Transcriber's Note:

Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including some inconsistencies in hyphenation. Some changes of spelling and punctuation have been made. They are listed at the end of the text.

THE PYROTECHNIST'S TREASURY.

["The Secret Out Series."]

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THE PYROTECHNIST'S TREASURY;

OR,

COMPLETE ART OF MAKING FIREWORKS.

BY

THOMAS KENTISH.

Flammas Jovis, et sonitus imitatur Olympi.

Virgil, Æn. vi. 586.

London: CHATTO & WINDUS, PICCADILLY. 1878.

[All rights reserved.]

LONDON:
PRINTED BY J. OGDEN AND CO.,
172, ST. JOHN STREET, E.C.

[PREFACE.]

Until within the last few years there was scarcely any work in English, that I am aware of, on the subject of Pyrotechny, worth reading, with the exception of an Article in "Brewster's Cyclopædia," by MacCulloch; and this, besides being accessible to only a few, having been published in 1830, made no mention of colours, which form the most beautiful part of the art.

In the first year of the present century a treatise was written by a Captain Jones, which has been copied, in whole or in part, into almost every work since published. The greater portion of it is absurd and impracticable, and shows that it was written by a person who undertook to teach what he had not learnt.

The first work of any real utility that came under my notice was a series of papers by "Practicus." This was soon followed by another, varied by the new chemical nomenclature.

The subject is far from being treated exhaustively in either of these works, so that I trust the reader will find in the following pages a fund of information, both in the repertory of recipes and the methods of manipulation.

To Chertier belongs the great improvement in colours. He was, as I was informed by the late Mr. Southby, who knew him personally, and who derived much information from him while in Paris, a retired French Artillery Officer, who made colours "his study and theme." His "New Researches," published in 1856, nearly thirty years after his first pamphlet, is an excellent work, that leaves little to be desired in the way of colours. Gunpowder attracted but little of his attention.

Tessier, of Paris, has written, since, his "Pyrotechnic Chemistry," and a new edition of the "Firework-Maker," by Hutstein and Websky, was published three or four years ago at Breslau.

I have neglected none of these sources of information, but do not know that I have been able to learn much from them with which I was not previously acquainted.

Gibbon's "Artillerist's Manual," and Benton's "Ordnance and Gunnery," published at New York, have furnished me with a hint or two; also Owen's "Practice of Modern Artillery," Scoffern's "Projectile Weapons of War," and his "New Resources of Warfare;" but as all these works are on Military Pyrotechny, they have not been available to any great extent. I mention their names, that anyone desirous of a knowledge of Rockets and Shells, as instruments of destruction, may know the books from which to gain the information.

It is possible that, as Chemistry advances, a few new substances may be discovered; meanwhile, nearly every shade of colour may already be produced.

The extensive use of these colours, from their beauty and variety, for stars and lancework, has very materially altered the class of fireworks, and necessitates the employment of an enormous quantity of quick-match. The preparation of this is one of the most disagreeable parts of Pyrotechny, besides demanding a great amount of manipulative skill. Most amateurs are deterred from attempting to manufacture it, and so have to content themselves with only the simplest pieces.

I have, therefore, set myself sedulously to work to devise a different plan of preparing it; and have succeeded—not till after many years, however, and numerous failures, simple as it now seems—in discovering a process of producing a splendid and perfect match, that leaves nothing to be desired; which is easy and expeditious, and does not even soil the hands. Amateurs will now find no trouble in making any pieces they may desire.

Dangerous chemicals, that might produce spontaneous combustion, have been rigidly excluded; the fullest information throughout has been furnished for preparing the mixtures with safety; the mode of projecting balloons, and the manner of constructing steelyard scales, and every kind of tool used in the art, has been added; and no pains have been spared to make the work as complete and comprehensive as possible.

In conclusion, I may say that I have had thirty-five years' experience; and there is nothing I have not tried repeatedly: the reader may, therefore, place the greatest confidence in everything recommended. He has only to imitate to succeed.

T. K.

[CONTENTS.]

[THE PYROTECHNIST'S TREASURY.]

[ROMAN CANDLES.]

To Make a ⁵⁄₈ Roman Candle.

Procure a straight piece of brass tube, ⁶⁄₈ of an inch external diameter, and 16¹⁄₂ inches long. Saw or file off a piece, 1¹⁄₂ inch long, fig. 1. This is for the star former, and is drawn of the correct size.

In the other piece, of 15 inches, fix a handle, as shown, in diminutive, in fig. 7. This is for the case former. It should be filed smooth at the end.

Take another piece of brass tube 4¹⁄₂/8 or ⁹⁄₁₆ of an inch external diameter, and about 16¹⁄₂ inches long. In this also fix a handle, or fix it into a handle, fig. 4. Invert it, and set it upright in a flower-pot, filled with sand or loose mould. Melt some lead in a ladle, and pour it slowly into the tube, leaving room for the air to escape up the side, till it is full. If the lead is poured in rapidly, the confined air, expanding, jerks the metal up, and may cause serious injury. A pound or more of lead will be required. When cold, drive the end of the lead in with a hammer, and file it smooth. This is for a rammer.

Take a piece of deal, fig. 6, about 12 inches long, 6 broad, and ³⁄₄ thick; and, on the top, screw a handle, like one on a copper-lid, or black-lead brush. This is for a rolling-board. An iron door-handle would serve, and may be obtained at any ironmonger's, for about 2d. or 3d. A wooden one, however, about an inch thick, not cylindrical, but slightly flat, and rounded at the edges, is preferable, as it gives more purchase for the hand.

Cut a piece of tin, or zinc, or thin board, into the shape of fig. 8, in which the distance between the arms a and b, across the dotted line, shall be ⁷⁄₈ of an inch. This is for a gauge, with which to measure the external diameter of the case. Write upon it, "⁷⁄₈ space."

Procure some 60 lb., 70 lb., or 84 lb. imperial brown paper: the size of a sheet will be 29 inches by 22¹⁄₂. Cut a sheet into 4 equal parts, each 14¹⁄₂ by 11¹⁄₄: paste the 4 pieces on one side, and lay them one on another, with the pasted face upwards, putting the fourth piece with the pasted side downwards, upon the pasted side of the third piece. Turn them over: take off the now top piece, and lay it flat on the near edge of a table, pasted side upwards. Take the former, fig. 7, and paste the tube all over. Lay it along the edge of the paper, bend the paper over with the fingers of both hands, and roll it tightly up, until the external diameter of the case about fits the gauge, fig. 8. If the paper should be too long, of course a piece must be cut off; if it should not be long enough, more must be added, taking care to bind in the second piece with 3 or 4 inches of the first piece; for if the whole of the first piece be rolled up before beginning the second, the latter, when dry, will probably slip off, and spoil the case. The case having been rolled up, take the handle of the former in the left hand, lay the case flat on the near side of the table, take the rolling-board, fig. 6, in the right hand, press the front part of it on the case, and drive it forwards 5 or 6 times, like a jack-plane, letting the handle of the former slip round in the left hand. This will tighten the case, and render it, when dry, as hard as a book-cover.

