Practical Forging and
Art Smithing

THOMAS F. GOOGERTY

Milwaukee, Wis.
The Bruce Publishing Company

Copyright, 1915
The Bruce Publishing Company

INTRODUCTION

The present demand for school instruction in the industrial arts has made it necessary for the teachers of industries to have that knowledge of materials and methods which can only result from long and careful experience with the materials of industry.

This book is the result of a life of such experience by a man who is now recognized as a master craftsman in wrought metal.

The author’s work in wrought iron is comparable in design and finish to the best work that has been produced in that material.

Some pieces of the best German work are before me as I make this statement and tho more intricate they are no better in execution and far less suitable to the material in design than the pieces illustrated in this book which I have seen in process of execution and in the finished form.

The author has moreover been a teacher of wrought metal work for many years.

This experience is reflected in the sequence of difficulty presented by the exercises and the clear, simple statement of the text.

With such clear and exact statement and with such profuse illustration it is evident that the metal worker can gather much of the author’s long experience from this book and take many a short cut to success in an accomplishment to which there can be no royal road.

But the effectiveness of an applied art is measured best by its expression of purpose within the limitations of the material used.

The artistic success of this book lies in the evident fact that the work represented appears “Hand wrought and fashioned to beauty and use.”

I predict for it increasing usefulness in setting right the practice of forging in school shops and as an inspiration to teachers, craftsmen and tradesmen.

EDWARD J. LAKE.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PRACTICAL FORGING

CHAPTER I.

The Forge—Forge Tools—The Anvil—Anvil Tools—Making the Fire—Cleaning the Fire—Welding—Flux and Its Uses.

One of the most essential things in the school forge shop is a good forge and fire; half the work is then mastered. A few years ago nearly all of the small commercial shops running from one to six or more fires were equipped with brick or iron forges. The blast was furnished either with a bellows or fan which had to be turned by hand. This method was a great drawback, which resulted in much loss of time. It was impossible to do much work without the aid of a helper. Work that required two men in those days is being done now by one. Modern invention has played an important part in simplifying the labors of the workers in iron and steel. At the present time there are various kinds of forges in use that lessen the work of the smith. The most successful factories are now equipped with modern forges and appliances in order that they may be able to do work quickly.

In our manual training schools, where the pupils have such short periods in which to do work, it is necessary that the shops be equipped with modern tools so that they can produce work quickly. This will give the individual pupil more practice in a shorter length of time, which simply means more knowledge. Our schools should not be hampered by using forges that have been out-of-date for years.

The best forge for manual training and trade schools is the down draft with power driven fans, thus eliminating all pipes overhead and doing away with the dust and dirt. A boy, working at this kind of a forge, can use both hands in the handling of the work being heated in the fire; this is a great advantage over the old way of turning a crank. Another good feature of the mechanical draft forge is that it teaches a boy early how to avoid over-heating or burning his iron. This is the first thing one must learn in working at forging, as one who cannot heat the metal properly cannot work it. One must become acquainted with the material, and the burning heat must be understood.

Fig. 1. A Typical School Forge.

Fig. 2. Fire Tools.

[Figure 1] shows an illustration of a down draft forge suitable for schools; it is made of cast iron. A pressure fan furnishes the blast for the fire and an exhaust fan takes away the gas and smoke thru an opening at the bottom of the hood, and thru a large pipe which continues under the floor and out thru a flue. The hood represented at A, can be moved backward and forward to catch the smoke. The hood is moved with a crank and worm gear as shown at B. The hearth is shown at C; a hole in the center is called the tuyere. This is where the fire is built and is the outlet for the wind. The amount of air needed for the fire is regulated by a valve that is moved with a rod shown at D. The coal box is always at the right hand of any forge and is shown at E. The water box is represented at F. At G is shown the pressure pipe and at H the exhaust pipe. Notice the large opening under the forge at I. Thru this opening any nut or screw under the tuyere can be tightened with ease. Notice the slide-rod at J. This rod, when pulled, dumps the cinders out of the tuyere, and a bucket may be set under the hearth to catch them. In school shops these forges are generally set in pairs in order to save room. [Figure 2] shows three fire-tools needed for the forge fire. These tools consist of a poker made from ⅜-inch round stock, 26 inches long with a loose eye turned on one end for a handle; a shovel with a flat blade 4 by 6 by ¹⁄₁₆ inches with a handle riveted to the blade, and a tool called a scraper. This scraper is made from the same stock as the poker and is made with an eye at one end and a flat hook at the other. It is used to scrape the coal and coke onto the fire, and to move pieces of coke or coal, so that the iron may be seen while heating.

Fig. 3. Anvil.

The anvil should be of wrought iron with a steel face, weighing about 125 pounds. This is large enough for any work being done in manual training schools. In the school shop the anvils should all be of the same size and weight so that any tool used with them will fit into any square hole. In factories where anvils are made, they are forged from wrought iron or soft steel, with a carbon steel face welded on; some are cast steel thruout and others are cast iron with a steel face. The face is generally three-quarters inch thick, and is hardened to resist heavy blows from the hammer and sledge. (See drawing [Figure 3] of anvil.) The anvil should be fastened with iron straps, on a 10 by 10-inch block, set into the ground about 3½ feet. From the top of the anvil to the floor should measure 26 inches. The proper place to set the anvil in relation to the forge is shown in the drawing, [Figure 4]. The smith should stand between the forge and the anvil, with the horn of the anvil at his left when facing it. The anvil edge farthest from the smith is called the outer edge and the one nearest the smith is called the inner edge.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5. Hammer. Fig. 6. Sledge.

