H.M. KING EDWARD VII.

H.H. THE KHEDIVE ABBAS HILMI PASHA.

(To face p. 1.)

[All rights reserved.

THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN:

A COMPENDIUM PREPARED BY OFFICERS OF THE
SUDAN GOVERNMENT.

EDITED BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL COUNT GLEICHEN, C.V.O., C.M.G., D.S.O.
(Late Director of Intelligence, Sudan Government and Egyptian Army, and Sudan Agent, Cairo.)

IN TWO VOLUMES.

Volume I.
(GEOGRAPHICAL, DESCRIPTIVE, AND HISTORICAL.)
(With eighty-two illustrations.)

LONDON:
PRINTED FOR HIS MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE,
BY HARRISON AND SONS, ST. MARTIN’S LANE,
PRINTERS IN ORDINARY TO HIS MAJESTY.

And to be purchased, either directly or through any Bookseller, from
WYMAN AND SONS, Ltd., Fetter Lane E.C.; or
OLIVER & BOYD, Edinburgh; or
E. PONSONBY, 116, Grafton Street, Dublin.

1905.
Price Ten Shillings.

(Wt. 8207 1500 9 | 05—H & S 3874)

PREFACE.

The following pages contain a comprehensive description of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan in 1905. This includes revision and amplification of the “Handbook of the Sudan” (1898) and of the “Supplement to the Handbook of the Sudan” (1899), besides a great deal of additional information as to the resources, development, administration, commerce, etc., of the country, shewing its progress since 1899. It may, however, be well understood that the description of many parts of the country is still far from complete.

The chapters have been compiled by various officers in the Sudan Administration; but the main work of editing and revision has fallen on Lieut.-Colonel Count Gleichen (the Editor), who, from the somewhat indiscriminate mass of reports, documents and books at his disposal, has evolved a compendium which cannot fail to be of great use and value to the officers and officials of the Sudan Government. I even venture to hope that such of the general public as may be interested in this vast country, its history, and its future, will find in the following pages a useful work of reference until a more complete and comprehensive work is forthcoming.

[The loss to the Sudan Government of the services of Count Gleichen, who, since he undertook this work, has been transferred to the Military Attachéship at Berlin, is much to be regretted, and that he should have been able to continue the compilation in his new position speaks volumes for his industry and capacity.]

The Editor’s thanks are particularly due to Sir William Garstin, G.C.M.G., and Captain Lyons (Director of Egyptian Government Surveys) for a mass of valuable information about the White Nile, and to Captain H. H. S. Morant (Assistant Director of Intelligence), for assistance rendered in compiling and editing.

The work has been divided into three Parts (Geographical and Descriptive, Historical, and Routes); the last Part, for convenience of practical reference, being bound separately (by chapters) as the second volume.

[For practical purposes of travel, sport, etc., the books noted on [p. 213] will be found indispensable.]

REGINALD WINGATE, Major-General,

Sirdar and Governor-General of the Sudan.

Khartoum, 9th January, 1905.

Editorial Note.—The indulgence of readers is requested in the matter of possible small errors in cross references, Index, etc., for, during the progress of the work through the press in London, the majority of the compilers and proof-correctors have been in the Sudan and the Editor in Germany.—G.

Berlin, 23rd March, 1905.

“THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN”

Diagram of Chapters
in Vol. I, Part I, & in Vol. II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.
(GEOGRAPHICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE.)

PART II.

(HISTORICAL.)

(The Editor.[1])

APPENDICES TO VOL. I.

PART III.
(Bound as Vol. 2.)
(ROUTES.)

(Arranged in Chapters corresponding to Chapters III to IX (inclusive) of Part I., besides an Appendix, describing routes partly outside the Sudan. For detail, see [“Contents”] in Vol. 2.)

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

The above are from photographs by the following gentlemen, to all of whom, especially to the three first named, the warm thanks of the Editor are due for the kind permission granted to him to use the photographs, and in many cases the blocks themselves. Those not initialled above are acknowledged on the illustrations themselves.

Those entirely unacknowledged are by the Editor and his sister.

ABBREVIATIONS (v. [Appendix H.]).

N.B.—According to the latest system of transliteration, many words formerly spelt with a “k” (Kâf ق are now spelt with a “g,” e.g., Wadi el Gab, Yagub, etc. The word for hill is always spelt Jebel, whether pronounced hard or soft.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO VOL. I.[3]

E.A. = Egyptian Army; S.G. = Sudan Government.

