probably a development of the round hand, and in course of time became the Irish national hand.

ENGLISH HALF-UNCIALS

In England there were two distinct schools of writing, one of which came from Ireland and the other brought over by the Roman missionaries. Very little is known of the writing brought over by the foreign missionaries, as only a small amount is known to be in existence. There is evidence, however, that some of the Roman rustic capitals were made use of.

The English half-uncials were modelled on the Irish half-uncials. The writing in the Durham Book, now in the British Museum, affords a good example of this kind of writing. It is interesting to compare this writing with that of the Book of Kells; there is a great similarity. Both are carefully written with the straight-cut pen. The English half-uncials also developed in the eighth and ninth centuries into a pointed hand. Capitals which were used for initials, etc., are simply variations of the majuscules.

MINUSCULE WRITING

As mentioned before, the Roman cursive was the basis of the writing on the Continent. Three great national hands were formed, viz., Lombardic, Visigothic, and Merovingian.

LOMBARDIC WRITING

Fig. 4.

This was the national handwriting of Italy; it was used from the eighth to the eleventh centuries. The term “Lombardic” is given as a general term to the writing of Italy in the early middle ages. In [Fig. 4] some free renderings are given of this hand. The first (a) is an example in one of its earliest stages, written cursively in the early part of the ninth century. The next, shown in (b) is the book-hand a little later. The third example (c) is a later development of the eleventh century, known as “broken Lombardic.” It may be noted that in all these the slanted-cut pen has been used.

VISIGOTHIC WRITING

The title “Visigothic” has been given to the national handwriting of Spain. Derived also from the Roman cursive, it developed into a book-hand that was used in the eighth century. It was in use until the twelfth century. The first example (d) is a half-cursive book-hand of the seventh or eighth century. The next (e) a book-hand of the early tenth century. The last example (f) is the last stage, being of the twelfth century. All these are written with the slanted-cut pen.

MEROVINGIAN WRITING

This is the name given to the writing practised in the Frankish empire. This form of writing leads on to the great reform in the time of Charlemagne. Starting, as was the case in the other two schools, from the Roman cursive, it developed into a set book-hand which is noticeable in several MSS. of the seventh and eighth centuries. An early specimen is shown in (g). Several different types of writing were used within the limits of the Frankish empire, some of which bear a strong resemblance to the Lombardic style. In fact, so similar are they that it is rather difficult to distinguish one from the other. The example (h) is one of this type, being of the late seventh century. As uncial and half-uncial characters were still used for a good number of MSS. it is but natural that these should influence the style of writing. The specimen given in (i) is an example showing the influence of the half-uncial, and is a step towards the full development of the Caroline minuscule.

CARLOVINGIAN WRITING

The great revival of learning during the reign of Charlemagne resulted in the development of a new school of writing known as Caroline, or Carlovingian. Towards the end of the eighth century the decree calling for the revision of the Church books naturally became the cause of fresh activity in the writing schools connected with the monasteries. At Tours the book-hand was developed which is known as the Caroline Minuscule. An example is given of this hand. This form of writing spread rapidly all over the Frankish empire and gradually influenced the book-hands employed in the neighbouring countries. The use of the slanted-cut pen is an important thing in connection with the formation of these minuscules.

LATER STYLES

The tenth century example given is from the Benedictional of Æthelwold, Bishop of Winchester from A.D. 963–984. This lettering is of the foreign type, but it has a strongly defined native character all its own, some of the letters being distinctly Saxon in type.

From the twelfth century onwards a great number of MSS. were produced, each country having its own particular style and developing on certain definite lines. It is impossible to give specimens of all the different kinds of Calligraphy. The examples shown must be taken as roughly indicating the general style of the writing. The use of the slanted-cut pen tended towards the compression of the letters, thus forming a strong contrast to the letters produced in the earlier periods with the straight-cut pen.

In the thirteenth century writing became considerably smaller. In the latter part of this century a very large number of Bibles appear to have been written, and volumes were smaller, standing out in strong contrast to the ponderous tomes of the preceding century. In the fourteenth century the writing became considerably stiffer and more angular. This tendency showed itself still more strongly in the fifteenth century.

In Italy this tendency did not make itself felt quite as early as in the writings of Northern Europe. Although later on they became more or less affected in this way, there is a decided difference between Italian writing and the styles employed by the other countries.

In the fifteenth century the Italian scribes appear to have gone back to their early periods for models for book-hands, and it is this that influenced the early printers of Italy to use type of this character, which has its modern representative in the Roman type of to-day.