Fig. 9. Punch. Fig. 7. Hardie.

Fig. 8. Hand Punch.

Fig. 10. Center Punch.

Every anvil should have two ball hammers weighing about 1½ and 2 lbs. each. (See drawing of hammer, [Figure 5].) The hammers should be numbered corresponding with a number on the anvil. All the hammers should be kept in a rack when not in use. When the pupils come into the shop to work, they should be assigned to a certain forge and held responsible for the care of tools. A ten-pound sledge hammer should also be included, perhaps one for every two forges; the handle should be 26 inches long. (See [Figure 6].)

A piece of tool steel fitted into the square hole of the anvil and sharpened at the top, is called a hardie. It is used in cutting iron. A piece of iron is set on the sharpened edge of the hardie and struck with the hammer. The sharpened edge of the hardie cuts into the iron, and in this manner it is cut deep enough so that it may be broken. (See drawing of hardie, [Figure 7].)

If a piece of steel is pointed on one end, it can be hammered thru a flat piece of iron. This is one method of punching holes in iron; a steel punch so made is called a hand punch. Ordinarily hand punches are made out of ½-inch to ¾-inch hexagonal tool-steel bars about eleven inches long. (See drawing [Figure 8].) For heavy punching, a short, thick punch with a hole thru it, (called the eye) to receive a wooden handle, is used. This kind of punch is struck on with a sledge hammer. (See drawing [Figure 9].)

A center punch is used to make depressions in metal so that a drill may be started in a given place. It is used also to mark places or distances on the surface of metal when the metal is to be bent at a certain place. Center punches are made from hexagonal tool steel about 4 by ½-inch, drawn to a point and ground to a short angle. (See [Figure 10].)

Fig. 11. Flat Tongs.

Fig. 12. Hot Chisel. Cold Chisel.

Fig. 13. Flatter. Fig. 14. Set Hammer.

In heating and handling short pieces of stock, tongs are used (see [Figure 11]) which are made from Swedish iron or mild steel; they are made in various sizes and shapes according to use. They are called pick-ups, flat, round-nose, and bolt tongs according to the shape of the lips. Tongs should always be made to fit the piece being forged. One cannot hold a piece of iron properly with tongs that do not fit the piece. They may be heated and fitted to the stock when occasion demands. One important reason why tongs should fit the piece being hammered, is that when turning and striking the piece there is danger of the piece being knocked out of the tongs in a whirling motion and the flying piece of hot iron is liable to strike someone; this danger must be closely watched. Tongs should not be heated red hot and cooled in water; this destroys them.

Hot and cold chisels are used in cutting stock. The blade of the hot chisel is made very thin, while the cold chisel is made blunt to stand the heavy strain in cutting. They are generally made with a hole thru them, called the eye, to receive a wooden handle. These chisels are struck on with a sledge hammer. (See [Figure 12].)

Iron and steel are sometimes smoothed with a tool called a flatter. This tool is struck on with a sledge, and should not be used to stretch iron. Its purpose is only to give the work a smooth finish. [Figure 13] shows a flatter, and [Figure 14] a set-hammer. The set-hammer is always used to smooth and draw stock. All of these tools are made from tool-steel.

A heading tool is made from a flat piece of soft steel with a hole in one end. Sometimes a carbon steel face is welded on. The heading tool is used mostly in heading bolts. Heading tools are made with different sized holes. (See [Figure 15].)

Fig. 15. Heading Tool.

Fig. 16. Top and Bottom Swages.

Swages and fullers are used to smooth and form iron into various shapes. The swages generally have half round depressions in them. They are made in pairs called top and bottom swage. The bottom one fits the square hole of the anvil; the top one has a hole for a wooden handle. (See drawing [Figure 16].) The fullers are also made in pairs called top and bottom fullers. They are used to make depressions in metal. (See drawing [Figure 17].) When referring to swages, fullers, and other tools of this character, blacksmiths speak of anvil tools. Special anvil tools are used in doing various kinds of forging, and are made when needed. The anvil tools should be kept in a tool rack next to the anvil. These tools should be made from tool-steel of about 75-point carbon, or they may be purchased from a dealer. Some tools, such as swages, that do not require continuous service, are made of soft steel.

The anvil tool should have a buggy-spoke for a handle. The handle should stick thru the eye of the hole about one inch and should never be wedged. If the handle is wedged it is more liable to be broken when the tool is struck a glancing blow with the sledge hammer. This is very often the case. The reason the spoke should stick thru the tool is that if it should begin to work off the handle when struck with the sledge hammer, the movement can be seen.

Fig. 17. Top and Bottom Fullers.

[Figure 18] shows a wrought vise suitable for school work. A cast iron machinists’ vise should not be used excepting, perhaps, for bench work. [Figure 19] shows a cast-iron swage block with various sized holes, and depressions around the edge for forming iron.

The stock used in a forge shop should be kept in a rack built for the purpose. The different kinds of stock, such as soft and tool-steel, common and Swedish iron, should be partly painted with a distinguishing color, so that there will be no trouble finding what is wanted. For instance, all soft steel should be painted white, tool-steel another color, and so on. There should also be in the shop a shears to cut iron. One of the ordinary hand-power shears in use today would be suitable and may be purchased from a dealer.

Fig. 18. Vise.

Fig. 19. Cast Iron Swage Block.

In lighting the fire in the forge all of the cinders are cleaned out down to the tuyere. This is done by scraping them to the sides of the fire-place with the shovel. All clinkers should be picked out with the hands and put under the forge. It is a good plan to pick out some of the best pieces of coke and set them to one side on the forge, to be used later on. The slide rod that controls the ash dump at the bottom of the tuyere, is now pulled to allow the cinders and ashes to drop thru. Do not allow a boy to pull the valve after the fire is started, as this wastes the coke and is a bad habit to get into.