• Mr. C. H. Armbruster, Deputy Inspector, Kassala.
• Attia Effendi, Intelligence Department.
• Maj. Austin, C.M.G., D.S.O.
• Rev. Father Banholzer, R.C. Mission, Lul.
• Dr. A. Balfour, Sanitary Adviser to S.G.
• Lt.-Col. E. E. Bernard, Financial Secretary S.G.
• Lieut. Bond, R.N., Director of Steamers and Boats.
• Capt. N. Borton, Inspector, Mongalla.
• Maj. W. Boulnois, Governor Bahr el Ghazal Province.
• Mr. A. Jennings-Bramly, Deputy Inspector S.G.
• Mr. A. F. Broun, Director of Woods and Forests.
• Mr. Bulpett.
• Mr. A. L. Butler, Superintendent Game Preservation Department.
• Mr. G. R. Carey, Mining Engineer.
• Mr. C. E. Bonham-Carter, Legal Secretary S.G.
• The Earl of Cromer, G.C.B., etc., etc.
• Mr. J. W. Crowfoot, Sudan Education Department.
• Col. H. E. Colvile.
• Lieut. D. Comyn, Inspector, Upper Nile Province
• Capt. S. L. Cummins, R.A.M.C., E.A.
• Mr. J. Currie, Director of Education.
• Capt. W. Doran, late E.A.
• Capt. Dugmore.
• Sir J. Fowler, C.E.
• Sir W. Garstin, G.C.M.G., Under Secretary of State for Public Works (Egypt).
• Rev. J. K. Giffen, American Protestant Mission, Sobat.
• Lt.-Col. Count Gleichen, C.V.O., C.M.G., D.S.O., Editor.
• Lt.-Col. G. F. Gorringe, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., Governor Sennar Province.
• Maj. C. W. Gwynn, C.M.G., D.S.O., R.E., Sudan Surveys.
• Rev. Ll. Gwynne, Chaplain, Khartoum.
• The late Capt. Haymes, R.A.M.C.
• Col. St. G. C. Henry, C.B., A.G., late Governor of Kassala.
• Maj. Sir H. B. Hill, Bt., Governor of Berber.
• Capt. H. G. Hodgson, Inspector, Dongola.
• Maj. H. C. B. Hopkinson, Commandant Alexandria Police, late E.A.
• Col. A. Hunter, late E.A.
• Col. H. W. Jackson, C.B., Governor of Dongola.
• Mr. B. H. Jessen.
• Capt. Julien, French Army.
• Mr. Kerr, Deputy Inspector, S.G., Suakin.
• Commander Colin Keppel, R.N.
• Capt. C. H. Leveson, Inspector, Kordofan.
• Capt. J. S. Liddell, Director Posts and Telegraphs.
• Capt. H. D. W. Lloyd, Inspector, Nahud.
• Capt. W. E. Longfield, S.G. Railways.
• Capt. H. G. Lyons, late R.E., Director Egyptian Government Surveys.
• Maj. G. B. Macauley, Director Sudan Railways.
• Maj. G. E. Matthews, Governor of Upper Nile Province.
• Maj. W. S. R. May, A.F.S., S.G.
• Capt. H. H. S. Morant, Assistant Director of Intelligence, Sudan.
• Naum Bey Shoucair, Sudan Agent’s Office.
• Mr. Oscar Neumann, Berlin.
• Maj. M. Peake, C.M.G., Director of Artillery, E.A.
• Capt. A. C. Parker, Deputy Assistant Secretary, S.G.
• Capt. N. Playfair, late Acting Governor, Suakin.
• Commander R. Poore, R.N.
• Capt. W. Hayes-Sadler, Governor, Halfa Province.
• Capt. R. V. Savile, Inspector, Kassala.
• Maj. Slade, R.A.
• Sir Rudolf von Slatin Pasha, K.C.M.G., Inspector General, S.G.
• Maj. N. M. Smyth, V.C., late E.A.
• Col. W. S. Sparkes, C.M.G., late Governor Bahr el Ghazal.
• Mr. Spires, Collector, Gondokoro.
• Capt. H. G. F. Stallard, R.A.M.C.
• Maj. E. A. Stanton, Governor of Khartoum.
• Col. Hon. M. G. Talbot, Director of Surveys, Sudan.
• Lt.-Col. A. E. Turner, late R.A.
• Mr. R. Türstig, Photographer, Omdurman.
• Mr. J. Ward, F.S.A.
• Maj. E. B. Wilkinson, Governor of Kassala.
• Capt. H. H. Wilson, Inspector, Sobat.
• Maj.-Gen. Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., Sirdar and Governor-General, Sudan.

[1]Except part of Chapter II and most of Chapter III (taken from “Report on Egyptian Provinces of Sudan,” I.D.W.O., 1884).

[2]Not printed here, but text may be found in Hertslet’s “Map of Africa by Treaty,” 1896 Edition, pp. 20 to 47, and pp. 48 to 106 respectively.

[3]Including those whose works or reports have been utilised.

THE PALACE, KHARTOUM (LOW NILE).

Part I.

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

Boundaries.The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan comprises that country which is bounded on the north by the 22nd parallel of north latitude; on the east by the Red Sea, Eritrea, and Abyssinia; on the west and south-west by a line running through the Libyan Desert (defined by the Anglo-French Agreement of March, 1899), by the Sultanate of Wadai, and by the line of rising ground forming the watershed between the Congo and Shari on one side, and the Nile on the other; and on the south by the Lado Enclave[4] and east of the Nile, the 5th parallel of north latitude.

The greatest length from north to south is about 1,250 miles, and from east to west about 1,080 miles. (Vide [Appendix A] for text of Frontier treaties.)

Area and population.The estimated area of the territory is about 1,006,000 square miles, and the population about 2,000,000. For distribution of population vide Appendix F., [p. 322.]

Capital and main towns.The capital and seat of Government of the country is Khartoum, situated at the junction of the White and Blue Niles (lat. 15° 36′, long. 32° 32′), and distant, as the crow flies, about 1,250 miles from the Mediterranean Sea. (For description see Chap. II, [p. 49.])

The other chief towns of the country are Khartoum North (formerly termed Halfaya) and Omdurman (close to Khartoum), Halfa, Merowe, Berber, Wad Medani, Kassala, Suakin, Dueim, and El Obeid. (Detailed descriptions will be found in the various chapters dealing with them.)

ADMINISTRATION.

The Sudan is administered by a Governor-General (who is at present also Sirdar of the Egyptian Army) and under him by Mudirs (governors of provinces), assisted by inspectors and deputy inspectors[5] (British: military and civilian), and by Mamurs (Egyptian or Native officers).

The text of the agreement of 1899, on which the administration is based, provides for the administration of the territory south of the 22nd parallel of latitude by a Governor-General, appointed by Egypt with the assent of Great Britain, and declares the general principles in accordance with which the administration shall be carried on. The British and Egyptian flags shall be used together; laws shall be made by proclamation; no duties shall be levied on imports from Egypt, and duties on imports from other countries shall not exceed those levied in Egypt; the import and export of slaves is prohibited, and special attention shall be paid to the Brussels Act of 1890 respecting the import and export of arms, ammunition, and spirits.

The “Capitulations” are not in force in the Sudan, nor are there any foreign Consuls.

The Sudan is divided into eight first class and four second class Provinces, as follows:—

Each Province is divided into a varying number of Districts, each of which is under an Egyptian or native Mamur, as follows:—

The chief Government officials, besides the Governor-General, are the Secretary-General, the Director of Intelligence and Agent-General (Cairo), the Inspector-General, the Legal Secretary, Financial Secretary, Director of Surveys, Director of Works, Director of Education, Director-General of Irrigation,[6] Principal Medical Officer, Director of Woods and Forests, Director of Agriculture and Lands, Director of Railways, Director of Steamers and Boats, Director of Telegraphs and Posts, Director of Customs, Principal Veterinary Officer, Director of Slavery Repression Department[6], and Superintendent of Game Preservation Department.