CHAPTER III
THE PREPARATION AND USE OF THE PEN

To obtain a practical knowledge of the use of the pen as a letter-making tool is, as stated before, the first important thing for the student to acquire. All the practice he can get in cutting it to shape, and using it in the manner described here, will be found to be of the greatest service in helping him to produce good lettering with it later on.

For large writing, the best tool is undoubtedly the reed pen. In fact, this is probably the best pen for the beginner to experiment with first. It is somewhat difficult to obtain a good reed pen. The ordinary kind that is sold by the artists’ colourmen is rather too soft and soon becomes sodden with the ink. Crisp writing is then impossible. A pen made from a piece of hollow cane or bamboo seems to answer best of all.

A sharp knife is required for cutting, and a thin piece of metal to form a spring to hold the ink is a great advantage. It should be quite easy to see from [Fig. 5] how the pen should be cut. The great thing to remember is to see that the pen is cut with a nice chisel point, as this ensures crisp and sharp writing. Another important detail is the slit in the nib. This should be just the right length for easy writing. If it is too long it makes the pen too soft, while, on the other hand, if too short it is difficult to write with it. The student will find that experiment alone will teach him what is right in this matter. An hour or two spent experimenting for himself with a reed or quill will teach him far more than pages of instruction. Beyond just giving a few hints, there is no need to devote much space to directions as to how to cut the pen. The few details given are just to act as a guide to the student.

THE PEN

Fig. 5.

In cutting the nib, care should be taken that the slit is a clean cut, also that the points are equally proportioned on each side. The spring is best made from a piece of thin brass, copper, or pure tin. If, ordinary tinned iron is used it is liable to get rusty besides being generally too thick. It will be found that a great deal depends on the position in which this is placed, with regard to the flow of ink from the pen.

When using the reed pen for large writing it will be found necessary to pare the curved inside of the pen quite flat at the point, to ensure a firm stroke, as otherwise a hollow stroke will be the result.

For smaller writing the best pen is the turkey quill. The goose quill is not quite firm enough, but a good turkey quill can be cut either for quite tiny writing or large bold writing. It is best to strip the feather part right away, as there is no advantage in having it on the pen. This can easily be torn off by pulling the end of the feather downwards.

For practice any good smooth-surfaced paper may be used. Several of the well-known makers of high-class hand-made drawing papers make a special paper for writing and illumination.

A good fluid waterproof drawing ink should be used. Care should be taken to procure one that will not thicken either in the bottle or in the pen. It is a great fault with some inks that, although they do not seem to thicken very much in the bottle, they do so in the pen. When this is the case, good writing is almost impossible. One cannot produce good writing if one has to stop every little while to wash out one’s pen. Besides, when the ink is beginning to thicken, clear, sharp writing becomes impossible.

[Fig. 6] gives some simple exercises with the pen. It should be quite easy to understand the formation of the pen-strokes from this diagram. They should be practised over and over again until the strokes can be made very easily. It should be noticed that the pen is kept practically at the same angle all the time. It must be held as easily as possible. There is no need to acquire any special manner of holding it. Different people hold the pen in different ways and it is best for the student to find out which way is easiest for him to hold it to produce good writing. If the pen is held in a manner which may be correct according to a copy-book but which feels awkward and cramped for the writer, the writing produced in this way is bound to show evidences of this. If, however, the pen is held freely, and easily, it becomes almost a part of the writer himself, and there is a feeling of freedom about the writing that is entirely absent from that produced by the other method.

Fig. 6.

The strokes in the diagram were made with a turkey quill pen in exactly the same manner as described here. One of the most important things is to endeavour to keep the pen practically at the same angle all the time. If the pen is allowed to twist about in the hand, the distinction between the thick and thin strokes will not be sufficiently marked. It should be quite easy for the student to acquire this mastery of the pen without holding it in a vice-like grip.

For clear, sharp writing it is practically essential that there should be no ink on the back of the nib. A small piece of linen, free from fluff, should be kept for a pen-wiper, and the back of the pen should be wiped before commencing to write. The ink should be kept free from pieces of fluff or small hairs, as if these get into the pen it is impossible to produce good writing.

The exercise should be practised first with two ruled lines, then with one only. It is good training if, after this, the student will try his skill in writing without any lines at all. He should not sketch it in lightly first in pencil, but should start straight away with the pen.

The width of the nib should be approximately the same as the thickness of the thick strokes of the writing.