When the tuyere is clean, some shavings are lighted in the bottom and when well burned, the coke is raked back on the fire. A little wind is then turned on. Wet coal is banked around the sides and back of the fire. When the fire is well started and loosened up in front with the poker and most of the smoke burned, it is ready for heating. The coal in the box should be thoroly mixed with water before putting it on the fire, for the reason that it cokes better, and packs in around the sides of the fire, keeping it from breaking thru. The coal box is always at the right of the worker when he is facing the fire. The box on his left, and between the down draft forges, is to hold water—not coal. There should be a water cup of some sort hanging on a hook so that when water is needed for fire or coal it may be handled with the cup.

A fire, when not properly handled becomes hollow, due to the center burning out. If iron is heated in this kind of a fire, it will become oxidized, that is to say, a dirty scale will form over the metal. Iron cannot be properly heated, and it is impossible to get the welding heat with a fire in this condition. The reason a fire becomes hollow is that it may be filled with clinkers, or too much blast may have been used, and when it comes in contact with the pieces being heated causes them to cool and oxidize. Sometimes the fire will not be directly over the hole in the tuyere; which is one cause of poor heating. This is a common fault with boys working at the forge. Always have the fire over the hole in the tuyere, and not to one side.

When the fire becomes hollow and dirty, clean it by picking out the clinkers with the poker or scraper, then move the sides of the fire towards the center of the tuyere with the shovel, keeping the well-coked inner sides near the center of the tuyere, and having the center of fire over the hole in the tuyere. Wet coal is now banked around the outer sides. Always have a thick bed of coke under the piece being heated and regulate the blast so as not to burn out the center of the fire at once. See drawing of fire with piece about on the same plane with bottom of hearth; notice dotted lines representing the wrong way to put stock in the fire. ([Fig. 20.])

Fig. 20. Section of Forge Fire.

If two pieces of iron are placed in the fire and heated, they will become gradually softer until they reach a state where the metal has become sticky. If touched together the two pieces will stick. This is what is known as welding heat. If they were taken to the anvil and hammered while in this condition they would unite and become one piece. This would be called welding. All metals cannot be welded. Iron, soft steel, low-carbon tool steel and spring steel can be welded.

A flux is used in welding steel—this excludes the air and forms a pasty surface on the metal which is squeezed out from between the surfaces of the metal when hammered. Borax and the many welding compounds are used. Very seldom is it necessary to use a flux on iron. Clean sand, which is good, is used by many. Borax or welding compound is sometimes used on very thin stock. For ordinary welding, such as is being done in school shops, borax should never be used. It is poor practice, unnecessary, and a useless waste.

In heating iron, if it is brought beyond the welding heat, it will become softer and softer until it will finally burn. This may be known by the great number of little explosive sparks coming from the fire. These little sparks are particles of iron separating from the bar and burning. As the heat gradually rises, the metal separates. If the bar were now placed on the anvil and struck a hard blow with a hammer, it would fly to pieces. Therefore, judgment must be used in striking the first blow on any welding heat—it should be light. The succeeding blows should be made gradually harder. A hard blow at the start might make the metal fly to pieces, or make the upper piece slip away from the under piece. If lighter blows were struck, the weld might be made in good shape.

The principal thing in welding is to have a clean fire. All of the clinkers must be kept out. The fire should be a well burned one, without much smoke or gas, and never any green coal near the pieces being heated. Well burned pieces of coke around the metal should always be used in raising the welding heat. In raising the welding heat very little blast should be used at first. Heat the pieces slowly so as to get them hot thruout.

CHAPTER II.

Electric Welding—Oxy-acetylene Gas Welding—The Fagot Weld—The Separate Heat Weld—Scarfing—Upsetting—Making the Weld—Lap Welding Without Scarfing—Jump Welding—Butt Weld—Split Welding—Corner Weld—T Weld.

A rapid blast on the start, not only heats the outer part of the metal first and not the center, but it also burns out the fire and makes it become hollow before the metal has the welding heat. There is a right and a wrong way of taking a welding heat from the fire to the anvil. The pieces must be lifted clear up out of the fire, and must not be dragged thru the dirt and cinders on the inner edge of the fire. Iron will not unite when dirty. It is very easy to get a clean heat if one will pay attention to having the fire clean. Do not attempt to get the welding heat in a dirty fire; this is one thing that must be impressed upon the mind of one working at the forge. The skillful worker in iron always pays particular attention to the fire, for he knows by experience that it must be clean, in order to do good work.

Welding is also done with an electric welding machine. The pieces to be welded are clamped and held in bronze clamps. The clamps are adjusted so that the ends of the pieces to be welded touch. They can be moved so as to bring the pieces into close contact or separate them. When the pieces are in close contact, the current is turned on. The pieces are then separated a little so that the current jumps across the space between them, forming an electric arc. This heats the ends to a welding heat, and by forcing them together they are welded.

Another form of welding is by the oxy-acetylene gas method. It is being used extensively at present, and has been found very valuable and economical in making the lighter welds. It is possible to weld steel, iron, cast-iron, copper, brass and aluminum by this process. The apparatus consists of a specially designed blow pipe, an acetylene tank and an oxygen tank under pressure.