The former must always be pasted, before rolling a case, to prevent its sticking. It should, likewise, be wiped clean with a damp sponge, before being laid aside. Brass tubes keep clean a much longer time if lacquered. To lacquer them, clean them with very fine glass-paper; make them hot by the fire, till you can just bear them on the back of the hand; then, with a camel's-hair pencil, wash them over with thin lac solution. The cases may be either 14¹⁄₂ or 11¹⁄₄ inches long; but 11¹⁄₄ is the best, for when the cases are too long, the fuse, as it approaches the bottom, is apt, if slow, to smoke; if fierce, to set the top of the case in a flame. If the learner decides upon 11¹⁄₄ inches, the former and rammer may each be 2 or 3 inches shorter.

After the first case has been rolled up to fit the gauge, it may be unrolled, and the paper measured. Future pieces of the same quire of paper can then be cut of the right size at once, so that the case will fit the gauge without further trouble.

A large slab of slate is convenient for rolling upon; but a smoothly planed board will answer every purpose.

When a number of cases are finished, hitch a piece of flax two or three times round each of them, and hang them up to dry, in a place free from draught, that they may not warp.

Flax is sold in balls; the thick yellow, at 2d., is the best. It is named, indifferently, flax, or hemp. It is much used by shoe-makers; and is sold at the grindery, or leather shops. Two or three thicknesses of this, waxed, or drawn through the hand with a little paste, is very convenient for passing round the necks of small choked cases, tying cases on wheels, &c.

To Make a Roman Candle Star.

Take the former, fig. 1, which, as said before, is 1¹⁄₂ inch long; have a cylindrical piece of turned wood, box, beech, or mahogany, fig. 2, about 2 inches long, and of a diameter to just fit easily into fig. 1. At a point a, at the distance of about ⁷⁄₈ of an inch from the end d, with a bradawl, or very small gimlet, or nosebit, make a hole, and drive in a piece of brass wire, to project just so much as to prevent the tube slipping over it. A piece of a brass rivet, such as used by shoe-makers, is convenient for the purpose. The part with the head on is best; a quarter of an inch length will be sufficient, filed or cut off with the nippers. It is evident that upon inserting fig. 2 into the tube fig. 1, a vacant space of ⁵⁄₈ of an inch will be left at the bottom. Fig. 3 is a piece of turned wood, or, better still, of turned brass, exactly like fig. 2 without the side-pin a. Now to pump a star, insert fig. 2 in fig. 1; press the tube into damped composition, turn it round, and withdraw it. Rest the tube on a flat surface, insert fig. 3, and give it two or three taps with a small mallet, like fig. 26. A convenient size for the mallet is 1¹⁄₂ inch square, 3 inches long, with a turned handle. The mallet is best made of beech or mahogany. The slight malleting consolidates the star, and prevents it from getting broken in charging; it will compress it to about 4¹⁄₂/8 or ⁹⁄₁₆ of an inch in height. Push it out and set it by to dry.

Stars are best made in summer, and dried in the sunshine; when dry they should be put into clean pickle-bottles, furnished with tight-fitting bungs. A piece of wash-leather passed over the bottom of the bung, gathered up round the sides, and tied at the top like a choke, makes a good stopper. Shot, shaken up in bottles, with water, soon cleans them.

To Damp Stars.

Stars containing nitrate of strontian must be damped, either with lac solution, or wax solution; anything containing water destroys the colour. Nitre stars may be damped with gum water, dextrine solution, or thin starch. Most other stars with either of the solutions. Crimsons and greens will mix with boiled linseed oil, but they cannot then be matched, as oil renders meal-powder almost uninflammable. With all stars, not a drop more of the solution should be used than is sufficient to make the composition bind; and it is advisable not to damp more than half an ounce at a time; this is particularly the case in using the lac solution, as it dries rapidly; and if a large quantity of composition is damped, and gets dry, and has to be damped over and over again, it becomes clogged with the shellac, and the colour is deteriorated. If it should get dry, and require a second damping, it is best to use pure spirit only, the second time.

Before mixing compositions, every article should be as fine as wheaten flour, and perfectly dry. Nitrate of strontian, if purchased in the lump, should be set over the fire, in a pipkin; it will soon begin to boil in its water of crystallization; it must be kept stirred with a piece of wood, till the water is evaporated, and a fine dry powder left. A pound of crystals will yield about 11 ounces of dry powder, which should be immediately bottled. Even then, if used in damp weather, it is best dried again, and mixed with the other ingredients while warm. This second drying may be in a 6-inch circular frying-pan.

Articles, separately, may be reduced to powder, with the pestle, in a mortar. See that it is wiped clean every time, as there is danger of ignition with chlorates and sulphurets. When the articles are to be mixed, they may be put into the mortar, and stirred together with a small sash-tool. A ³⁄₈ inch is a convenient size. The mixture must then be put into a sieve, and shaken in the usual way; or it may be brushed through with the sash-tool. Return it to the sieve, and brush or shake through again. As it lies in a heap, level or smooth it with the blade of a table knife, or any straight-edge; if thoroughly mixed it will present a uniform colour; if it appears darker in one part than in another, it must be sifted again. A sieve with a top and receiver is very desirable, as nearly all mixtures are either black or poisonous; the dust from star mixtures is very injurious to the lungs. If a top and receiver cannot be readily purchased, both may easily be constructed out of a sheet of millboard, fastened with a bradawl and waxed yellow flax, and neatly covered with paper.

Mixtures may be damped on a Dutch-tile, a marble slab, or a slate without a frame. They may be stirred about with a dessert knife, pressed flat, and chopped, or minced as it were, and again pressed flat.

To Make Lac Solution.

Put ¹⁄₂ an ounce of flake shellac into a tin pot, and pour upon it a quarter of a pint, or 5 ounces of methylated spirit; or, preferably, a like quantity of wood naphtha. Let it stand for about a day, stirring it occasionally till dissolved. Then half fill a basin with boiling water; set the tin containing the lac, in it, and leave it till it boils and curdles. If the water does not remain hot long enough to make it boil, set it in a second basin of boiling water. As soon as it has curdled, remove it; and when cold, pour it into a vial, and cork it. Spirit must never be boiled over a fire, nor near one, as the vapour might inflame. Keep the pot, therefore, while in the hot water, at a distance from a fire, or flame of a lamp or candle.

To Make Wax Solution.

Put into a vial ¹⁄₂ an ounce of white wax, (bleached bees' wax), pour upon it 5 ounces of mineral naphtha, (coal or gas tar naphtha), keep it tightly corked.

To Make Stearine Solution.

Dissolve a piece of composite candle in mineral naphtha, in the same way. Mineral naphtha must not be used near a candle or fire, as it gives off an inflammable vapour, at less than 100° Fahrenheit.

To Make Gum Solution.

There is no better way of preparing this than simply to put cold water upon gum arabic, and let it stand till dissolved. If for sticking purposes, as much water as will just cover the gum will be sufficient; but, for making quickmatch, 1 ounce or 1¹⁄₄ ounce of gum to a pint of water. If required in a hurry, put the gum into cold water, in a pipkin, or tin saucepan, set it on the fire, make it boil, and keep stirring till dissolved. When cold, bottle, and cork it.

To Make Dextrine Solution.