The duties of these officials sufficiently explain themselves by their titles.

The following are the names, at present (1904), of the chief officials:—

All the above (with the exception of the Legal Secretary, the Directors of Education, Woods and Forests, Superintendent of Game Preservation, and Director of Agriculture and Lands, who are civilians) are at present British[7] officers attached to the Egyptian Army.

In addition to one British battalion, at present furnished by the British Army of Occupation in Egypt and The Army quartered at Khartoum, nearly the whole of the Egyptian Army may be said to be in the Sudan. The normal garrisons of the Sudan are as follows:—

As a rule, the Governor of the Province, being the senior British officer, is in Military command of the troops in his Province.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The following gives a table of revenue and expenditure since 1899:—

The deficit is made up by the Egyptian Government, which now contributes annually to the cost of Civil and Military Administration in the Sudan the nominal sum of about £E.380,000. The actual sum contributed is, however, not really so large as this, for about £E.60,000 is paid in Customs dues in Egypt on goods going to the Sudan, which sum is absorbed by the Egyptian Government; and the Sudan Government pays the Egyptian Government an annual amount of between £E.122,000 and £E.282,000 (£E.186,757 in 1905) for the maintenance of that portion of the army which is in the Sudan.

Some changes were introduced into the system of accounts in 1903 which caused a considerable increase in the figures on both sides of the Budget of that year as compared with those for previous years, but this increase was apparent only and did not affect the amount of the contribution by the Egyptian Government towards the Civil and Military expenditure of the Sudan Government.

Besides the above budgetary expenditure, additional credits to the extent of £E.1,060,114 have been authorised since 1899, principally for completing and improving the railway between Halfa and Khartoum, for telegraph extensions, public works and for other purposes. Moreover, the entire cost of the railway now in course of construction between Suakin on the Red Sea and the Nile at a point near the Atbara River in the Berber Province, and expenditure connected with the new harbour works at Sheikh Barghout to the North of Suakin, will be borne by the Egyptian Government.

SOURCES OF REVENUE AND TAXATION.

The revenue is derived at present from the following taxes, etc., which are imposed according to the circumstances of the Province:—

Land Tax.—A proportion of this tax is derived in certain Provinces from the “Ushur,” or tenth part, tax. This is assessed on the value of the products of the land, and is paid sometimes in kind, but generally in cash.

The land tax is assessed on the extent and value of the irrigated land, and varies from 10 piastres to 60 piastres a feddan (acre). Rain lands pay less than irrigated lands, whilst those only recently coming under cultivation pay less than those already long cultivated, etc., etc.

The Date Tax is levied on date palms, at the rate of 2 piastres per tree, whether male or female.

Animal Tax is levied on camels, mules, sheep, horses, etc., etc., at the following rates:—

The Road Tax is a light tax levied in certain places with the object of keeping the roads open and safe, and the wells dug and in good order.

The Boat Tax amounts to 2 piastres per ardeb capacity.

The House Tax amounts to one-twelfth of the annual rental value of the building.

The Tribute from Tribes is levied on those nomad tribes who own no lands or are not agriculturists. It is assessed by the Governor broadly on the value of their possessions in herds and other property.

Gum, ivory, ostrich feathers and india-rubber[10] are the articles at present which pay a Royalty of 20 per cent. ad valorem to Government. The Royalty on ivory has been recently reduced to 15 per cent. as a temporary and tentative measure.

Sales and Miscellaneous explain themselves.

Budget.The following are the special services and estimated receipts and expenditure for 1904-5:—

SPECIAL SERVICES.

TABLE SHOWING THE SUDAN GOVERNMENT BUDGET FOR THE YEARS 1904-5.

COMMUNICATIONS.

(See [Chapter X] for details.)

Communication in the Sudan is maintained by:—(I) Railways; (II) River; (III) Roads.

(I) The Railway.—The Sudan Government Railway, a single line completed on the last day of 1899, runs from Halfa, crossing the Nubian desert, to Abu Hamed along the Nile bank to Khartoum North on the right bank of the Blue Nile opposite Khartoum (575 miles).

Another branch, also single, 203 miles, runs from Halfa to Kerma (35 miles north of Dongola) following the Nile. This is to be abandoned after the 31st December, 1904.

A line of railway joining Suakin on the Red Sea to the Nile near the mouth of the Atbara is now under construction; it will be of the greatest benefit to the trade and development of the Sudan. Other railway projects at present under consideration are:—Abu Hamed to Merowe, Thamiam (near Suakin) to Kassala, and Omdurman to El Obeid.

The distance between Halfa and Aswan forms the only break in the railway communication between Khartoum and the Mediterranean Sea; a service of Sudan steamers plies on this reach.

(II) River.—North of Khartoum the river is navigable throughout except at the five cataracts; at certain times of the year most of these are navigable, with difficulty. South of Khartoum communication is maintained along the White and Blue Niles and their affluents. During low Nile—January to June—the Blue Nile is not navigable. The White Nile is navigable up to Gondokoro in Uganda, though there are some difficulties in the way of navigation (vide [p. 73]). The Sobat and Baro are not navigable from January to beginning of May.

(III) Roads.—Roads are, and must be for some time to come, the principal means of communication in the Sudan. Transport is chiefly performed by camels, mules and donkeys. The greater part of the Sudan, being level, lends itself without much difficulty to the making of roads suitable for carriages, though draught transport has not been in use hitherto to any extent. Bullock wagons are in use in the Bahr El Ghazal.

Some automobile carriages are now being tried in the different parts of the Sudan, and have so far given fairly good results.

RESOURCES AND COMMERCE.

The chief natural resources of the Sudan at present lie in the forests of Kordofan and the Blue Nile, which produce gum (Hashab and Talh), ebony, furniture woods and fibre; and in those of the Bahr El Ghazal, which produce india-rubber, gutta-percha, etc.; also in the products of animals, such as ivory, ostrich feathers, rhinoceros horns, skins, etc.