The method of welding is to heat the pieces to be welded with the blow pipe until they reach the fusion point. For instance, in welding cast-iron, the pieces are clamped together, a V shape is cut nearly thru the joint, the metal is heated to the fusion point, and a feeder, which is a small cast-iron rod, is melted into it. In welding steel, the feeder is a steel rod; for copper or brass welding, a rod of copper or brass is used. Nowadays this method is extensively used in automobile work, in repairing cracked cylinders.

Fig. 21.

A very simple weld to make by heating in the forge, is what is known as the fagot weld. In doing this, two or three pieces are welded by simply laying one piece on top of the other, or a bundle of pieces of iron of various sizes and shapes are bound together, heated and welded. For example, if a bar of flat iron is heated and cut half thru in several places, doubled over and over, one piece on top of the other and then welded in order to make a large piece of stock this would be called a fagot weld.

In [Figure 21], the pieces are represented ready to make a fagot weld.

The welding of two pieces of stock by scarfing and lapping is known as a separate-heat-weld, so called because the pieces are detached while the heat is taken. In making any kind of a weld there is more or less stock wasted in the raising of the welding heat, therefore the parts to be lapped and welded are always upset or thickened and then scarfed. The word “scarfed” means the shaping of the ends of the bars so that when heated and lapped one on top of the other, they will fit and make a splice, leaving the stock when hammered about its original size.

The method of upsetting is to heat the ends of the bar, then set the hot end on the anvil with the bar vertical and hammer on the other end. This thickens the heated end. If it is a long heavy bar, the worker churns the bar up and down striking the hot end on the anvil. A bar may also be heated on the end, then fastened in a vise and the hot part hammered to thicken it. In upsetting, the bar must be kept straight as hammering will bend it where heated; if not kept straight, it will not thicken.

Fig. 22. Fig. 23.

When a piece is upset about one inch in diameter for a three-quarter inch, round bar, it is scarfed by setting the hot end on and near the outer edge of the anvil. It is then driven back on a bevel by hammering. See [Figure 22]. It is also turned on the side and beveled on both sides to nearly a point. See [Figure 23]. The scarf must not be hammered when the piece is held in the center of the anvil, ([Figure 24]), for the reason that the edge of the hammer comes in contact with the anvil, pecking dents in it or breaking out pieces from the hammer.

Fig. 24. Fig. 25.

Another method of scarfing is to hammer the end partly back as previously explained, then set the piece on the inner edge of the anvil and hammer it as shown in [Figure 25]. After each blow, it is drawn away from the edge of the anvil just a little; this tapers it with a series of little steps, not for the purpose of making notches in the scarfs to fit together and hold while hammering, but simply because the edge of the anvil leaves it in this condition when tapered. It is also drawn pointed by hammering on the outer edge of the anvil.

Theory teaches that the scarf should be made with the beveled part convexed. However, in practice, it is made to look like the drawing in [Figure 26]. Note the raised parts at “D”. This is forced up when the scarf is first driven back with the hammer as shown at “B”.

The reason that the high part should be on the scarf, is, that when lapped it gives an additional amount of stock at this part of the laps to be hammered. If the scarfs are made flat, when hammered, they are not liable to finish up without having the pieces thin, or the point of the lap exposed. If the scarfs are made concave, it is claimed by some workers of iron that dirt will deposit there and result in a poor weld. This is true to some extent. However, dirt will deposit on any scarf unless the fire is clear. With a concaved scarf when lapped, there is not stock enough to be hammered without leaving the pieces thin, or the lapping too long when welded. Scarfs should not be made concave.

Fig. 26.

Fig. 27. Fig. 28.

Notice in [Figure 27], the incorrect way of scarfing and in [Figure 28], the correct way.

The scarfs must not be made too long; this is a common fault with all beginners and one to avoid. The scarfs should be made a little longer than the thickness of the iron, perhaps 1½ times the thickness.

In raising the welding heat, the pieces must be placed in the fire with the scarfs, or beveled part, down. The fire must be a clean one. A well burned fire is best. A new fire is not a good one to raise the welding heat in, as there is too much smoke and green coal that comes in contact with the metal. The hammer should be placed on the anvil about over the square hole, so it will be handy to reach when making the weld. The anvil should also be clean. A heavy hammer should be used in welding. The proper way to hold the hand hammer is with the fingers around the handle and the thumb protruding along the side and near the top. The thumb should never grip around the handle, but lie along the side to guide and direct the blows. When using the sledge hammer, stand in front of the anvil and not at its side, and let the first blow be a light one.

In heating a slow blast is maintained. When the pieces begin to get about yellow, more blast is used. The pieces can be watched without removing them from the fire. They should be turned over occasionally, moving them nearer to the surface of fire to see how the heat is progressing, and then under the coke again. Care must be taken to get both pieces heated alike. If one piece should get hotter than the other, it can be moved over in the fire a little, and the cool one put in its place. Perhaps the fire is hotter in one spot than another. If one piece is heating much faster than the other, lift it clear up and out of the fire for a few seconds to cool and give the other piece a chance to become hotter. If the points of the scarf are heating too fast for the body, the pieces must be pushed thru the fire a little farther.

It is a good plan sometimes, when the pieces are about a yellow heat to shut off the wind for a moment, to let the pieces and fire even up and give the heat a chance to soak thru them. As the pieces become nearly white, the blast is increased. Welding heat is about 1900°-2000° Fahrenheit, and can only be determined by experience. When the temperature of the pieces reaches the welding heat, they are lifted up and out of the fire and taken by the smith to the anvil, without the aid of a helper. The smith raps them against one another or against the anvil to dislodge any dirt that may be on the scarfs. The piece in the left hand is set against the inner edge of the anvil. The piece in the right hand is now moved across the anvil until it comes under the top one. See [Figure 29]. The piece in the left hand is then placed on the under one, by simply raising the hand, teetering the piece on the edge of the anvil, and holding it firmly by pressing down. This is important. The smith lets go of the piece in his right hand, and taking the hammer strikes lightly until the two are stuck, after which he welds them together with solid blows, first on one side, then on the other and finally on the corners.