Take half an ounce of dextrine, and 5 ounces, or a quarter of a pint of cold water, put the dextrine into a cup or basin, add a little of the water, and mix it well with a teaspoon, rubbing it till all is dissolved; then add the remainder of the water, stir well together a second time, pour it into a vial, and cork for use. Dextrine, wetted to the consistency of honey, may be used instead of thick gum-arabic water, for pasting. For this purpose it is advisable to keep either in a wide-mouthed bottle, and to set the bottle in a gallipot containing a little water; the brush, a camel's-hair pencil, or very small sash-tool with ¹⁄₃ of the bristles cut away on each side, to render it flat, can then be kept in the water, when not in use; this will prevent it, on the one hand, from becoming dry and hard; and, on the other, from getting clogged and swollen. It can be squeezed between the thumb and fingers, when wanted for use. The flat gum brushes now sold, bound with tin, are not pleasant to use, as the tin oxidises, and turns of a disagreeable brown colour. If there is a difficulty in obtaining a graduated water measure, one sufficiently correct for pyrotechnic purposes may be made with a vial. Paste a narrow strip of paper up the outside of the vial, weigh 4 ounces of water in a cup, in the scales: pour it into the vial, mark the height, and divide it into 4 equal parts, for ounces; of course, it can be graduated into half and quarter ounces, and increased, if large enough, to 5 or more ounces. A gallon of distilled water weighs exactly 10 pounds. Consequently, a pint of pure water weighs a pound and a quarter. This is also near enough for spirit, though, of course, spirit is a trifle lighter. Doctors' vials are often marked with ounce divisions.

To Make Paste.

Paste is most economically made in a zinc pot, which may be 4 inches deep, and 3¹⁄₂ inches diameter. Any zinc worker will make one to order for about 6d. Put into it 2 ounces of wheaten flour, add a little cold water, rub the two together with a spoon till smooth and free from lumps; pour in more water till the pot is full within about an inch; set the pot in half a saucepanful of water, put it on the fire; make the water boil, and keep it and the paste boiling for 4 or 5 minutes, stirring the paste the while. Remove it from the fire, and set it by to cool. The paste is to remain in the zinc pot, in which it will keep good for a length of time, and beautifully white.

Some recommend alum in paste, I think it best avoided, especially in cases intended to receive coloured fires. Alum is a double salt, a sulphate of alumina and potassa; it has an acid reaction; and, coming in contact with chlorate of potash and sulphur, may cause spontaneous combustion. A drop of sulphuric acid instantly ignites stars containing them. At theatres, the clown sometimes fires a cannon, with what appears to be a red hot poker; but which, in reality, is only a piece of wood, painted red. A mixture is made of chlorate of potash and sulphur, or sugar, a glass bead is filled with sulphuric acid, and the hole stopped up with wax. This is laid in the mixture, and when it is struck with the poker, the liquid escapes, and inflames the potash and sulphur. Sulphate of copper is a particularly dangerous salt, and must never be used, as it is almost certain to cause spontaneous combustion. Chertier, to whom pyrotechny otherwise owes so much, introduced an empirical preparation, by dissolving sulphate of copper in water, together with chlorate of potash, drying it, and wetting it with ammonia: but this, however dried, when again wetted, turns litmus paper red. Practicus has named it Chertier's copper. I discommend its use.

Two paste brushes will be sufficient for an amateur, sash-tools, one about an inch diameter, the other smaller for light purposes. Let them stand in the paste. If they get dry, the bristles fall out. For convenience, one may be kept in the paste, and one in water.

Dry clay, powdered and sifted as fine as possible, is used for plugging, or stopping up the bottoms of cases. I have, for some time, discontinued its use, and employ plaster of paris in preference. Directions will be given for each, so that the learner can adopt which he pleases: but plaster is infinitely preferable. It is an American improvement.

Roman Candle Scoops.

No species of fireworks require greater care in their construction than roman candles. In the first place the stars must be fierce, that they may light thoroughly: next, they must not be driven out with too great velocity. For this purpose the blowing-powder must be carefully adjusted. The stars, also, must be of so easy a fit that when put into the case they may fall to the proper depth of their own accord. If they require pushing, they are too tight, and will probably be blown out blind. When made as directed they will, necessarily, be of an easy fit, as they will be of the inner diameter of the brass tube, while the bore of the case is equal to its external diameter.

To regulate the blowing powder, prepare a number of little scoops, like fig. 5, which is about the right size for the bottom star. They are formed of pieces of tin, zinc, or copper. Cut a long strip of tin, ¹⁄₂ an inch broad; cut this across into 7 pieces, of the following lengths, 1⁵⁄₈, 1⁶⁄₈, 1⁷⁄₈, 2, 2¹⁄₈, 2³⁄₈ and 4 inches. Round off the corners. Take a piece of brass wire, or stair-rod, about ¹⁄₄ inch diameter, and with the wooden mallet, before mentioned, fig. 26, bend each of the pieces round the rod into a half cylinder, or gutter. Take up the smallest, and hold ⁵⁄₈ of an inch of the end of the stair-rod in the end of the semicylinder, to keep it open; put the other part from a to b, fig. 5, in a vice, and pinch it up; it will assume the form represented; the bowl part will be ⁵⁄₈ long, and the handle 1 inch long. Make the bowl of the next scoop ⁶⁄₈ of an inch long, the next ⁷⁄₈, and so on; the handle will always be 1 inch long. The last, for the top star, will have a bowl of 3 inches. The smallest scoop ought to hold as much grain powder as will weigh about ¹⁄₁₂ of the star; but to have the scoops accurate, it will be necessary to charge a roman candle, fire it, and observe whether the stars go a uniform height. For measuring the interval fuse, or fuse between the top of one star and the bottom of the next, a large scoop of the size of fig. 10 will be required. The tin may be an inch broad, and the bowl part 2¹⁄₂ inches long, bent round the rammer, fig. 4. To adjust it, take a roman candle case, fit it on the foot, fig. 9, which is a piece of wood, or brass, turned with a tenon to fit tight in the bottom of the case. Fill the scoop, and strike it level, with a straight-edge; empty it into the case, rest the foot on a flat surface; insert the rammer, fig. 4, and jolt it up and down, a dozen times, or more, lifting it about ¹⁄₂ an inch at a time; put in another scoopful, and jolt it in like manner. If the 2 scoopfuls, thus compressed, fill an inch of the case, the scoop will be correct. If more or less, the scoop must be shortened, or lengthened, accordingly.

A piece of writing-paper may be pasted and wound twice round the handle of each scoop, as from a to b, fig. 4. One dot can be put upon the scoop, for the first, or bottom, star; two dots, for the second scoop, &c., or any memorandum can be written upon them, for future guidance. Should they get soiled, they may be cleaned with a soaped damp piece of sponge.

Gunpowder, for fireworks, is used in two forms; meal-powder, and grain-powder. Meal-powder is a fine black dust, and is employed in all cases of mixing. Grain-powder is of three kinds, F, FF, and FFF, fine, double fine, and treble fine. FFF is best for crackers, simply because it runs rapidly down the pipes: for driving stars, shells, &c., F will be sufficient; but FFF may be employed: FF need not be purchased. All kinds of powder may be obtained of Pinnell, 214, Whitechapel Road. If, in any place, there should be a difficulty in obtaining meal-powder, F grain-powder may be crushed in a leather bag, by laying the bag on a hard surface, and beating it with a hammer. The leather should be of the same kind as shoes are made of.

To Charge Roman Candle Cases.