There are large quantities of fine cattle in the country, especially on the Upper White Nile, but export of these is for the present forbidden.

As regards agricultural products, only the country lying close to the Nile and its tributaries is, as a rule, cultivated, and the people do not, so far, grow more than is necessary for their own use. The principal crops are dura (a kind of millet), beans, lentils, dukhn, sesame, onions, melons, and a little wheat and barley. In the Gezira, however, between the White and Blue Niles, and in the Gedaref district, large tracts are cultivated.

The Dongola Province is rich in date palms, and exports large quantities of dates.

There is a large opening for the growth and export of cotton. Little is grown at present, but the soil is favourable and the quality is good. Inducements, therefore, in the way of seed and promises to purchase what is grown, are being offered to the natives to cultivate this invaluable plant, and it is expected that the opening of the Nile-Red Sea Railway will considerably increase its production.

Sugar could also be grown: there was formerly a sugar factory at Kamlin.

Land and settlement.The fertility of the land in the Sudan varies enormously, from the sterile desert wastes of Northern Kordofan and the Eastern Sudan to the rich soil bordering the river banks. There are also large tracts of fertile soil round Gedaref, Kassala and Tokar, where rich crops are grown with little effort.

Inducements are, according to circumstances, held out by the Government to would-be settlers in the shape of free or easy grants of lands, remission of taxes for a time, low rates of transport, etc., and purchasers and cultivators are slowly trickling in. The settlement, especially in view of the dearth of native population and labour, must necessarily be a slow one. As larger tracts are brought into cultivation, as canals are dug, and as irrigation and communications are improved, so will the export of cereals and produce of all sorts increase. The Nile-Red Sea Railway is expected to give Sudan trade a great impetus, and the population is rapidly increasing. But although those best qualified to judge are convinced of a great economic future before the country, it can hardly be expected that the Sudan will pay its own way for some years to come.

MARKET SCENE—GEZIRA.

Produce and Industries.The following is a list of the chief articles of produce of the Sudan, with the districts where such are mostly found:—

The native industries are, so far, limited in number. Cultivation is the usual occupation of the people. Cotton-cloth weaving, boat-building on the Niles, camel breeding in the northern and western deserts, and iron-smelting in the Bahr El Ghazal practically exhaust the list. Agricultural and industrial shows at the chief towns have, however, been started, and receive considerable support. Minor industries, such as pottery, leather work, improved carpentry, etc., are quickly coming to the fore.

CUSTOMS DUTIES.

For the purpose of Customs duties, the Sudan is, in the main, considered as forming a part of Egypt. The Government has, however, concluded a Customs Convention with Eritrea,[11] and applies practically the same principles to the co-terminous countries of Uganda, the Congo Free State, the French Congo and Abyssinia.

Broadly, goods exported to these countries from the Sudan pay 1 per cent. ad valorem, and imports from those countries 5 to 8 per cent.; whilst goods in transit thence receive a drawback equal in amount to the duty paid on entering the country, i.e., they can pass free of duty through the Sudan.[11]

JUSTICE.

The main lines of judicial organisation in the Sudan date from 1899, at which time the whole country was under Egyptian Martial Law.

Under the code of Criminal Procedure of that year the criminal courts are directly under the Governor-General, who, however, has the benefit of the advice of a Legal Secretary. Under “The Civil Justice Ordinance, 1900,” the civil courts are subordinated to the Legal Secretary, in his capacity as Acting Judicial Commissioner.

Criminal justice in each province is administered by the Mudir’s Court (composed of the Mudir or Governor, or his representative, and two other magistrates), which has general competence; minor District Courts of three officers, with limited competence; and magistrates with powers similar to, but more limited than, those of Indian Magistrates. These magistrates are the members of the Provincial Administrative Staff, who are either picked officers of the army or civilian inspectors, who, unless they have had a legal training, are required to pass an examination in the Codes.

The procedure at the inquiry, and as to arrest, etc., is borrowed from the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure; that at the hearing is that of an Egyptian (or substantially, of a British) court-martial, with which the military officers are familiar.

Sentences passed by the Mudir’s Court are submitted to the Governor-General for confirmation. Those of the subordinate courts are either submitted to the Mudir for confirmation, or are open to appeal before him.

The Governor-General has, in all cases, revising powers similar to those of an Indian High Court.

The substantive criminal law is contained in the Sudan Penal Code, which is a copy of the Indian Penal Code, with such modifications as the circumstances of the country appeared to demand.

The civil courts in each province are those of the Mudir and of the subordinate magistrates. The procedure is borrowed in part from that in Indian provinces which do not possess a High Court, and in part from the Ottoman and African Orders in Council.

The parties appear before the judge, who settles the issues to be tried before trying the case. Every court has power to sit with assessors, who, in commercial cases, are frequently of considerable assistance. Appeals lie to the Mudir, or from the court of the Mudir to that of the Judicial Commissioner.

This system has been somewhat modified by the appointment of four civil judges who are trained lawyers. Wherever there is a civil judge, he has all the powers, civil and criminal, of the Mudir, and ordinarily takes all the civil and the more responsible criminal work of that officer. A civil judge has now sat continuously for the last three years at Khartoum, where all the principal merchants reside. A system of circuits will probably be shortly instituted in the outlying provinces; in the meantime provision is made for civil disputes of special importance or complexity in those provinces by a section which authorises their transfer, by consent of the parties, to the court of the Judicial Commissioner. It is very possible that the latter court may shortly be replaced by a bench of civil judges.

It was not thought advisable to create a body of substantive civil law at a time when all that was known of the customs of the people was that they probably differed from those of any country whose legislation could have been taken as a precedent. Section 3 of the Civil Justice Ordinance provides for the recognition of customary law, so far as applicable and not repugnant to good conscience, in matters of succession, etc.; and Section 4 provides for the administration of “justice, equity, and good conscience,” a phrase which has stereotyped custom in large parts of the east, and filled up the interstices with the principles of English Law.

In commercial matters in the Sudan the judges have inclined to interpret it as implying the obligation to recognise the principles of Egyptian Commercial Law in cases in which the law of civilised countries is not in agreement.