Fig. 29.

It requires some practice to be able to take two pieces from the fire and place them in position on the anvil to be welded. This should be practiced by the pupil under the eye of the teacher, perhaps a dozen or more times, with the cold pieces before he undertakes to get the welding heat. If one cannot take the pieces out and place them in position, he cannot make a weld of this kind.

Two boys should not be allowed to work together on this weld. One can do it much better than two. It is a one-man job. There is nothing difficult about it, after the method is learned by deliberate and persistent practice with the cold iron. There is no need of hurrying when taking the pieces out of the fire to the anvil.

If the scarfs are too long, they will overlap one another too far and cannot be welded down quickly enough. If too short, they hammer down too quickly to make a good job, and the weld will be thin.

If the scarfs are the right length and about the same size, which is important, the weld will finish down in good shape and make a smooth job, providing the ends are clean. When the pieces being heated, look as tho they are covered with grease, you may be sure the fire is dirty, or is too new.

Lap Welding Without Scarfing.

A lap weld is sometimes made without scarfing the ends. For instance, pieces of 1″ × ¼″ iron are to be welded by the lap method. They are brought to a welding heat without upsetting; taken to the anvil as previously explained for the scarf weld, lapped about ⁵⁄₁₆-inch, as shown in [Figure 30], and welded. This form of welding is used in a hurry-up job where there is no great amount of strain on the work. It is impossible to make a strong weld this way. Very thin stock, either iron or steel, can be welded to advantage in this manner by hammering on the flat sides. The edges, instead of being hammered, are cut off with a chisel, then ground or filed smooth. In welding very thin stock, a little flux is used. Always weld by separate heats, and do not rivet or split the stock to hold both ends in place. This is not necessary. Try to make the weld with one heat. All good welds are made in one heat.

Fig. 30.

Jump Welding.

Fig. 31. Fig. 32.

For example, a piece like the one shown in [Figure 31], is to be made by welding. The pieces should be prepared as shown in [Figure 32]. The square piece is 1″ by 1″ by 6″, the flat one 1½″ by ½″ by 8″. The square piece is heated directly on one end. If the heat cannot be taken short enough, it may be cooled in water so as to upset it with a lip or projection, as shown. This lip can be worked out afterwards with a fuller, or it may be driven into a heading tool which has the top corners of the hole rounded. This will leave the corners of the lip round as shown. The bar at the end should also be made slightly convex, so that the center part comes in contact with the flat piece first. The flat piece is also upset in the center.

In welding, separate heats are taken. With the square bar, handled with the right hand, the pieces are brought to the anvil by the smith. The square bar is set on top of the flat one, and a helper strikes the top piece with the sledge, driving it down into the bottom one. The edge of the lip is then welded fast with a hand-hammer; or a fuller or set hammer is used, the helper striking with a sledge.

Butt Weld.

Fig. 33.

Iron may be welded by butting the ends together. In doing this, the bars must be long enough so that they can be handled without tongs. For instance, two bars of one-inch round stock, one five feet long and the other shorter are to be welded. This size is about as light as can be welded with this method. The ends are heated and upset a little making them a little high in the center so that when they are placed together, the contact is in the center. A short heat is taken on the end of each bar. The smith takes out the long bar and the helper the short one, butting the ends together on the anvil, as shown in [Figure 33]. The helper hammers on the end of the short piece with a heavy hammer while the smith holds the long one firmly, and hammers on the joint, at the same time turning the bar so as to hammer the joint all around. In welding heavier stock, a sledge should be used requiring more helpers. This method makes a good weld, providing the heats are clean.

Split Welding.

[Figure 34] shows a drawing of round stock prepared for a split weld. In making this weld, one piece is heated on the end, caught in a vise and split with a thin chisel. See [Figure 35].

These prongs are then spread and scarfed on the inside with the ball of the hammer letting them become fan shape and as wide as possible. See [Figure 36]. The other piece is upset and both pieces are caught in the vise. The scarf is then hammered tight and the ends are cut so as not to have them too long. See [Figure 37]. The cutting of the scarf, and partly into the bar, helps to bind the pieces firmly while the heat is being taken. See drawing of piece ready to be welded, [Figure 38].

Fig. 34. Fig. 35.

Fig. 36. Fig. 37.

Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40.

A heat is now taken, using a little sand or welding flux, if the stock is very small. In welding, the first blow is struck on the end of the split piece to drive it down tight and weld it in the center. See [Figure 39]. The sides are next hammered to weld the laps. It is then finished. On heavy work, the heats are taken separately and placed on the anvil by the smith, in the same manner as described for a jump weld. Another form of split welding is shown in [Figure 40]. This method is used in welding heavy iron and steel, such as picks and drills. Notice the little beards cut with a chisel to help hold the pieces in position when heating. Heavy tool steel is also welded with this form of splitting. The first blow struck with the hammer on this weld, is on the end, forcing the pieces together; then on the flat part.

Corner Weld.

In [Figure 41] is shown an angle made by welding on the corner; this is called a corner weld. It is generally made by using square or flat stock. [Figure 42] shows the scarfs prepared for a corner weld, using 1″ by ½″ stock. The piece at “A” is scarfed with the ball of the hammer. The one at B, with the face of the hammer. Separate heats are taken and the pieces lapped and welded.