Pour some F grain-powder into a wooden bowl, or platter, represented by fig. 11. Round the edge lay the little blowing-powder scoops, side by side, beginning with the smallest at a, the next at b, and so on to g. Put some roman candle fuse into a large tin scoop, made to stand on a flat bottom, like fig. 12, the same, in shape, as used by tea-dealers; and, on the right-hand of it, lay the charging-fuse scoop, fig. 10. If the roman candle is to contain different-coloured stars, set seven in a row, in the order desired. When the cases are intended to be fired in threes or fours, the stars in one may be all blue, in another crimson, in another green, in another white. Fit the foot, fig. 9, in the bottom of the case, put in a scoopful of clay, insert the rammer, fig. 4, and jolt it till the clay is well compressed. The clay should fill ¹⁄₂ an inch. This being done, invert it, and shake out any little dust that may remain. Put in the little scoopful a, of F grain-powder; then lay the scoop at A. Now put in a star. As previously stated it ought to fall of its own accord; but make sure that it has reached the blowing-powder, by putting in the rammer. Having ascertained this, put in a scoop of fuse, fig. 10; lay the scoop on the left of fig. 12; insert the rammer and jolt it; put in another scoop of fuse, fig. 10; lay the scoop on the right of fig. 12; insert the rammer and jolt it, as before. Then proceed with the scoop b of grain-powder, and lay it at B, and so on, till the case is filled. The fuse on the top star is best driven in with a short solid rammer and mallet, as it is difficult to jolt the long rammer in so small a space. The last ¹⁄₈ of an inch, near the mouth of the case, should be fine meal-powder, as it binds better than the roman-candle fuse, and also blows off the leader pipe.

The blowing-powder scoops, having been laid at A, B, &c., all that is required is to turn the bowl or platter, a little round to the left, and they will come in rotation, ready for the next case. Also, by putting the scoop, fig. 10, alternately to the left and right of the scoop, fig. 12, it will always be known whether the proper quantity of fuse has been put in.

Coloured stars, from their fierceness, have a tendency to burn in the cases. This defect may be remedied by putting upon each star a small scoopful of Starting Fire, No. 1, before putting in the interval fuse; as much as will fill round the sides of the star. This composition is somewhat fiercer than would suit for the regular fuse, so catches the blowing-powder sooner.

A roman candle is well charged when the stars isochronise, or come out at equal intervals of time: they should, also, theoretically, ascend to equal heights; but, with coloured stars, this cannot be perfectly insured, as some shrink more than others in drying, and, of course, fit more loosely; some are heavier, some fiercer than others.

The interval fuse must always be driven in at twice, never at once. Each star, with its blowing-powder and fuse, occupies about an inch and a half; perhaps a trifle more.

Instead of driving in clay at the bottom, plaster of paris may be used, and then the foot, fig. 9, will not be required. Have some plaster of paris in a wide-mouthed bottle; a glass of cold water with a salt-spoon in it; and a number of pieces of paper, about 4 inches square. Put a small quantity of the plaster on one of the pieces of paper; indent the middle with the finger; put to it a little water, and work it up with a dessert-knife. Just as it gets to the consistency of mortar, and is about to set, mould it with the fingers, to the shape of a cork; push it into the end of the case; rest the case on a flat surface; insert the rammer, and give it two or three slight jolts; turn it round a few times, and withdraw it. If the plaster sticks to the end of the rammer, it shows, either that you have used the plaster too wet, or have not turned the rammer round a sufficient number of times.

No more plaster must be mixed at a time than will suffice for one case. When plaster has once set, it cannot be mixed up a second time; therefore take a fresh piece of paper, and let the knife be cleaned every time. It is advisable to have two dessert-knives, then one can be used with which to scrape the other. As much plaster should be used as will fill the case up about ¹⁄₂ an inch. They must be set by to dry; their not requiring the use of the foot will be found a great convenience.

Roman candles are usually made from ³⁄₈ to ⁶⁄₈; but ⁵⁄₈ is a very satisfactory size. If a roman candle is intended to be fired singly, twist a piece of touchpaper round the mouth. If the cases are intended to be fired in threes, fours, &c., to form a bouquet, or to be placed round a mine, jack-in-the-box, or devil-among-the-tailors, omit the touchpaper, and envelope the case in double crown, made to project an inch beyond the mouth, to receive the leader, or quickmatch.

A steel-pen inserted, nib backwards, in the end of a small paper tube, rolled round the end of a penholder, makes a neat little scoop. It may be fastened in with a little plaster of paris. A scoop may also be made with a quill.

Cracks in wooden bowls may be stopped with the same material; and, if painted over with linseed oil, after getting dry, will remain waterproof for a long time. A screw may be made to hold in brickwork, by drilling a hole in the brick, and pushing in the screw, covered with plaster.

To Make Touchpaper.

Dissolve ¹⁄₂ an ounce of nitre in ¹⁄₂ a pint of hot water. Procure some 12 lb. double crown blue; cut each sheet into four equal parts, 15 by 10. Lay them smooth upon each other, and, with a sash-tool dipped into the nitre solution, wash them over on one side, and hang them up to dry.

To Make Slowmatch.

Dissolve 1 dram of nitrate of lead in ¹⁄₂ an ounce of boiling water. Cut a sheet of blotting paper into six equal parts, and wet them on both sides, with a sash-tool, with the solution. When dry, paste a piece all over, and upon it smoothly press another piece; upon this, pasted, put a third piece; and so on, till all the six form a stiff board. Lay them under a heavy weight; and, when dry, with a sharp knife and straight-edge, cut the whole into strips ¹⁄₄ of an inch broad. Four inches will burn about a quarter of an hour. Narrow tape, boiled in the solution, makes excellent slowmatch.

To Make Quickmatch.

Put into a pan 1 lb. of grain-powder, or meal-powder; pour upon it some thin hot starch, and stir it well about, breaking all lumps, till the mixture is of the consistency of paint. Procure some lamp-cotton, such as forms the wicks of candles. It will probably consist of sixteen or twenty-four strands. Divide it carefully into lengths of eight strands. This is not so easy a task as might appear. The best way is to act the reverse of a man spinning string. Divide the end of the cotton, say of sixteen strands, into two of eight each; fasten them to two screw-hooks, a few inches apart. Take one in each hand, and walk backwards, gently pulling them apart, and when they catch, untwist them: with care they will separate without breaking or entangling. Drop the end of one of the pieces into the pan; and, as it keeps falling, coil it round and round in the mixture, and press it down with an iron spoon, until as much is pressed in as the quantity can saturate. Be very particular that it is thoroughly soaked. Have ready a wooden frame, fig. 13, of deal, resembling a swing looking-glass, with the glass taken out. It may be 5 feet by 4. The frame is to be supported on pivots between two uprights. Fix a nail or hook at the left-hand corner of the frame, and tie the end of the cotton to it which has been hanging outside the pan. Get a person to slowly turn the frame and hold it steady. Take hold of the cotton in the right hand, shut the hand, and allow the cotton to slip gradually and slowly through it, as the frame is turned; squeeze it very gently, so as to allow it to come out well coated, and contrive to make it as round as possible. When all the cotton is wound upon the frame, spread some sheets of paper—old newspapers—on the floor; at each corner place a brick; lay the four corners of the frame upon the four bricks; sift dry meal-powder all over the match, turn it over and sift over the other side. Prop the frame against the wall, and leave it to dry. One ounce of white starch will be sufficient for a pint and a half of water. Rub the starch up smooth with a little of the water, then add the rest, and boil it.

A New Method.