When the nib becomes blunt or uneven it should be carefully re-cut. When re-cutting the pen it is advisable not to cut it in too drastic a fashion. Cut it gradually, taking very little off at first and using only a very sharp knife. One of the best knives for this purpose is a surgeon’s scalpel, as, being made of hard surgical steel, it does not get blunt so quickly as the ordinary pen-knife.

In the next chapter it is intended to begin to practise the formation of letters. Before studying it the student should practise cutting the pen and forming the strokes in [Fig. 6]. He should endeavour to make a sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes, and also strive after perfect regularity. The more he practises this exercise the better will he be able to form the letters in the succeeding ones.

The student is advised thoroughly to master one stage before proceeding with the next. One that has been mastered is of more value than several hurried over in a careless fashion.

CHAPTER IV
THE FORMATION OF LETTERS

Having become somewhat acquainted with the use of the pen, the next step to be taken is the formation of letters, on the same principle as the strokes were made in the last chapter.

[Fig. 7] shows an alphabet of capital letters and also one of small letters. Each letter is formed with simple pen-strokes, and the student should experience no difficulty in forming these after practising the previous exercise.

Perhaps it would not be amiss to give a few suggestions as to working. In the first place he should set about his task in a workmanlike manner. It is practically useless practising on a few odd scraps of paper, in a slipshod way, without making any special preparations. This method of working is responsible for a good deal of slovenly work and cannot be too severely censured. The old proverb, “If a thing is worth doing it is worth doing well,” is perfectly true in this case.

PEN-FORMED LETTERS.

Fig. 7.

The student should obtain a drawing-board and fasten his paper down carefully before commencing to work. It will be found that a pad made of several sheets of blotting-paper placed under the writing-paper will make the writing easier. This makes a much more sympathetic surface to write upon than the hard drawing-board. Then the slope should be considered. It is not advisable to work with the board flat on the table. It should be raised to form a convenient slope. In the old illustrations that we have representing the mediæval illuminator at work, he is always depicted as writing at a sloping desk. By far the most suitable for writing is a firm water-colour easel which can be inclined to any angle. If, however, this is not to hand, a drawing can be raised on a table to the required angle by resting one end of the board on a small box.

Another point is the lighting. It is best to arrange this so that the light comes over the left shoulder, otherwise the shadow of the hand falls on the work.

Rule lightly, with a black-lead pencil, some lines to work upon. First rule two lines for each row of letters. For the capitals these should be about ¾ in. apart, and for the lower-case letters 3/8 in. should be sufficient.

The pen should be cut so as to give a fairly bold stroke, to prevent forming a thin, weak-looking letter. Great care should be taken to ensure that the writing be crisp and sharp. See that the back of the nib is free from ink, and be careful to keep the pen at practically the same angle. The habit of turning the pen about in the hand while writing is responsible for a lot of clumsy work. The beginner generally fails to turn the ends of his strokes smartly, thus failing to distinguish between the thick and thin strokes. This is caused by not keeping the pen at the same angle. The least possible pressure should be put on the nib. Let the pen have its own way; do not force it at all. Some prefer to dip the pen into the ink, wiping the back of the nib on a small linen pen-wiper. Others use a small brush or quill for dropping the ink into the pen. Some dealers put their ink into bottles provided with quill stoppers for this purpose. Whichever way be used, care should be taken not to fill the pen too full, as if this is done there is every probability that a blot may be caused by ink dropping from it.

[Fig. 8] shows exactly how the various strokes are formed. The different strokes that go to make up the capital A are carefully shown in the proper order and exactly how they can be made. Most of the letters in the alphabet are also shown with the pen-strokes necessary for their production. They are numbered so that the student should have no difficulty in understanding exactly how to form them, the first stroke being numbered 1, the second 2, and so on. It will be found that the letters that are not shown in this manner are made up of strokes that are shown plainly in some other letter.

Fig. 8.

After practising the formation of these letters between two lines, the student should use one line only. In fact, after he begins to get familiar with this method of forming letters he should discard altogether the use of the second line, as he should be able to write just as easily on one line only. Some students seem to be afraid that they will not be able to keep the writing the same size unless they use two lines. It is strange that in ordinary hand-writing they would never think it necessary to rule two lines to keep their writing the same size. The use of two lines is necessary to the beginner until he has become familiar with the pen, but there is no necessity to keep using these, for they only hamper him and give him less freedom in working.