The above-mentioned Codes are applied wherever they may be put in force by the Governor-General, and they have been gradually extended to all parts of the Sudan, except the Bahr El Ghazal. In the more backward provinces in the south, where officers are scattered, advantage has to be taken of a provision that they shall be applied with such modifications, not affecting the substance, as the circumstances may require.[12]

Mehkema Sharia.There are special courts, Mehkema Sharia, for the trial in accordance with Mohammedan Law, of cases between Mohammedans, involving questions of personal status, such as succession, wills, gifts, marriage, divorce, family relations, and also the constitution of charitable endowments (wakf).

The judges of these courts are Mohammedan Sheikhs, either natives of the Sudan or Egyptians; of whom the latter have obtained their training in the Azhar Mosque at Cairo.

The Mehkema Sharia comprise District Courts, which have jurisdiction over one or more Districts, according to the extent and population of the Districts, Province Courts, which act as courts of appeal from the District Courts and have also an original jurisdiction over the district in which they are situated, and a Supreme Court of Appeal situated at Khartoum, consisting of the Grand Kadi of the Sudan, who acts as President, the Mufti, and two judges of appeal.

Though the majority of the inhabitants of the Sudan are followers of the Maliki School of Mohammedan Law, the courts generally, as in Egypt, adopt the jurisprudence of the Hanafi School.

LEGISLATION.

Legislation takes the form of Ordinances, issued by proclamation of the Governor-General. In accordance with Article IV of the Agreement of the 19th January, 1899, between the British and Egyptian Government as to the administration of the Sudan, all such ordinances must be forthwith notified to the British Agent-General in Cairo and the President of the Council of Ministers of His Highness the Khedive. All Ordinances are published in the “Sudan Gazette.”

RELIGION.

Except for the negroid tribes the religion of the native population is that of Islam. The black tribes in their own country are all heathen; outside it a good many of their members have embraced Islam.

The Arab population is inclined to be fanatical; and to enable the Government to keep itself informed of the religious feelings of the people, a consultory board of Ulema (learned men) has been established at Omdurman.

There are two Christian missionary stations amongst the black tribes: one (American Protestant) on the Sobat River, and the other (Austrian Roman Catholic) near Kodok. The latter mission is now establishing another branch in the Bahr El Ghazal.

There are also several missionary schools at Khartoum and Omdurman. A British Protestant Church is about to be built at Khartoum, and there are Roman Catholic, Greek, and Coptic churches in course of construction.

EDUCATION.

In the Sudan a higher primary school system is gradually being developed. There are four of these schools (Khartoum, Omdurman, Halfa, and Suakin), besides a few Kuttab or village schools, where instruction is given in reading, writing, and arithmetic. Every day shows a greater necessity for a Sudanese class able to read, write, and cipher sufficiently to fill the minor appointments under Government. This class is gradually being constructed, but it takes time, especially as competent teachers are scarce.

All school subjects are taught in Arabic, not English. The latter language is not encouraged, but it can be taught, as a foreign language.

The Gordon College, with an endowment of over £E.100,000, was finished and opened in October, 1903.

At present it contains a Higher Primary School, attended by 150 boys, and a Training College for Schoolmasters and Kadis. Competent Sudanese teachers of the vernacular are now the chief requirement, but this want will be remedied as time goes on.

A separate wing of the building affords room for an institute for bacteriological work,[13] and research into the products and diseases of the country.

Another invaluable adjunct to the College is found in some technical workshops generously and completely fitted up by a private benefactor.[14]

CLIMATE.

The climate of the Sudan naturally varies over such a huge territory. Roughly speaking, it may be said that from the latitude of about Shendi northwards the climate is dry throughout the year. South of this, the rains in the summer, increasing in intensity towards the south, towards the sea, and towards the Abyssinian hills, cause a damp climate for two or three months, the remaining months being quite dry.

Between Halfa and Dongola there are a few rainy days in the winter, and, very exceptionally, some torrential rains in the summer. At Suakin heavy rains occur at intervals from August to January, with occasional rainfalls during the spring. The Khor Baraka flood may be expected at Tokar about the 15th August, and the Gash flood at Kassala during the first week of July.

The rainy season proper, on the Upper Blue Nile, Atbara, and in Abyssinia commences about the middle or end of May, the rains lasting till the middle of September; light rains in January and February; heavy rains sometimes in October and November.

The rainy season at Khartoum and in the “Bayuda desert” lasts nominally from the middle of June to the end of September, but during this period rain rarely falls on more than 15 days. In the Bahr El Ghazal the rains last from April till October, and in Southern Kordofan and Darfur from June to October.

Heavy rains occur in addition in the valley of the Upper White Nile from September to November; also numerous thunderstorms, especially in the hilly region round Rejaf and the Sudd district to the north of it.

On the Sobat, rains last from May to end of October.

The more unhealthy parts, in each case only during the period immediately succeeding the rains or the Nile flood, are, in the order of the evil, the Bahr El Ghazal, the Upper White Nile, the Upper Blue Nile, Kordofan, Kassala, and Suakin. During the rest of the year the climate is dry and healthy throughout. The temperature is, in the summer, undoubtedly hot, the thermometer having on rare occasions risen to as much as 126°; but on the other hand, except in the rainy season, the nights are always cool and refreshing.

During the rest of the year, the temperature naturally varies considerably; but it may be said that the winter is bright and invigorating throughout, and not too hot. There are even unpleasantly cold winds at times.

Except during the rainy season, the prevailing winds are, in the valley of the Nile, always from a northerly direction. In other parts, the wind varies according to season, but all get their share of the north wind.

METEOROLOGICAL NOTES (KHARTOUM), 1902 and 1903.

GAME.

The efforts of the Government are directed towards preserving the numerous species of game of all sorts which abound in the Sudan, and to preventing them being exploited wholesale for commercial purposes.

Thus the Government, in the matter of ivory and feathers, has laid down stringent regulations which control the killing of elephants and ostriches. By imposing heavy duties and strictly limiting the numbers it is keeping within reasonable limits the export of live animals for menageries, etc., in Europe; and traffic in skins, trophies, etc., of wild animals is strictly prohibited.