Put into a gallipot, or basin, some hot starch, made as before directed, or some cold gum-water, or cold dextrine solution; and with a small stencil-brush, or a ³⁄₈ sash-tool, cut across the middle to make the bristles short and stubby, stir in some meal-powder, till it is well mixed and looks like black paint. To avoid repetition, it will be convenient to refer to this under the name of Meal-paste. Take two towel-horses, fig. 14, and set them parallel 5, 10, or 20 feet apart. In the top rail of each, drive four nails ¹⁄₂ an inch asunder. Fix the dry cotton to the nail a, carry it across to the opposite nail b, pass it round the second nail c, bring it to the opposite second nail, and so on, till the cotton lies in four parallel lines, like the strings of a harp placed horizontally. Hitch the cotton, without cutting it, to the hook of the weight, fig. 15. This weight is made by taking a piece of brass tube, 1 inch diameter, and 4 inches long. Stop one end with a bung, fill it with melted lead; and before it sets push in a lucifer match, having previously cut off the priming. As soon as the lead is cold, pull out the match, which having been partially burnt smaller, will come out easily, and in the hole left by it screw a cup-hook, as drawn. Invert the weight, pick out the bung, and fill its place with more melted lead. Now procure two pieces of planed deal board; one 4 inches square, the other 6 inches square. With the left hand hold the smaller piece close underneath the cotton; and with the sash-tool or stencil-brush, work the meal-paste well into the fibres of the threads, pressing the cotton on the board till it is thoroughly soaked, and rolling it over, laterally, to make it as round and smooth as possible. It is best to begin on the left, and work towards the right. If the wetting slackens the threads, pull them tight. Now brush some meal-powder through a fine sieve, to free it from lumps; put a tablespoonful or two upon the larger board; hold it close under the four threads, as the other, with the left hand, and move it laterally forwards and backwards, and down the whole length, at the same time brushing the meal over the threads, with a soft, dry, sash-tool, till they are smothered, and giving them an occasional jar to shake off the superfluous meal. By a little practice they may be made as smooth and as round as a piece of wire. Leave the weight hanging to them till they are dry. Instead of four nails on each rail, a dozen may be put; and if the towel-horses are set 12 yards apart, 144 yards may be soon made. In this case, three or four heavier weights would be required. These contrivances, however, are by no means necessary for an amateur; four hooks or nails opposite four others, anyhow supported, will be sufficient; and six or eight feet apart is a good distance. A small quantity may thus be made one day, and a small quantity another; and for this purpose it is best to use gum-water, as it is always ready, and a little can be added to the dry left the day before, and a little fresh meal stirred in. Three or four threads of white darning-cotton, which is of two twists, make very good match; knitting or crochet cotton, which is of three twists, produces, alone, excellent match; two or three pieces of the first, or two of the latter, put into a leader pipe, side by side, blow through with a violent report. Match may also be made of the very narrowest white tape, ³⁄₁₆ of an inch broad; this, from its flatness, is peculiarly suited for enveloped stars. For general purposes, however, lamp cotton is decidedly the best, as it is most loosely twisted, and therefore the most absorbent. If match is liable to be exposed to damp, it should be cased in thick leaders, and be prepared with starch; in other respects, nothing can surpass gum-water. Of course iron pound-weights, with a ring in them, will answer the purpose, or an iron pestle tied to the cotton, or anything heavy; but the kind I have advised are most convenient. They will weigh about a pound and a quarter each. The weight may hang over a chair-back.

Match, to be perfect, ought, when cut across, to look black throughout; it should, also, be stiff, straight, and round; but, to test it, cut off about 10 inches; put one end of this into a leader pipe, so that 5 inches will be in the pipe, and 5 out. Hold the end of the leader with a pair of tongs, or lay it on the ground; light the naked end. If the match is good it will burn gradually, though swiftly, till it gets to the pipe; it will then blow through with a bang. The nearer the leader pipe fits the match the better, only it ought to be large enough to allow it to go easily in, without force: if laid in a roman candle case it would hardly puff: the smaller and smaller the tube becomes the louder and louder the report: the increase of power being in the inverse ratio of the diminution of space. A train of gunpowder laid in the open air, or confined in a tube, comports itself in the same way, as is well known. Match, when dry, should be kept straight; for, if it gets broken, it acts like a cracker, snapping at every break.

A piece of zinc rainwater pipe, of suitable length, furnished with a bottom and lid, or a couple of bungs, is convenient for keeping it in; but a far better contrivance is a deal box, 5 feet long, 3 inches deep, and 3 broad, made of ¹⁄₂-inch pine. The lid of this box can be readily furnished with three or five hinges, like a piano, only made with string instead of brass. Take two pieces of string, fig. 57, and tie them in a knot near the end, as at k. At x, fig. 58, make a bradawl hole through the back of the box, near the top, and push the strings through it; make another hole through the lid, put the string through it, and tie in a knot on the top, as at z: and so with the other four. This will render the explanation easier to understand; but, practically, a single piece of thicker string is best, if you can manage to tie the second knot in the exact spot you wish. The knots must not be too close to each other, as the lid requires a little play. For safety, the box ought to be furnished with a lock.

[ROCKETS.]

Rockets are charged in choked cases, on a spindle, to leave a hollow up the middle, through which the fire may be communicated to nearly the whole of the composition at once: this causes the sudden generation of an enormous quantity of elastic vapour, which, being unable to escape instantly through the contracted aperture left for its exit, exerts its pressure in the contrary direction, and hurries the rocket forward. A stick, attached to it, guides it, like the rudder of a vessel, or tail of a bird, or fish; while its weight and leverage keep the centre of gravity a little below the case, and prevent the rocket from pitching over. Its manufacture, therefore, from the commencement of cutting the paper for the case, to its finish of fitting on the stick, requires an accurate adjustment of all its parts. Disregarding the trade names of pound, ounce, &c., which, now that moulds are dispensed with, are useful only for enabling the makers, from tradition, to understand each other; the internal diameter, instead of the external, as formerly, may be selected, from which to compute the relative measures. Taking the bore of the case as unity, the proportions will be as follow:—

These proportions are most readily calculated by taking the diameter in eighths of an inch. Selecting, for instance, a ⁶⁄₈ rocket, we have, ⁶⁄₈, inner diameter; half as much again, ⁹⁄₈, outer diameter.

Taking the numerator as inches: 6 inches, length of case; ³⁄₄ of this, or, which is the same, ¹⁄₂ the outer diameter, as inches, 4¹⁄₂ inches, length of spindle; putting 20 for the denominator, instead of 8 (8 being ²⁄₅ of 20), ⁶⁄₂₀ of an inch, bottom diameter of spindle; 6 × 8, (numerator multiplied by denominator) = 48 inches, length of stick; ³⁄₈ by ³⁄₈, size of stick.

The following table exhibits the usual sizes in inches.

To Make a ⁶⁄₈ Rocket.