One of the difficulties that beginners generally experience, in attempting to form letters with the pen in this way, is that they are unable to get good firm curves and strong upright strokes. The cause of this is nothing more or less than simply lack of practice. If the student has any trouble in this way he should practise the earlier exercise again and again. Weak-looking curves and tottering strokes will soon become few and far between as he gains confidence in himself. If he gives his whole attention to forming the strokes, the facility to produce well-formed letters will soon be acquired.

Another cause of bad writing is often due to the pen. If this is not cut so that it will give crisp strokes good lettering is impossible. The student should not waste time trying to write with a badly-cut pen; it is much better to re-cut it straight away.

After practising forming the letters this size, he should reduce them. The pen should be cut with a smaller point to suit the size of the letters, and lines should be ruled closer together. He should endeavour to get the same crispness and sharp distinction between the thick and thin strokes as in the larger writing. He should not rest satisfied until he is able to produce clear sharp writing on single lines. He should strive to keep the strokes of the letters quite upright, not leaning to the right or to the left. If he has practised the earlier exercise thoroughly he should experience no difficulty in this matter.

The next chapter will deal with massing letters together to form words and sentences. It is, however, as well to emphasise the fact that the formation of the individual letters should be mastered thoroughly first.

CHAPTER V
FORMING WORDS AND SENTENCES

One of the best ways to get familiar with spacing and forming letters into words is to write out a short quotation.

In [Fig. 9] one is given for the student to transcribe. A sheet of smooth-surfaced paper should be fastened to a board with drawing-pins, placing the pad of blotting-paper underneath. The page should then be ruled out with the lines 3/16 inch apart, with the exception of the first lines, which are 3/8 inch apart. Rule the lines as lightly as possible, with an HB. pencil, so that they are just visible, and can be removed by the gentlest possible touch of the rubber.

It should be noticed that the width of the paragraph is determined by the first word, “Imagination.” The way that the individual letters are carefully packed together, side by side, is an important factor. It is hardly worth while cutting a special wide pen for writing the initial I. This can be easily formed by making two strokes closely together. This practice should not be adhered to as a general rule for this type of letter, as some letters present a patched appearance when constructed in this manner. Letters should be composed either of simple pen-strokes or else built up. Never attempt to worry a letter into existence. Later on a method of building up letters will be shown. They are, however, a different type from those shown here.

Fig. 9.

This exercise should first be written between two ruled lines to each row of lettering. Then write it out using one line only. Then reduce the size, cutting a pen with a smaller point, but keeping to the same proportion in spacing. In copying this do not draw the lettering first in pencil, but go straight ahead with the pen. Also do not attempt to copy it in a rigid manner, endeavouring to get exactly the same number of words on each line as in the copy. Pack each letter closely to its fellow, and do not attempt to spread out any word to make it fit better. The distance between each word should be about the width of a small letter. Do not try to squeeze a word or syllable in at the end of a line. It is better to let it project slightly over the line; see (a) [Fig. 9]. If, when the end of the line is reached, there is a space left not quite large enough for the next word, do not attempt to spread out the last word, but either add a simple pen ornament as in (b) or the line may be emphasised by pen-strokes or dots, as in the copy. Still another method is shown in (c), where flourishes from the final letter fill the space. These, however, should be used sparingly, as they tend to make the matter less readable.

After the student has had a good amount of practice in writing in this manner he will begin to feel his way and be able to mass and arrange the letters and words properly. It is only when he becomes master over the pen, so that he can write quickly and easily, that he is able to mass the letters into words with facility.

After having written this quotation, a fresh one may be selected and written out in a similar manner. If this practice is persisted in, the student will gain valuable experience in the spacing and arrangement of words.

Fig. 10.

In [Fig. 10] several interesting points are noticed. In the first place the necessity for packing the letters should be noted in (a). If the two renderings of the same word be carefully examined, it will be seen that the first one has a somewhat broken appearance. This is notwithstanding the fact that each letter is exactly the same distance from the next to it. In the second example there is much more unity, yet the letters are not really so equally spaced. The way to get over this difficulty is to place each letter as closely as possible to its fellow. The first example looks like L ETTER ING because due consideration has not been given to the fact that however closely L and E, and R and I, are placed together, there will always be a fair amount of space, so that these should be packed, if possible, closer together than the rest. As the E is a curved letter, the L can easily be formed so that the lower part comes underneath. Also the tail of the R can project under the I. This device should not be carried to excess as shown in (b). One often sees architectural drawings disfigured by a lot of this kind of thing. The student is advised carefully to guard against this, or his writing will become freakish.