As regards the shooting of game for sport, a sanctuary and game reserve have been instituted, and the licence with which a sportsman has to provide himself is expensive and only covers the shooting of a limited number of each species, some species being tabooed altogether. (For full details of the Game Laws, vide Ordinance for Preservation of Wild Animals, etc., 1903, and for practical hints, etc., re shooting, see books mentioned on [p. 213.])

SLAVERY.

Slave-running is practically dead, save perhaps in the remotest parts of the Sudan. The Egyptian Repression of Slavery Department is well represented by a number of posts dotted about in the regions most likely to be favourable to this traffic.

FORESTS.

In the Sudan, north of Khartoum, forests are scarce and of little extent. Scattered trees of “Samr” (Acacia tortilis) reach right into the desert, while on the occasionally flooded “Karu” land, between the desert and cultivation, is an open growth of the above with “Selem” (Acacia Ehrenbergii), “Sayal” (Acacia spirocarpa), “Hashab” (Acacia Verek), “Tundub” (Capparis aphylla), “Marakh” (Leptadenia Spartium), etc.

South of Khartoum till about parallel 12° N. the forests consist mostly of belts, usually not of very great width, lining the banks of the rivers and khors. In these belts the most valuable tree is the “Sant” or “Sunt” (Acacia arabica), known not only for the strength of its wood, but for the tanning properties of its bark and seed pod, and also for its excellence as fuel, as well as for its value for boat building.

Inland, there are open woods of “Heglig” (Balanites ægyptiaca), “Talh,” and “Hashab,” or dense thickets of “Kittr” (Acacia mellifera) and “Laot” (Acacia nubica).

It is in this zone that the open woods of “Hashab” (Acacia verek), in Kordofan, are carefully tended and preserved against fire for the sake of their gum which is exported as “Hashab Geneina”; the gum from the unprotected forests fetching a lower price as “Hashab Gezira,” or “Gezira,” while that from other acacias is known as “Talh,” as the Talh tree is the chief producer.

South of 12° N., where the rainfall is more abundant, the forest on the White Nile is, as far as the northern limits of the Sudd, of similar character, only large tracts have been cleared near the river by the Shilluks, and Sant has completely disappeared and is not replaced by trees of equivalent value.

On the Blue Nile the forest changes in character. Not far from the river are numerous gigantic Baobabs (“Tebeldi,” Adansonia digitata) and “Tarfa” (Sterculia cinerea), while the most abundant trees are the graceful “Silag” (Anogeissus leiocarpus) and the Sudan ebony (“Babanus,” Dalbergia melanoxylon).

In these two species, as well as in some others, these forests are like those on the higher lands of the Bahr El Ghazal province and parts of Southern Kordofan. The Bahr El Ghazal forests cover the larger portion of the ironstone deposits in that province, and, as far as quality goes, are probably the finest found in the Sudan, many trees of great height and girth being found there, one of them, the African mahogany (“Homraya,” Khaya senegalensis), having a beautiful timber, already known to commerce. It is in these forests that rubber-producing lianas are most abundant, the best of them being “Ndala” or “Odilo” (Landolphia owariensis), vide [Chapter VII.]

The forests on the Bahr El Jebel and the woodlands of the Bahr El Ghazal province are more like those on the Upper White Nile, but some other trees appear, and the forests are not only in belts, but cover large areas. Near Mongalla the ironstone appears, and the forests partake of the same character as those of the Upper Bahr El Ghazal.

The forests on the Abyssinian and Eritrean frontiers have not yet been explored by an expert.

All over the Sudan the forests suffer greatly from fires which are set alight by the natives either for purposes of sport, or to clear the paths, or for grazing after the rains. Owing to these fires numbers of trees get killed or mutilated, and it is hopeless to think of developing fine forests until they can be kept under control.

Fuel.One of the great economic questions of the Sudan, which gives rise to a certain anxiety, is the future supply of fuel. Although the felling of trees is under control, those alongside the river necessarily suffer greatly from the demand for steamer fuel, and there is not an unlimited supply. So far, no coal or petroleum has been found in the Sudan; it is believed that there are beds of lignite in the Dongola Province, but up till now they have not been thoroughly explored. Imported coal now costs from £E.4 to £E.6, and petroleum £E.6, a ton at Khartoum. (Vide also [p. 20.])

Concessions.A certain part of the Sudan—chiefly to the north and north-east and south-east—has been leased to concessionaires for the purpose of prospecting for minerals and exploiting them when found. There are traces of gold and other minerals in most of these areas.

Survey.The Sudan is being surveyed (commenced in 1898) on a scale of 1250000. So far, over 50 sheets out of 139 projected have been published, and the work of surveying is proceeding steadily. Vide [p. 349.]

Sanitary.The population is very gradually being trained in sanitary methods, but it is a slow process. Efforts are also being made to stamp out malaria,[16] etc., by the latest scientific methods, but the size of most of the malarial districts is vastly in excess of the means so far available to deal with them. At Khartoum and at some of the other chief towns the steps taken have proved most effectual.

[4]Temporarily occupied by the Congo Free State.

[5]Full particulars of Conditions of Service, etc., of Government Civil Officials in the Sudan may be obtained from the Secretary to Selection Board, Finance Ministry, Cairo.

[6]This Department is under the Egyptian Government.

[7]Except the Inspector-General.

[8]Detachments of Medical Corps, Supply, Transport, Stores, Works, and Veterinary Departments are at all stations where necessary.

[9]Estimate only.

[10]Trade in india-rubber is at present prohibited (December, 1904).

[11]See [Appendix A.]

[12]The above observations on Justice are extracted from Lord Cromer’s Report, Egypt No. 1. (1904), p. 88.

[13]The Laboratory is the generous gift of Mr. Wellcome.

[14]Sir W. Mather, M.P.

[15]The figures for 1904 are:—

only. Vide “The Rains of the Nile Basin, 1904,” by Capt. H. Lyons, Survey Dept., Egypt, just published.

[16]Vide Report on the Wellcome Research Laboratories—Gordon College—1904.

THE EARL OF CROMER.

SIR WM. GARSTIN.

(To face page 15.)

CHAPTER II.