Fig. 41. Fig. 42.

T-Weld.

The scarfs for T-welds are made in just the same manner as for the corner weld, excepting that one scarf is in the center of the bar. See [Figure 43].

In taking the pieces from the fire to the anvil, the one scarfed in the center is handled with the tongs in the left hand. The one scarfed on the end is handled with the right hand, letting it under the other, and then hammered. Notice how wide the scarf is made on the end piece at “A”. This is done to cover the other scarf. All flat “T” scarfs are made in this manner.

Fig. 43.

CHAPTER III.

Corner Weld—Brazing—Fagot Weld—Turning a Loose Eye—Hammock Hook—Finishing Wrought Iron—S Link—Welded Eye Pin.

A corner weld made by using heavy stock, for example, one and one-fourth inch square, is to have a square corner by welding. See [Figure 44]. With the dimensions six inches from one end, the bar is heated and cut about half thru from one side with a hot chisel. The bar is then heated and bent to about a right angle, as shown in [Figure 45]. A piece of ¾-in. square stock is cut on four sides as shown in [Figure 46]. This piece is welded into the corner as shown in [Figure 47]. The heat is separate, and the smith takes both pieces to the anvil when hot. He places them in position as shown in the drawing, the helper doing the welding. The long part of the bar is then broken off, another heat is taken and the corner is finished up by the smith.

Fig. 44-45.

Brazing.

Iron and steel can be fastened together by brazing. In doing this, the ends are tapered or dove-tailed together and bound with wire or a rivet to hold them in position. They are then placed in the fire and brought to a red heat. Some borax and spelter are put on and the heat is raised until the brass flows. The work is then taken out of the fire and let cool; then it is finished with a file, or by grinding. Spelter is an alloy of copper and zinc, and may be purchased from dealers. Brass wire may also be used in brazing, and sometimes copper.

Fig. 46-47.

In teaching boys forging, the writer feels that it is a waste of time to give a beginner little pieces to make, such as staples, hooks, etc. A boy cannot learn to handle his hammer, or to heat a piece of stock by making small things. What the beginner in forging needs is some work that he can swing a hammer on without danger of spoiling it. Very few boys on entering a shop can handle a hammer, and they certainly do not learn about heating metal in a forge, by working at staples, etc. The first exercise should be a fagot weld.

Exercise No. 1.—Fagot Weld.

In doing this, two pieces of iron ½ in. square and 6 in. long are used. The instructor demonstrates the welding of these two pieces before the class. In making the weld, one piece is laid on top of the other and both are caught at one end with a pair of tongs. The tongs should fit the pieces nicely; a ring is placed over the ends of handles to bind the jaws firmly on to the pieces. A heat is then taken on about one-half of the length of the stock; the pieces are welded and at the same time drawn to ½ in. square. The pieces are now turned around in the tongs and the balance is heated and welded. While drawing stock always have the bar at right angles with the long side of the anvil. If the bar is not so held, it will twist on the slightly rounded face of the anvil.

Fig. 48.

There will be more or less iron burned by the boys in making this fagot weld; but this is necessary, for a boy can never learn how to work iron until he can heat it properly. He must over-heat and burn iron in order to understand the heat limitations of the metal.

After the weld is made and the bar is drawn to the original size, the ends must be squared by upsetting them. The bar when finished should be ½ in. square thruout its length, and straight with the ends squared.

Fig. 49.

It is then formed into a loose ring by hammering it over the horn of the anvil and not on a ring mandrel. In forming the ring, the ends are upset on an angle, so that when bent into ring form, they will fit together nicely. See [Figure 48].

Exercise No. 2.

This exercise will be made in the same manner as number one, excepting that the bar is finished to ⁷⁄₁₆ in. square, and a ring is turned on each end. See [Figure 49].

Fig. 50.

The eye is formed by heating and hammering it over the horn of the anvil, giving it the shape as shown at B. It is then reheated, set on the horn of the anvil and hammered close to the eye as shown at C, which bends it central with the shank as shown at D.

In turning loose eyes of any size stock or dimensions, on the end of a bar, the ring is first turned into a circle of the desired size. It is then sprung central with the shank. With this method, no figuring of stock is required.

Exercise No. 3.

Fig. 51. Fig. 52.

Fig. 53. Fig. 54.

In making a hammock hook, the stock should be soft steel, which may be purchased for about the same price as iron. It will stand the bending strains better than iron. The size of the stock is 7½ in. by ⅜ in. round. The end is heated and a loose eye formed. The other end is drawn to a taper with ¼ in. of the end turned up as shown. See drawing of hook, [Figure 50], and the different steps in forming the eye at A, B and C. The hook is formed over the horn of the anvil as shown in [Figure 51]. [Figure 52] shows the finished hook with a dotted line drawn thru the center, indicating where the pull should come. In [Figure 53] is shown a common fault when turning a loose ring at the end of a bar, in not bending the extreme end first. Notice [Figure 54], where the end is bent as it should be.

The expert worker in iron is very careful not to hammer mark and destroy the section of a bar. One should remember that bending a ring or iron hook is simply holding the bar on the horn of the anvil and striking the part that protrudes past it. Never strike the bar when it is directly over the horn. This does not bend it, but makes a dent in the stock.

Finishing.

To finish wrought iron, all of the scale and dirt should be scraped off with an old file while the piece is hot. When the iron is cooled, linseed or machine oil is rubbed on. If the work is held over the smoke of the fire and then oiled, it will take on a darker color. Never paint iron work. This destroys the texture of the metal. Do not file work bright. It should be dark—filing is not forging.