In (c) two examples are given which show the advantage of massed writing. In the first example the letters are placed together in a loose manner, and the two lines are too far apart. The second is much easier to read because the letters are packed closer together, and also the lines of lettering are nearer. For general purposes massed writing is undoubtedly best, but for some things, as, for example, in writing poetry, the lines may be wider apart. The letters, however, should be packed together, and it is not a bad plan to make the stems and tails of the letters just a trifle longer than usual.

A curious optical illusion is shown in (d), in connection with the letter S. The first one is constructed so that each half is approximately the same size, but it appears to be larger in the top half. It presents the same illusion if the page is held upside down. The second one, which is drawn with the top half slightly smaller, appears right. This applies to several other letters in the alphabet, but in the letter S it is most noticeable. The letter P is a letter that requires some attention. If a word begins with this letter, the form with the stem projecting below the line may be used; but when this occurs in the middle of a word, it tends to make it less readable. The example given, at first glance, looks like HEADS.

A modern fad of using V instead of U, and I in place of J, should be discouraged. In Latin, possibly, there is something to be said for it, but in modern English it looks foolish and affected, besides being almost unreadable at times.

The student will find the alphabet of italics useful for rapid lettering of plans, maps, etc. He should endeavour to preserve the same slope, not getting some letters falling over and others nearly upright. There is no need to give detailed instructions as to how to form the individual letters, as, after having practised the formation of letters in the preceding chapter, he should experience no difficulty in feeling his way with regard to the forming of the individual strokes that go to make up each letter. The same thing applies to the pen-formed figures that are given here. These are all composed of simple pen-strokes, and the student should be able to form these quite easily and quickly.

Constant practice with the reed or quill pen will do more than anything to make him an efficient writer.

CHAPTER VI
ALPHABETS FOR STUDY, BASED ON HISTORICAL EXAMPLES

After the student has, to some extent, mastered the pen, and is able to write fairly easily, it would be a good plan for him to study some of the best historical examples, forming the letters in the same simple manner.

The examples given here are free renderings of the various alphabets used in the different periods. In the case of any of the letters being missing to form the complete alphabet, these have been constructed in a similar style. The reason for doing this is so that the student should experience no difficulty in writing when using any one of these alphabets, as would possibly be the case if an incomplete alphabet were given. These alphabets are merely given for convenience, the object not being in any way to keep the student from studying the original manuscripts for himself. It was thought, however, that it might possibly be helpful if the various letters were given in the form of complete alphabets, as, after studying the various forms of lettering in this manner, the student would be encouraged to study the actual MSS. for himself.

Fig. 11.

One of the most beautiful forms of simple pen-formed lettering is given in [Fig. 11]. The uncial characters shown here (a) afford one of the best examples for practice in writing with the reed or quill. These letters are all formed with simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen. For the purpose of general writing it may be as well to change the form of one or two of the letters, such as the A, for example, and possibly the D. Forming these characters with a well-cut pen is splendid practice for the student. He should endeavour to form the letters with simple direct strokes, with no touching up afterwards. After having practised the previous exercises well, he should be able to form these letters quite easily. He should, as opportunity occurs, examine carefully some of the fine uncial manuscripts, or at any rate some good reproductions of them.

The alphabet shown next (b) is founded on the Irish half-uncials. The one striking difference between this and the previous alphabet is that this is written with a straight-cut pen instead of a slanted-cut pen. This is plainly noticeable in the round letters such as a, c, e, o, etc., the thickness coming in quite a different place. It will be found that writing in this manner with the straight-cut pen is much slower work than writing in the other way. It is, however, very good practice for the student. The same remarks that were made about the uncial letters apply also here; it would be as well to modernise some of the letters, such as the “g” and the “n,” when writing with this alphabet.

In [Fig. 12] some very beautiful alphabets are shown which are excellent in every way as examples for study. These are all formed with quite simple strokes made with the slanted-cut pen. The one shown in (c) is a free rendering of the letters used in the famous “Benedictional of Æthelwold.” As the “s” and the “t” given here are liable to be somewhat unreadable, additional forms of these letters are suggested.

The example given in (d) is taken from a tenth-century Psalter, now in the British Museum. This MS. is a very beautiful example of the English writing of this period. The writing of this century should be very carefully studied. The student should not be content with merely working from the letters given here, but should study some of the MSS. of this period for himself, noting carefully the spacing and the arrangement of the lettering.