THE WHITE NILE.

[The reader who wishes to study in detail the whole question of the Nile Basin, its floods, discharges of rivers, schemes of irrigation, etc., etc., is referred to Sir William Garstin’s invaluable “Report on the Basin of the Upper Nile,” F.O. Bluebook, Egypt No. 2 (1904). Price 17s.]

(i.)—INTRODUCTORY.

General.The White Nile and its tributaries form the life blood of the Sudan. The great river traverses it for 2,029 miles from south to north, receiving on its course through the country the Bahr El Ghazal, the Sobat, the Blue Nile, and the Atbara.

Of these four tributaries the Bahr El Ghazal joins the Nile out of the swamps from the west, whilst the other three join it from the east, bringing down the fertilizing matter from the Abyssinian hills.

Flood.The rise of the Nile takes place during the summer, but the dates naturally vary largely at different points.

The causes of the flood are, briefly, as follows:—The rains in southern Abyssinia cause the Sobat to rise about the middle or end of April. The yellowish-white water caused by this flood reaches Kodok the last week in April. The equatorial rains cause the Bahr El Zeraf and White Nile, above the Sobat, to rise about the end of May. The effect of the first rise is felt at Halfa about the 20th May. The Blue Nile begins to rise about this time, and brings the red fertilizing flood down to Khartoum about the 20th June, and to Halfa about the middle of July. The muddy Atbara flood (June to August) rises very rapidly after the Blue Nile, and causes the flood to attain its maximum about the end of August; at this period the river is muddiest. The White Nile continues to rise slowly, and its effects (clear white water) are felt at Halfa till October, when it falls very slowly. The Blue Nile falls rapidly after the middle of September, and the Atbara has generally disappeared by October. The Sobat begins to fall at Nasser early in December.

The Bahr El Ghazal rivers rise slightly in May. These soon subside, and the main floods take place in July and August.

The above is a description of an average year. An early maximum (i.e., about the middle of August) generally means a low summer flood, and vice versâ. The flood at its height moves at about 100 miles a day (below the Atbara).[17]

The above dates vary largely in accordance with the time and amount of rainfall in the upper valleys of the rivers.

Of the flood water annually brought down by the rivers, about half now runs to waste into the Mediterranean sea. The Aswan dam regulates and utilizes this to a certain extent, but a large proportion remains over. This it is proposed to utilize in the future for irrigating the Sudan by means of flood and catchment basins; but the time is still distant when this surplus will be entirely devoted to this purpose.

Historical.Up to comparatively recent times the sources of the Nile were involved in mystery.[18] In ancient days many guesses were hazarded at their origin, some geographers maintaining that the Nile rose in the Atlas Mountains of Marocco; others were positive that the Niger formed the upper portion of the great river. During the 17th and 18th centuries it was held that the sources were to be found in the “Mountains of the Moon.” These have since been speculatively identified with the Ruwenzori Mountains between Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, and, if this theory is correct, the ancient geographers were not so far out.

It was left for Speke and Grant, in 1862, on a journey from the east coast, to discover that the great lake, now known as the Victoria Nyanza, was the main source of the White Nile. Sir Samuel Baker, in March, 1863, working up stream, discovered the Albert Nyanza; but it was not till some time afterwards that the actual course of that portion of the river, now known as the Bahr El Jebel, was mapped and traversed, Lieutenants Watson and Chippendall, R.E., being the first, under Gordon in 1874, to lay down the actual course. During the ensuing years, this, the upper portion of the river, was several times blocked with sudd, and at the re-conquest of the Sudan from the Dervishes in 1898, it was permanently blocked. An expedition under Major Peake, however, succeeded in clearing a channel in 1899-1900, and there is no likelihood of the clear channel now existing being, except quite temporarily, blocked again.

The sources of the Blue Nile, which for long was considered as the main river, were, as early as 1770, discovered by Bruce to be near Lake Tsana (Abyssinia), but to this day the actual course of the Blue Nile between Lake Tsana and Famaka (Abyssinian-Sudan border) has never been accurately laid down.

The course of the Atbara, as far up as the junction with it of the Setit, was roughly known before 1864, when Sir S. Baker made a more thorough exploration of these rivers, but the courses of the Atbara and Setit lying within the Sudan have only recently been fairly accurately laid down. The Atbara rises in the Abyssinian hills, near Chelga, where it is known as the Goang.

The Sobat was explored by Marno and Junker in the “Seventies” as far as Nasser, where there was then an Egyptian post. It was left for British officers, after 1898, headed by Captain Gamble, to explore the various narrow rivers such as the Baro, Pibor, Akobo, etc., which join the main stream from South-West Abyssinia, east of Nasser. The course of the Upper Pibor was explored by Lieut. Comyn in September, 1904, vide [p. 151.]

The course of the comparatively short Bahr El Ghazal river, known to the slave-traders of old times, was laid down by Petherick, Gessi, etc., in 1864-78; but the courses of the western rivers which flow into it, such as the Bahr El Arab[19] or El Homr, have not yet been even roughly determined. Those of the more southerly affluents, such as the Suei or Jur, etc., though not yet accurately fixed, have been sketched in by Junker, Marchand, etc., and the British officers in the Bahr El Ghazal since 1900.

(ii.)—GENERAL DESCRIPTION (DOWN STREAM).

Albert Nyanza to Khartoum, Bahr el Jebel.After leaving the Albert Nyanza, the White Nile (or as it is there called the Bahr El Jebel) flows for 110 miles in a deep broad arm, with scarcely any velocity or slope, past Wadelai and Dufile to Nimule, and then, after a short and troubled course, between high mountain ranges, tosses over the Fola Rapids in a channel only 50 yards broad. From here it continues in a torrent to about Rejaf. Here the river is 7 feet deep at low Nile and 15 feet at flood time, discharging between 18,000 to 60,000 cubic feet per second. The regulating effects of the great lakes are well felt here. It is here at its lowest in winter; begins to rise about 15th April, with a minimum about the end of August.