Have the former, fig. 7, a brass tube ⁶⁄₈ of an inch external diameter; the gauge, fig. 8, with a ⁹⁄₈ aperture; procure some imperial brown paper, 70 lb. or 84 lb., the thicker and heavier the better. The best kind is made of old ropes, is air-dried, and rough. This is not easily obtained now. The smooth machine-made, cylinder-dried answers very well. The sort used for laying under carpets, and which is 5 feet broad, is almost equal to the original rough imperial, and should be procured, if possible, in preference to the smooth. Cut it into strips 6 inches wide. Paste the pieces well, and roll the cases as hard as possible, with the rolling board fig. 6, till they fit the gauge. Lay them by for a few hours to get partially dry. They must, then, be choked or strangled, about half a diameter from one end of the case, that end that lay nearest to the left hand in rolling, till they assume the shape of the neck of a vial. For this purpose have a cylindrical piece of deal, alder, or any kind of wood, fig. 24, about 9 or 10 inches long, made to fit easily into the case; cut it into 2 pieces, a and b; b may be an inch and a half long; round off the ends, just cut. In a, fasten a screw, the solid wire, or uncut part of which, is ¹⁄₄ of an inch thick; saw, or file off the head, and slightly taper the part projecting; in the piece b bore a hole to just fit the wire of a. Slip b upon a, and push them into the case, so that the interval between the two reaches within about ¹⁄₂ an inch of one end of the case; slightly draw out b, to leave a neck, or hollow, round which to form the choke; fix a staple, or screw-eye in a post: tie to it one end of a piece of cord, about a yard long, and ¹⁄₁₀ of an inch thick; fasten the other end round the middle of a stick, for a handle; take hold of the stick with the right hand; hold the case in the left; pass the cord round the space left vacant and gradually tighten it, turning the case round and round, so as to pinch it in equally on all sides, till it assumes the shape of fig. 23. Hitch a piece of string, about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch thick, a few times round the neck, until it is filled up flush with the other part of the case, remove the choker, and hang the case up to dry. A hitch is made by simply bending the string backwards into a loop, like fig. 22; passing it round the choke; pulling it tight; looping it again, again passing it round the choke, and so on. The first loop is called a half hitch, and will not hold of itself; the second loop completes the hitch, and makes it hold: the remaining hitches are for filling up the choke, and restoring the cylindrical shape. Practise, by hitching the string upon your thumb, 4 or 5 times: it will hold after the second loop; but push it off at the end, and it will all fall loose again.

A case must not be choked when wet, or it will tear; nor must it be too dry, or it will be difficult to choke it at all. The drier, however, it can be choked, the better. Experience is the only guide. If properly dry, the wrinkles of the choke will be small, and perfectly regular. Should the string stick to the case, chalk it; but this is not likely to occur unless the paper is too wet. Have a foot, fig. 16, turned of ash, or beech, or box, with a hemispherical nipple, ⁶⁄₈ of an inch diameter, as drawn. Bore it with a twist drill, or nosebit, to the depth of an inch and a half. Procure a brass, iron, or steel wire, but preferably brass, 6 inches long, and ³⁄₁₀ of an inch diameter, and perfectly straight. Cut, on one end of it, a screw, 1¹⁄₂ inch long, fix it in a vice, wet the screw with glue, and screw the foot on. File the 4¹⁄₂ inches gradually tapering. The object of tapering it is simply to make it deliver. A cylindrical hollow up the rocket would answer as well, but the spindle could not be got out. The more conically true it is tapered, of course, the better. Finish it off with a very fine file, and smooth it with glass paper. The block into which it is screwed may be larger than drawn; the bottom should be turned slightly concave, to make it stand firm, on the same principle as the bottoms of plates, cups, &c., are made with a rim. The block and spindle are better if cast in gun-metal, in one solid piece: the pattern to give to the caster should be in one solid piece of wood. After casting, the rough parts must be filed smooth; not many turners will be found willing to undertake to turn it.

The next articles required are a setting-down piece, fig. 17; three hollow rammers, or drifts, figs. 18, 19, and 20; and one solid rammer, fig. 21. They are simply cylindrical pieces of wood, turned with a head, to bear the blows of the mallet. Beech, or box free from knots, will answer. The lengths of figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21, are to be 8, 6, 4, and 2 diameters, respectively, exclusive of the head; that is, 6, 4¹⁄₂, 3, and 1¹⁄₂ inches. The hollow drifts are to have a cylindrical, not conical, hole, bored up them, with a nosebit, or twist drill, to within one inch of the handle, so as to clear the spindle by ¹⁄₂ an inch, to allow of any dust being driven up it. The hollow in figs. 17 and 18 must be large enough to fit the spindle loosely at a; in fig. 19, a trifle smaller, to fit loosely at b; and in fig. 20, a trifle smaller still, to fit loosely at c.

The next requisite is a mallet, fig. 25, which may be of ash, or beech. It may be a cylinder, 5 inches long, and 3 inches diameter, with a handle about 5 inches long, and 1 inch diameter. Let it be turned at the end slightly concave, like the bottom of fig. 16, that it may be set to stand upright, like a wine bottle. Or the head may be made 3 inches square, like fig. 26; or, a small carpenter's mallet, about a pound and a quarter weight, will answer.

To Charge Rocket Cases.

The first requisite is a solid block of wood, 6 or 8 inches square, and 18 or 20 high. This is indispensable. A piece of an old oak gate post, answers well. It must be set upon the ground, or on a flag stone, not on a floor. It is impossible to ram a rocket properly on the floor, because of the vibration. It is, also, necessary to sit, not stand, at the work.

Put the setting down piece, fig. 17, into the case; press the case over the spindle, and give the head a few blows with the mallet; this will smooth out the wrinkles of the choke, which is all that fig. 17 is used for. Now put in a very little powdered clay, and mallet it with fig. 18; as much clay as will reach up ¹⁄₁₂ of an inch will be sufficient; its object is to preserve the choke from burning, and getting enlarged. One cannot be too precautious with rockets. Now put in a scoop of rocket fuse, insert drift, fig. 18, and mallet the fuse in firm, with about a dozen and a half blows, or till it offers a resistance to the hand. The blows must be light and numerous, not slow and heavy, like driving a post into the ground. 18 blows with a momentum of 3, will consolidate the fuse: 3 violent blows, with a momentum of 18, would perhaps bend the case, or drive the dust up into your eyes. The mallet need not be lifted above 4 or 5 inches at a time. If the rocket is not rammed firm throughout, it will, upon lighting, explode.

As soon as the case is charged about 1¹⁄₂ inch, make a pencil or ink mark, round the drift, where it stands level with the top of the case, for future guidance; then charge another 1¹⁄₂ inch with the second rammer, fig. 19, and mark it in like manner; proceed in the same way with fig. 20. It is obvious that if fig. 19 were used too soon it would get split by the spindle being driven up it, and the spindle would be bent or broken, hence the advisability of marking the drifts to know when to lay aside one, and take the other. Just before you get to the top of the spindle, put in the solid rammer to feel how high the spindle reaches near the top of the case; hold it by the thumb and finger to keep the distance, and mark it down the outside of the case, by indenting the case with the edge of the drift. Exactly 1¹⁄₃ diameter, that is, in this case, exactly 1 inch, above this indentation make another mark: then as soon as you have covered the spindle, till you can no longer see it, with the use of fig. 20, begin charging with the solid drift, fig. 21, till the composition inside is level with the top mark. This being done drive in a little dry clay, till the case is full. Remove the rocket from the spindle, by giving it a turn or two round to the right, not backwards; then bore a hole through the clay, till you can see the composition, with a ³⁄₁₆ inch shell-bit. The shell-bit should be fixed in a handle, and kept for the purpose. It is not advisable to use a stock and bit, unless the bit is shielded, as it is apt to bore too deeply. The bit may be fixed in a handle, by boring a large hole in the handle, and pouring in melted lead, or pressing in plaster of paris.