Fig. 12.

The next alphabet (e) is taken from an Italian twelfth-century MS. This is slightly stiffer in character than the preceding one, and the writing tends to become more compressed. However, the lettering still retains its round character. It is easy to mass the letters together when using this alphabet.

The letters in [Fig. 13] are still more compressed in character. The alphabet shown in (f) is taken from a late twelfth-century MS. of the French School. It is a very good form of lettering and will well repay careful study.

Fig. 13.

The next one (g) is a typical example of the style of lettering largely employed in the thirteenth century. Although the letters are shown here as large as in the preceding example, the lettering generally was much smaller. If the student examines carefully any of the thirteenth century MSS. he will notice this to be the case. He should practise using this alphabet in the same way, cutting his pen so that he is able to form the small letters quite easily. He will probably experience difficulty in producing writing as small as the mediæval scribe was able to do, as this comes only from a great amount of practice, but he should be able to write quite easily with the lines of lettering not more than 3/16 in. apart.

The alphabet that follows this (h) is from a fourteenth century MS. It will be noticed that the letters here are much more angular, and they conform more to what is popularly known as “Old English.” This form of writing can be quite easily formed with the slanted-cut pen.

There is no need to employ a fine pen for putting in the thin strokes, as is so often the case, as the complete letter may be formed with the same pen if it is cut with a nice chisel point. It is most important that the student should form the whole of the letter with the same pen, without any touching up afterwards. The practice of forming letters roughly and shaping them up afterwards with a fine pen tends to cultivate most unworkmanlike habits and cannot be too severely censored. Also letters formed in this manner are always lacking in character and vitality. If the student has become familiar with cutting and handling the pen he ought to be able to form any of the letters given here without the slightest difficulty.

The alphabets of capital letters given in [Fig. 14] will be useful as initials, etc., in connection with the small letters. It is quite obvious that these letters are not formed with simple pen-strokes in the same manner as the small letters are. These are built up with a series of strokes, the body of the letter being then filled in with either pen or brush. This method of building the letters up with pen-strokes will be described in detail in a later chapter.

Fig. 14.

The first alphabet given here (i), is based on the capital letters used in the famous Book of Kells. These will serve well as initials when using the Irish half-uncial characters for writing with. A good many of the letters are given in a variety of forms. Some of these are shown here and are liable to be somewhat unreadable if used in the present day. For example, the Irish O is shaped more like D, and may as well be used instead of this letter, which is not very distinct in character. The letter G would be hardly recognisable if used in the Irish form, so a simplified letter has been suggested. Some slight modifications have also been suggested in the letters N and P. By raising the cross-bar in N it conforms more to the modern shape of this letter. It is necessary to simplify the Irish P, as this letter resembles the letter R more than anything else.

The next alphabet, shown in (j), is based on capitals used in the tenth century, a somewhat stiff and severe type of letter.

The last one (k) shows the type of capital used in the eleventh century.

Some further alphabets will be given later on, when dealing with illumination.

The student should not content himself merely with forming the letters given here, but should study the subject for himself. He should, if possible, examine some of the illuminated MSS. exhibited in the various museums in London and elsewhere. He is specially recommended to study the MSS. produced between the tenth and thirteenth centuries. If he cannot possibly study the actual MSS. he should experience no difficulty in obtaining reproductions of them. The British Museum publishes an excellent series of collotype plates of a good number of their choicest illuminated MSS., as well as some splendidly reproduced in gold and colours. It will be found that a fair amount of time given to the study of these old MSS. will well repay in the end. The way the letters are massed together should be carefully noted, as well as the formation of the individual letters. He should note also the freedom displayed, the letters not being cramped in any way.

When studying lettering from photographs, or photographic reproductions, the proportional compass is extremely useful for measuring the exact size of the letters. The exact size of the page is nearly always given, and it is quite a simple matter to adjust the compass so that, when the measurement is taken with the smaller end, the exact size of the lettering can be marked off with the opposite end. This instrument is most useful when used in this manner, as it is difficult to gauge the exact size of the lettering from the measurements of the page. It is also always advisable to know, if at all possible, the exact size of the lettering in the original when studying a reproduction of a MS.

When examining MSS. in glass cases, when it is not convenient to have them taken out, a magnifying lens of about five or six inches focus is very useful for analysing the construction of fine lettering. This depth of focus enables the lens to be used through the glass without the necessity of having the case opened.

The student should seize every opportunity that may arise to examine some of the best work of the mediæval period.