Exercise No. 4.—S-Link.

Fig. 55. Fig. 56.

[Figure 55] shows a drawing of an S-Link, which is used to splice broken chains. In [Figure 56] is shown he length and size of the stock. The ends are drawn to a short point and the center of the bar is marked with a center punch. One-half of the link is then formed, bringing the point at the center punch mark and using one-half of the bar. This is a simple link to make. The only thing to be careful about is to not destroy the section of the bar with hammer marks. This may be avoided if one does not strike the hook directly over the horn of the anvil, but to one side of the horn. See in [Figure 57], the correct blow.

Fig. 57.

Exercise No. 5.

[Figure 58] shows a drawing for a welded Eye Pin. The eye may be made any size for practice. In making the ring, the bar is heated in the center and hammered over the outer edge of the anvil, as shown in [Figure 59]. The piece is now turned end for end, and jogged down again with the ball of the hammer. See [Figure 60]. The piece should now look like the drawing in [Figure 61]. The center of the piece is heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to make the ring round and to bring the shanks together. See [Figure 62].

Fig. 58.

Fig. 59 (above). Fig. 60 (below).

Fig. 61 (above). Fig. 62 (right). Fig. 63 (left, below).

In welding, the piece is caught by the ring with a flat pair of tongs. See [Figure 63]. It is now placed in the fire so as to get the heat close to the ring. The tongs are then removed, until the piece reaches a white heat; the piece is again caught with the tongs, and the heat is raised. It is taken out and set on the edge of the anvil and hammered as shown in [Figure 64]. The first blow struck is close to the ring in order to weld that part first. If it cannot be all welded in one heat, it should be reheated at once. Do not hammer unless the heat is a welding heat, as the stock will become too thin before it is welded. Do not heat the tongs red as this destroys them and the piece cannot be held with hot tongs. When the ring is welded, the end is drawn to a square point. See [Figure 65].

Fig. 64. Fig. 65.

CHAPTER IV.

Staples—Open Links—Welded Chain Links—Punching—A Grab Hook.

Exercise No. 6.

Staples are used for hasps, gate hooks, and for various other purposes. They are made from all sizes of stock, depending on the use to which they are put. On account of its pliability, soft steel is the best stock to use in making staples.

Fig. 66.

The length to cut stock is shown in the drawing of the staple in [Figure 66]. The stock is caught at one end with a pair of light tongs. The piece is then heated and drawn out to a point; it is reversed in the tongs and the other end is drawn out. The center of the piece is then reheated and bent into shape over the horn of the anvil.

In drawing any piece of stock to a tapered point, the taper should not be hammered on one side continuously and, when turned over, hammered back again. To have a taper on all four sides alike, the bar must be raised the proper distance and not laid flat on the anvil. [Figure 67] illustrates the wrong way and [Figure 68], the correct way.

Fig. 67. Fig. 68.

Exercise No. 7.

Fig. 69.

Fig. 70. Fig. 71.

In [Figure 69] is shown a drawing of an open link. Open links are used in the splicing of broken chains. In splicing a chain, the link is opened by driving a chisel between the laps, or it is opened when made. These laps are hooked into links of broken chain and then driven together. In making the link, one end is drawn to a flat point and a hook is hammered on it. See [Figure 70]. The other end is heated and drawn out as in [Figure 71]. The center of the piece is now heated and bent over the horn of the anvil to the desired shape. See [Figure 72]. Notice in the drawing that the hooks at the open end of the link are not very long. They should not be made longer than shown.

Fig. 72.

Exercise No. 8.—Welding a Chain Link.

The form and length of the stock for this exercise is shown in [Figure 73]. The link may be made from iron or soft steel. After the stock is cut, it is heated in the center and bent over the horn of the anvil into a “U” shape. See [Figure 74]. The ends are now heated and scarfed by setting them on the anvil as shown in [Figure 75]. The iron is then struck on top with the hand hammer. After each blow, it is moved away from the anvil just a little, giving the end a bevel, so that, when finished, the scarf consists of a series of slanting notches.

Fig. 73. Fig. 74.

In scarfing, both ends of the links are set on the anvil. The end of the one on the right hand side must not be moved when scarfing the other. After each blow of the hammer, the piece is moved just a little. If it is moved too far and the other end of the link is fixed it will describe an arc. See [Figure 76]. This is the method used in scarfing links. Sometimes they are welded without scarfing, but it is not good practice.

Fig. 75. Fig. 76.

[Figure 77] shows the link scarfed, lapped and ready to be welded. In welding, the heat is taken directly on the end of the lap and not on the sides, so as not to burn the stock above the laps. When the link has the welding heat, it is taken to the anvil and hammered on the flat sides, then set on the horn of the anvil, and hammered on the corners. See [Figure 78]. The shape of the link at the weld should be just a little pointed for a strong link.

Fig. 77.

In making chains, do not weld two single links and then one between them. Weld a link on the end of the chain and keep repeating until finished.

Exercise No. 9.

Fig. 78.

Punching holes thru hot iron is not a difficult exercise. For instance: A ⅜-in. hole is to be punched thru a flat piece of iron or steel. The piece is heated, taken to the anvil and a punch set on the spot to be punched. The punch is struck three or four blows with the hand hammer driving it into the metal as shown in [Figure 79]. The piece is then turned over and the punch is set over the dark spot which is caused by the former blows, and is driven thru. See [Figure 80]. Square and other shaped holes are punched in the same manner. Thin stock is punched cold. In doing this, the piece to be punched is set on the punch block and the punch driven thru the metal into the hole of the block. A punch-block is a round or square block of steel with one or more tapered holes thru it. See [Figure 81].