Instead of driving in dry clay on the top of the composition, a little plaster of paris may be pressed in; this, when dry, will allow of a perfectly clean hole being bored through it; whereas the clay is apt to crumble, and chip out. The object of the clay, or plaster, is to prevent the composition, which, containing much charcoal, does not bind well, from getting disturbed, and the solid part diminished, which would cause the stars to be ignited while the rocket was ascending, or the fuse, perhaps, to blow through at the beginning. A piece or two of naked quickmatch is to be inserted in the hole through the clay or plaster, and a long piece is to be pushed up the core, or hollow, of the rocket, as far as it will go; it is, then, to be cut off flush with the mouth, and fastened to the side with a little dab of wetted meal powder, pressed on it with the blade of a knife. If the rocket is intended to be lit with a port-fire, take a circular piece of touch-paper, about 2 inches diameter, slightly paste it all over, lay it in the left hand, press the mouth of the rocket down upon it, and smooth the edges of the touch-paper up round the case. Otherwise, smear the end of the case with the sash-tool dipped into meal paste, and when dry, paste a bit of touch-paper round it, and twist to a point, like a squib. The appearance of the rocket is shown at fig. 36; the dotted line round the mouth shows the touch-paper.

In driving with the hollow rammers, it generally happens that a little of the fuse gets driven up the hole; this, if allowed to accumulate, is very troublesome to remove; it should, therefore, be knocked out every time, by holding the drift in the left hand, and giving the head a rap or two with the mallet.

The whole of the composition ought to be put in in about 12 scoops: try 2 or 3 scoops till you get one of the right size, then write upon the handle what-sized rocket it belongs to. These directions may appear minute, but they will save much trouble if attended to.

As it is convenient to know, beforehand, about what quantity of composition will be required for any particular rocket, the following formula will be useful:—

E³ / 9 = drams.

Where E denotes the size of the rocket, in eighths of an inch.

Required the quantity of fuse for a ⁶⁄₈ rocket.

(6 × 6 × 6) / 9 = 4 × 6 = 24 drams = 1¹⁄₂ ounce.

For a ³⁄₈ rocket?

(3 × 3 × 3)/9 = 3 drams.

The same weights denote the quantity of stars which the rocket will safely carry: thus an ounce and a half of stars may be put into the head of a ⁶⁄₈ rocket; and 3 drams into a ³⁄₈ rocket. Along with the stars is to be put in ¹⁄₉ the weight of the stars of bursting powder; this may be pure meal powder; or a mixture of 8 meal powder, 1 fine charcoal, well sifted together: or half meal, half grain; thus the quantity of bursting powder for a ⁶⁄₈ rocket will be ²⁴⁄₉ = 2²⁄₃ drams; and for a ³⁄₈ rocket, ³⁄₉ = ¹⁄₃ of a dram. It is advisable to keep nearly to these directions, for the weight of the stars; but it is not necessary to be minutely exact; but to ascertain whether the head is too heavy or not, take a table knife, or any thing an inch broad, and lay the rocket flat and horizontally upon it in such a manner that the commencement of the head lies close to the back edge of the knife, the cutting edge lying towards the choke: if the head pitches over, it is too heavy, and some of the stars must be taken out; if it balances, it is correct.

Rockets should be fired from two staples, or two screweyes, fixed in a post, one near the top, the other half a yard below, as in fig. 70. They should never be propped against a wall, a chairback, a gate, or railing, as they might fall, especially on a windy night, after the touch-paper was lit, and before the fuse had caught. Every possible care should be taken in guiding them, as it is too late to think about any mischief they may cause, after they have once started.

In making rockets, it is essential, above all things, to have good nitre and charcoal. The best way, with fresh materials, is to weigh out as much nitre, charcoal, and sulphur, as will make one small rocket. Have the nitre as fine as possible, and dry it over the fire in a 6-inch frying pan, which should be kept for the purpose. If the rocket ascends well you will know that the articles are pure, and you can proceed to use them; but if the rocket does not rise, you may conclude the articles are adulterated, the nitre with salt, or that the charcoal is perhaps merely deal sawdust, burnt in a retort. In this case you must buy the nitre in crystals, and the charcoal in sticks. To powder the nitre, put it into a pipkin, pour on it a little water, set it on the fire, make the water boil, and keep stirring the nitre with a piece of wood, until it is dry and of a fine powder. Charcoal is best ground up in a coffee-mill. It must first be broken into small pieces, about the size of coffee-beans. After being ground it should be sifted through the sieve, the interstices of which are about ¹⁄₄₀ of an inch square. To get a correct idea of this size, lay down a line on paper, an inch long: mark it off into eight equal parts by taking the divisions from a foot-rule; then carefully divide one of the eighths into five equal parts. But the best way is to make a square deal sieve, about 8 inches square, and 3 inches deep; then nail on the bottom a piece of perforated zinc, with quarter-inch flemish tacks. The perforations are circular, and should be 20 to the inch, measured diagonally; that is, a diamond-shaped inch, or inch rhombus, consisting of 20 oblique rows, each row containing 20 holes; 20 times 20 = 400. These holes will be about the same size as the ones mentioned in the sieve, because the solid parts between the perforations are also about ¹⁄₄₀ of an inch. A strip of deal, ¹⁄₄ of an inch thick, should be nailed round the bottom, to keep the zinc tight. A square box for a receiver, and another for a lid, should also be constructed, otherwise you will be smothered in sifting charcoal. Making use of the perforated zinc sieve just described, all the charcoal that goes through, fine and coarse, should be used for rockets. It need not be shaken much, but brushed through with a sash-tool. Construct a second sieve with 15 perforations to the lineal inch. Iron borings for gerbes should be sifted through this; use all that goes through. Construct, also, a third sieve with 9 perforations to the lineal inch. Nothing can equal iron and steel for making sparks; but neither will keep long from rusting, after coming in contact with nitre. Coke grains, about the size of pinheads, are a fair substitute. Beat coke into lumps about as large as peas, then grind it in a coffee-mill, and brush it through the 9-perforation sieve; sift the fine dust from what passes through: throw the dust away, and keep the grains. Porcelain may be powdered in an iron mortar, for gerbes; brush through the 9-perforation sieve; sift out the dust with a fine sieve; throw it away and keep the grains. The intense heat of the focus of the choke renders them incandescent; and, from their weight, they are projected to a considerable distance. They are inferior, however, to coke grains, as the latter are to steel filings. We may say, alliteratively; positive, porcelain; comparative, coke; superlative, steel.

Zinc may be obtained with half-inch perforations; a size useful for garden sieves, bottoms of soap boxes, &c.

Before grinding a fresh substance in a coffee-mill, it must be taken to pieces, brushed clean, and screwed up again. Fine lawn or hair sieves should be used for sifting chemicals; excellent sieves may be made with book-muslin: the cylinders may be 4 inches diameter, 3 deep; the muslin should be cut into a circular form, and hemmed round a piece of string; it may then be slipped over the drum or cylinder, and secured; or it may be pasted up and round the sides, and if above 4 inches diameter, two pieces of string may be crossed over the middle to strengthen it.

Charcoal may be made by putting some dry pieces of willow, alder, poplar, sycamore, maple, or almost any kind of wood, except the pine or turpentine tribe, into an old iron saucepan, covering them with perfectly dry sand, and setting the saucepan in the middle of a fire, to remain red hot till the wood is completely burnt through. Remove when judged sufficiently charred; and when cold, not before, pour away the sand.