For the present he should confine his attention to the lettering. The decoration will be considered later on, but, as this springs from the lettering, it is essential that sufficient attention should be given to the foundation before attempting to build upon it. He should also, when opportunity arise, examine some of the best modern work in this direction.

CHAPTER VII
ROMAN LETTERING

The Roman alphabet is certainly one of the most beautiful of all the alphabets that we possess. It is, however, strictly speaking, not a pen-formed alphabet. The fine forms of the Roman capitals, as exemplified in the well-known inscription on the Trajan Column, were most certainly the result of the evolution of chisel forms. The pen-formed letters that came after were evolved from these Roman capitals.

At first the type of letter used was practically the same as the chisel form. Writing with this type of letter must have been extremely slow work, compared with the simpler pen-forms that came into use later. It is impossible to write, in the true sense of the word, when using Roman letters. Although in the case of the early square-capital writing these letters were constructed in a fairly simple fashion with a slanted-cut pen, it is very difficult to write with any speed in this manner and at the same time produce a well-finished letter. For general purposes it is better to form the letters as shown in [Fig. 15].

These are constructed in quite a different way from the types already shown, the difference being that while they were formed with simple pen-strokes as in ordinary handwriting, these are built up.

Fig. 15.

For the purpose of illumination, Roman lettering is not by any means ideal. It is much better to select a true pen-formed alphabet; but for modern usage, such as the various branches of commercial work, Roman lettering is used a great deal. It possesses one very great advantage, that is, its legibility. As the man in the street has his daily newspaper printed in a form of Roman lettering, he is therefore more familiar with this type than any other. The greater bulk of the commercial art of the present day aims to attract the attention of this individual, so that it is necessary that it should be just what he can understand. To letter a popular advertisement in a late Gothic lettering would be foolish in the extreme, as he would, in all probability, experience difficulty in deciphering it. The thing to aim at, in this case, is to do it so that he cannot help seeing it. The most important thing, in the eyes of the advertiser, is not so much the design of the poster as the goods advertised, and the lettering calling attention to these must be clear, distinct, and prominent. Lettering, therefore, that is based on the Roman type is best for this kind of work.

Illumination, in general, appeals to a different type of individual. Something is required that is away from the ordinary. Also as illumination is so inseparably bound up with writing, it is almost essential that a true pen-formed lettering should be used.

The Roman capitals, as shown in [Fig. 15], are based, to a great extent, on those used in the Trajan Column inscription. It will be found that the more practice that one has in forming letters with simple pen-strokes, as already shown, the easier it will be to form the letters by building them up, as in this case.

For general purposes the easiest way to form Roman letters is with a pen cut with a medium point and a fairly long slit. The outward strokes should be made first, then the ones that come inside the letter. The serifs are then added, the outline filled in, and the letter is complete. The lower-case letters given are a type that may be used in conjunction with the capitals. Apart from the utility of this alphabet, the student will find that forming these letters in this way will be extremely good practice. He should also practise forming them with a brush. For this purpose he should use a small, but firm, sable water-colour brush. Construct the letters in exactly the same manner as when using the pen. After a good amount of practice in this way he will be surprised at the dexterity he is acquiring with the use of the brush. Then, using a larger brush, he should endeavour to form large letters in this way. This will be extremely useful for writing large notices and announcements.

For work where very accurate lettering is required, such as high-class commercial art, title-pages, etc., the outlines of the letters should be produced by means of tee-square, set-square, and compasses. The serifs also should be carefully drawn. In this case it is not wise to go straight ahead with the pen, without drawing first carefully in pencil.

The letters given in [Fig. 16] are a type of Roman lettering made with simple direct strokes of the pen. These will no doubt be useful, as they may be very easily and quickly written. They should be very helpful for writing quickly announcements, notices, etc.

A few notes may be useful to the student with regard to the characteristics of the various Roman capitals.

Fig. 16.