Fig. 80. Left. Fig. 79. Center. Fig. 81. Right.

[Figure 82] shows some holes that could be punched while the metal is hot. A hole like the one shown at A, is made with a punch of that shape; the next hole is made with the same punch. Afterwards the hole is upset or shortened by heating and cooling each side of the hole. The bar is then hammered on the end. This shortens and spreads the metal. The hole is made true by driving a round punch thru it. The stock used for this exercise should be soft steel.

Fig. 82.

Exercise No. 10.—A Grab Hook for a Log Chain.

Fig. 83.

Fig. 84. Fig. 85.

[Figure 83] shows a drawing of the hook with size of stock to be used. The stock should be mild steel, 6½ by ¾ by ⅜ inches. To form the eye one end is heated and shouldered back one inch from the end, by hammering it on the anvil as shown in [Figure 84]. The eye is then rounded with the hammer and the hole punched with a hand punch. The hole is countersunk by hammering it on the horn as shown in [Figure 85]. The point is next drawn out and then the hook is heated in the center. It is cooled each side of the center and hammered over the horn to bend, then on the anvil as shown at [Figure 86]. A piece of ⅜-in. flat iron is set on the inside of the hook and the hook hammered to fit the iron. This leaves the opening of the hook uniform and just the size required. See [Figure 87].

Fig. 86.

Fig. 87.

CHAPTER V.

Bolts—Capping Tool—Gate Hook—Hay Hook—Welded Ring—Expansion of Heated Iron.

Exercise No. 11.

Bolts may be made in one piece by upsetting the end of a bar, then squaring the head by driving the piece into a heading tool. A bolt may also be made by welding a collar around the end of a bar after which the head is squared.

Fig. 88.

[Figure 88] shows a welded bolt head. After the stock is cut to proper length, the collar for the head is made. It is heated and hammered over the horn of the anvil to make it round. The end of the collar is now cut off on the hardie, cutting clear thru from one side and giving it a bevel. The other end is cut from the opposite side giving it a bevel also. See drawing at A. The collar is driven on the end of the bar while the collar is cold and the bar is hot. When the collar is hammered on the end of the bar, there should be about ⅛-in. crack. See drawing at B. The reason is that, in welding, the collar is lengthened. Hammering stretches the metal, and it must have end room. When the collar is ready the bar is heated on the end and upset just a little. A heat is then taken, and the collar is welded by striking it on four sides, letting the opening form one of the corners. The bolt is then inserted into a ½-in. hole in a heading tool to smooth the end of the head with a hammer. A cupping tool is next set on to the head and given a few good blows with the hammer. This bevels the top corners of the square head. A cupping tool is a piece of tool steel with a half round depression in one end. See [Figure 89].

Fig. 89.

Fig. 90.

The heads of bolts can be beveled with the hammer, instead of with a cupping tool. [Figure 90] shows a tool to be used in the vise to make heads on light rods. The rod is heated and inserted into the hole; then the vise is tightened after which the ends are hammered down.

Exercise No. 12.—Forging a Gate Hook.

[Figure 91] shows the length and size of stock which should be of soft steel. One and one-half inches from each end of the bar is marked with a center punch. One end is drawn round to a point. The other is hammered round for the eye. See [Figure 92]. In the drawing [Figure 93], the eye and the hook are shown turned. The center part of the hook is square and is to be twisted. This is done by heating the square part to a uniform heat and cooling each end. The hook is then twisted with two pairs of tongs, or it may be caught in a vise and twisted with one pair of tongs. See drawing of the finished hook, [Figure 94].

Fig. 91 (above). Fig. 92 (below).

Fig. 93. Fig. 94.

Fig. 95. Horn.

[Figure 95] shows a tool called a horn; it fits into the square hole of the anvil. It is used to turn very small eyes at the end of a bar. A piece of 1½-in. round soft steel is used in making it, by drawing the end square to fit the hole in the anvil. It is afterwards bent over and the taper drawn as shown.

Exercise No. 13—Making a Hay Hook.

[Figure 96] shows the stock which should be soft steel, to be used in making a Hay Hook. The eye is first turned, using 11 inches of the bar. The end is then heated and drawn to a point after which it is bent as shown in the drawing.

Fig. 96. Hay Hook.

Exercise No. 14—Welding Ring.

Fig. 97.

[Figure 97] shows a drawing for a ring to be made from ½-in. round stock cut 10 inches long. The whole is heated red at one time and then formed into shape by hammering it over the horn as shown in [Figure 98]. The ends are now heated and scarfed in the same manner as described for the welded link. When they are lapped and ready for welding, they should look like [Figure 99]. Notice that the ring is made egg shape so that a heat may be taken directly on the ends of the scarfs and not at the sides. The ring when welded is formed round.

Another method of welding rings is to upset the ends and then form the rings. It is scarfed as explained above. This is seldom done in practical work because it is too slow, and the other method is about as strong.

Fig. 98. Fig. 99.

In welding the ring, it is handled in the same manner as in welding links. To find the amount of stock for rings, the inside diameter plus the thickness of stock is multiplied by 3.1416 or 3⅐. To this is added enough stock for the lap of the weld. For example a ring is required of one-inch stock. The inside measure is 10 inches. Solution: (10 + 1) × 3⅐ = 11 × 3⅐ = 34⁴⁄₇ + ½ inch for welding.

In heating a piece of iron to be formed into a ring, it should never be heated to the welding heat. A welding heat on any piece of work that is not to be hammered destroys the texture of the metal. Any piece of work to be formed, should be heated evenly and not too hot.