From Rejaf to Bor, 112 miles, the river is mainly in one channel with a rapid fall. From Bor to the junction with Lake No, 384 miles, the river meanders along in numerous marshy channels with a very gentle slope. The main channel always used is known as the Bahr El Jebel. In this reach are the dams of living vegetation, known as the “Sudd” (for description see [Appendix B]). On one stretch the true channel is still blocked with sudd, and a “false” channel, a little to the westwards, has to be used for about 20 miles.

Lake No.At the junction of the Bahr El Ghazal and the Nile in north lat. 9° 29′ is Lake No, or Moghren El Buhur,[20] a shallow expanse of water surrounded on all sides by reedy marsh and varying in size according to season, but in summer probably about 60 square miles. It forms a reservoir for the sluggish streams that drain the extensive plateau forming the water-shed between the Nile and Congo. In summer the lake and its swampy surroundings act as an evaporating basin, and the loss of water is consequently considerable. The waters here also become polluted with decaying green vegetable matter.

The Bahr El Ghazal enters Lake No at its western extremity, and the Bahr El Jebel passes through its eastern end. The Bahr El Ghazal has a feeble discharge and has no effect at any time on the volume of the White Nile.

In the stretch between Lake No and the Sobat, 81 miles, the current is slow and the channel occasionally blocked by sudd.

Sobat.During flood, the Sobat has a discharge nearly equal to that of the Bahr El Jebel above the junction. In the spring the discharge from the Sobat is feeble, and the river is then unnavigable. The soil brought down by the Sobat is light and friable.

White Nile.At the Sobat confluence the river changes its name[21] and now becomes the Bahr El Abiad or White Nile.

From this point down to Omdurman, 530 miles, it receives no more perennial affluents, but several large khors join it on the east bank between Kodok and Renk—chief of which are Khor Adar and Khor Rau.

The White Nile flows sluggishly along with a low velocity and gentle slope; its course is generally straight and its section wide and shallow, banks low, supply very constant; the colour and limpidity of its water show very little change throughout the year, and the variations between the level of high and low supply are very small, being not more than 2 to 6 feet. The depth of the river in this stretch ranges from 15 feet at low Nile to 21 feet in flood. In parts, the channel in flood time is often of immense width.

The result of 94 measurements made in June, 1862, show the mean width of the river in flood to be 1,870 yards. In many places, however, the channel is more than 2 miles wide, and in its general appearance it resembles a lake rather than a river. Its banks, more particularly the western shore, are very low, and its waters in flood spread for several miles over them. Their average height is not more than 8 to 10 feet above low water level, and the maximum difference between high and low supply is not more than 6 feet.

The river is at its lowest by the beginning or middle of April; the rainfall in the south then causes a constant and gradual rise, but the flood does not reach its maximum before the beginning of September.

The velocity of the current when in full flood is not more than 2½ to 3 miles an hour, whilst in winter this is reduced to 1½ miles an hour. The water is of an olive green or yellowish brown tinge. It owes most of its colour to the creamy-white waters of the Sobat River, called by the Arabs the Bahr El Asfar, or Yellow River.

Green water.An odd phenomenon, the source of which has not been satisfactorily explained, is the “green water,” which makes its appearance at Dueim about the middle of May. The colour is owing to the mass of minute algæ in the water, which subsequently putrify and stink, but the origin of the water has not been definitely traced. It is believed to come from the upper Sobat, or Bahr El Ghazal, and not from the Bahr El Jebel. This green water reaches Cairo towards the end of June.

Junction of the Niles at Khartoum.At Omdurman, half Nile usually occurs about the middle of July, high Nile at end of August or beginning of September, lasting about a month; half Nile end of November, lowest Nile end of April. The Blue Nile is at its lowest in May, and highest about the end of August. The result of careful measurements during the last 3 years has been to prove that when the Blue Nile is in flood, and generally when its discharge exceeds 5,000 metres cube per second, its waters hold back those of the White Nile and, owing to the increased depth in this river, due to the rise in the water levels, the volume coming from the south floods the Sudd marshes right and left of the channel and thus reduces the discharge of the White Nile by about 50 per cent.

The average difference between low and high Nile here is 22 feet (17½ to 26 feet).

Below Khartoum.The river below Khartoum flows steadily along till it reaches the 6th or Shabluka cataract (see [p. 47]). Below this it is not disturbed, except for the rapids of the so-called 5th or El Homar and Bagara cataracts, till it passes Abu Hamed and enters the 4th or Belal cataract some way below this point. This cataract, forming the most complicated and dangerous rapids on the Nile, is for ordinary purposes unnavigable (see [p. 36]). Below it there is an open stretch past Dongola to the 3rd or Hannek cataract, shortly followed by the Kajbar rapids (see [p. 26]). A rocky channel full of small islands and small rapids, increasing in size and importance as the river proceeds, is entered some 80 miles below Kajbar, and through the Batn El Hagar the river rumbles along till, after passing the 2nd or Amka cataract, it emerges past Halfa in a broad and steady stream which lasts till it arrives at the dam and 1st cataract (Shellal) of Aswan. From here onwards there are no further obstacles (except sand-banks and canals) till, viâ the Delta of Egypt, the Mediterranean Sea is gained.

(iii.)—RIVER DISCHARGES.

The following, taken from Sir W. Garstin’s Report above mentioned, gives a summary of results respecting discharges in the basin of the Upper Nile:—

1. The Victoria Nile.

The discharge at the Ripon Falls varies between 500 and 650 metres cube per second with a range of 1·1 metres. Downstream of the Murchison Falls the range is probably 1 metre, and the maximum and minimum discharges 1,000 and 400 metres cube per second respectively. The increase in flood is due to the rainfall throughout the catchment area of the river between these two points, while the decrease during the low season is due to the Choga Lake, which undoubtedly has a regulating effect upon the supply issuing from Lake Victoria. Lastly, the volume which enters Lake Albert by this river is generally, in flood, greater than that which leaves it by the Bahr El Jebel.

2. The Bahr El Jebel.

At Wadelai, the first discharge site, the range of the river is about 1·11 metres while the discharge varies from 550 to 950 metres cube per second. The increase brought in by the streams which feed this river between Lake Albert and Wadelai is compensated by the loss of water due to a portion of the discharge of the Victoria Nile passing south up the lake during the flood season.