The letter A is sometimes pointed at the top, being generally formed in this manner in inscriptions, but for pen- and brush-formed lettering it is preferable to finish it in the way shown in [Fig. 15]. It should be noticed that in the letter B the top part forms an angle with the upright, while the bottom part curves into the stem. The same thing applies to D, E, and L. The serifs on the lower limbs of E and L should point outwards, while the serifs on the other limbs of E are quite straight. This also applies to F. It is best to make the cross-bar in H form angles with the uprights rather than curving into them. The form of the letter J may be varied, the tail may be curved round, but it is as well to avoid the ugly shape that is in general use. The tail may project below the line considerably, if it is felt to be necessary, but care should be taken not to exaggerate this too much. The same thing applies to the tail of the next letter, K. In the letter M the two outside strokes occasionally spread outwards, and in the form used in inscriptions the top serifs are missing. These, however are generally added to the pen- or brush-formed letter. The same thing applies to the letter N. The letter O is not quite a circle; it is sometimes made in the tilted form, i.e., as formed with the slanted-cut pen; when this is the case all the corresponding curved letters should be treated in the same way. The curve of P does not always touch the upright stem below. The tail of the Q may be lengthened occasionally, as also is the case in the letter R. The letter S often leans slightly forward, but this tendency should not be accentuated too much. The top part of this letter should be made slightly smaller than the lower part; this applies also to all letters similarly divided in the middle. In the letter T the top generally forms angles with the centre stem instead of curving into it. For general writing the curved type of U should be used in preference to the V which is used in Latin inscriptions. W is formed by crossing two V’s.

The student is strongly advised to study some of the best historical examples of Roman lettering. Some of these are detailed in the next chapter.

CHAPTER VIII
SOME HISTORICAL EXAMPLES OF ROMAN LETTERING

The examples given in this chapter do not pretend to be, in any way, a complete series of alphabets of Roman lettering. To go into this matter properly would require far more space than is available here. If, however, sufficient interest is aroused to encourage the student to study the subject for himself, it will be worth while dealing briefly with the subject here.

One of the most important alphabets is that used in the inscription on the base of the Trajan Column (circa 114 A.D.). To help the student to form these letters in their proper proportions, each letter has been enclosed in a square (See [Figs. 17–22]). This should be a great help in determining the correct form of the different letters. For example, take the letter O; this is not quite a circle, as is shown plainly by placing the letter in a square. In the case of the W, as this is larger than the other letters, this has been placed in two squares.

As the alphabet from this inscription is incomplete, suitable forms have been suggested for H, K, Y, and Z. Also additional letters have been given for J, U, and W, which are necessary in modern usage.

The Trajan Column.

This alphabet is extremely beautiful, and for important inscriptions it is hardly possible to find a better model. The student is advised to make a careful study of this alphabet.

Fig. 17.

When using this alphabet for writing an inscription it is not a bad plan to make a small cardboard gauge giving the width of the different letters in proportion to the height decided upon. A small gauge like this is very easily constructed and should be a great help in quickly spacing the letters. For example, it may be noted that the letters C, D, G, H, K, M, N, O, Q, U and Z nearly fill the square, while A, R, T, V come next in size. B, X, and Y are slightly narrower, while the letter P is a shade less than these. L and S are still slightly less in width, and E and F are the most narrow of all the letters, excepting, of course, I and J. If these various widths are marked on the edge of a small strip of card it ought to be quite an easy matter to space these letters quickly.

Fig. 18.

The first alphabet shown in [Fig. 20] (a) is a free rendering from a thirteenth-century inscription in the Church of St. Ursula, Cologne. As the alphabet was incomplete it has been completed, so that it may be used without any difficulty arising through any of the letters being missing.

Fig. 19.

The next one is from an inscription of the early part of the fourteenth century (b).

A late fifteenth-century alphabet is given in (c), which is taken from an inscription in niello on a silver plaque fitted to a reliquary. This is Italian and is dated 1496.

Fig. 20.

The alphabets of capitals and minuscules shown in [Fig. 21] are of special interest to the illuminator. These are based on the writing used in a late fifteenth-century illuminated MS. now in the British Museum, St. Augustine’s “City of God” (Add. MS. 15246). These letters are formed with quite simple strokes of the pen. In this MS. the f-shaped minuscule s is used. In the alphabet given here this has been substituted by one more in keeping with the modern type of letter, and several letters have been added to make the alphabet complete. The student is strongly advised to study the lettering in this MS. for himself. It makes a very effective script if written fairly small with a crisply-cut pen.

Fig. 21.

Some further alphabets are shown in [Fig. 22]. The lettering from which the alphabet is taken that is shown in (a) is from a title-page from “Utopia et Mori et Erasmi Epigrammata,” dated 1518. It has woodcut borders and title-pages by Holbein. This style of letter is used throughout the book for headings, etc. It is undoubtedly a very fine type of letter and is worthy of careful study. As has been the case in the other alphabets, this alphabet has been completed by adding letters of approximate form to supply the missing ones.