Sulphur is used in the state of sublimed sulphur, sulphur sublimatum, or flowers of sulphur, and, when mixed with nitre, requires no preparation; but as it is always more or less impregnated with sulphuric acid, as is readily shown by testing it with litmus paper, it might, on coming into contact with chlorate of potash, cause spontaneous combustion. To prevent this, it is necessary to wash the sulphur. For this purpose put it into a pan, and pour upon it boiling water, in which some salts of tartar (carbonate of potash) have been dissolved; stir it well and break down all lumps. Let it stand to subside; pour off the supernatant liquor; fill up with cold water and let it stand, to again subside. Make a conical bag, fig. 33, with a piece of linen or calico, sewed at the top, round a ring or hoop of wire, or cane, or whalebone; fasten a string to it, by which to hang it up. Put the washed sulphur into it, and hang it under a water-tap; turn the water gently on, and let it drip all night; this will wash away every trace both of acid and alkali. Afterwards hang the bag up three or four days till the sulphur is dry; it may then be bottled, and kept exclusively for colours.

Oxalate of soda may be made thus—procure 3 lbs. of carbonate of soda, the common washing soda used by the laundress, not bicarbonate of soda; boil it up in a saucepan with just as little water as will suffice to dissolve it. Dissolve, in another vessel, 1 lb. of oxalic acid in boiling water, and pour it into a deep jar, capable of holding two or three quarts; a wash-hand jug will answer. Now put to this the dissolved carbonate of soda, with a table-spoon, a spoonful at a time. A violent effervescence takes place. The soda is to be slowly added till effervescence ceases. It should be tested with a strip of litmus paper, to see if the acid is perfectly neutralized.

To prepare litmus paper, dissolve ¹⁄₄ of an ounce of litmus in an ounce and a half of water; when thoroughly dissolved, and the water is of a dark blue colour, take some white blotting paper, and with a sash-tool or camel's-hair pencil, go over it on both sides with the litmus solution. When dry, wet some of these prepared pieces, with the brush dipped into vinegar: this will turn them red. Dry, and preserve both. They may be cut into strips, half an inch broad; the blue strips will be tests for acids; the red, for alkalies. Wet a strip of the blue, and touch it with oxalic acid, it will turn red; wet a strip of the red, or the piece just reddened, with carbonate of soda, it will turn blue.

To make sulphuret of copper, procure some thin sheet copper, about as thick as a card; cut it into pieces, and put it into a crucible, with sulphur, a layer of sulphur, and a layer of copper alternately, till full. Set the crucible in a clear fire, and keep it red hot for an hour. Remove it; when cold, break it up, and grind it in a coffee-mill. Sift it in a lawn or book-muslin sieve as fine as possible. Half-a-pound of copper and a quarter of a pound of sulphur may be employed.

There is a black sulphide or sulphuret of copper produced by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through a solution of protoxide of copper: this is useless.

For want of a coffee-mill, charcoal may be beaten in a leather bag, with a hammer.

A variety of rocket fuses will be found in the Tables; the first is as good as any, and will answer for all sizes from ³⁄₈ to ¹²⁄₈. As a rule, the fiercer fuses, containing meal powder, may be used for small rockets; but are, by no means, necessary.

A rocket, when starting, makes a roar; but this is not on account of the fierceness of the fuse, but of the extent of the surface ignited. Rocket composition, laid in a train, burns very slowly.

Rocket Stars.

Rocket stars are made in three or four ways. First cut, or chopped, or naked stars. This mode is used for nitre stars only: chlorate of potash stars require different methods. It is a singular circumstance that, though chlorate of potash stars are much fiercer than nitrate of potash stars, yet the latter light without any trouble, while the former, if made in the same way, would be almost sure to miss.

To Make Cut Stars.

Wet the composition with thin starch, or dextrine solution, or gum water, sufficiently to bind; press it into a flat mass, on a slate, or Dutch tile, with a knife, or small trowel, till about ³⁄₈ of an inch thick. Indent the surface with the edge of the knife, in parallel lines, about ³⁄₈ of an inch apart, and cross these with equidistant indentations, at right angles. Set the mass by, to dry gradually. When nearly dry, break it up into little ³⁄₈ cubes, and lay them out, to dry thoroughly. The broken edges will be rough, and will catch easily.

Dry Pill-box Stars.

Take a sheet of note paper, and cut it into four equal parts; each part will be about 4¹⁄₂ inches by 3¹⁄₂. Paste and roll them on a 3¹⁄₂/8 brass tube, so as to have the cases 4¹⁄₂ inches long. To make these into pill-boxes, perfectly true, like those used by the druggist, they must be cut in the lathe. For this purpose, turn a cylindrical piece of wood, fig. 27, which is to fit easily into the case, except at a, where it is to be turned sloping a little larger, so that when the case is slipped over it, it will bite at the part a; otherwise, on putting the chisel to it, it would slip round, without getting cut. Mark the case, with a black-lead pencil, at every half-inch; suspend it in the lathe; and cut it at the marks. Next procure a ⁷⁄₁₆ inch punch, with which to cut out the bottoms. These are to be made of card, or bristol-board. Lay the card on a piece of sheet-lead, or the grain end of a piece of beech, and give it a smart blow or two with a hammer; keep on punching till the punch contains a dozen or more discs, then push them out. When a number are ready, press them into the pill-boxes, with a rammer that fits loosely.

The composition is to be put into these dry, and driven in with a solid rammer, and the little mallet, before described.

This was the original way of making them, but is perfectly unnecessary. Roll the tubes as directed, of two thicknesses of paper, with a little bit to lap over. Cut them across, with one sharp clip, with a strong pair of scissors. This will slightly flatten them; but they may readily be restored to the cylindrical form, by slipping them on a piece of wood, and rounding them to shape with the fingers. No bottoms need be provided, no punch used.

To Fill the Boxes with Dry Colour.

Rest the box on a flat surface, put in some composition, and drive it in with a brass or boxwood drift and the little mallet, till half full, as in fig. 28. Then fill up the box with more colour, set a little bit of match upright in the side, and mallet it in, till the box is almost full. The drift for this must be cut flat on one side, to allow for the match. On the top put a very little dry meal powder, or shell-fuse, and press it in with the finger. Cut a piece of double-crown, about an inch broad, and long enough to go rather more than once round the pill-box: paste it all over; lay the pill-box on it, and roll it up; tuck in one end, to make a bottom, and press the other end round the match, and on the meal powder, or shell-fuse, till it assumes the form of fig. 29.

Another Way.

Set the pill-box on a flat surface, put in a very little meal powder or shell-fuse, then some composition, and mallet it in till full. Roll this up in a piece of double-crown as before; tuck in the bottom, and set by to dry; when dry, put into the other end—the end containing the film of meal or shell-fuse—a piece or two of thin match, and tie it in, as in fig. 30. Dry pill-boxes are best for making chameleon stars; these are half one colour and half another. Make a dozen stars, half yellow and half green, and a dozen more half blue and half crimson; put these into a rocket; they will burst green and crimson, and change to blue and yellow.

Bottomless Pill-boxes.

The cases are the same as before. To fill them, damp the composition as for Roman candle stars; put a bit of quickmatch into the case, as at fig. 31, and press in the composition. This is usually done with the fingers, but is not very pleasant work, especially with lac solution. A cleaner way, though more tedious, is to fit the case on to a little foot, with a side notch in it, fig. 60; then slightly mallet in the composition. Or a notch may be cut in the side of the box, fig. 61, and the match put in, as fig. 62, and slightly malleted.

Instead of making the cases entirely of writing paper, they may be made half of writing paper and half of coloured double-crown, to indicate the colour of the star.

Another way is to sift a thin layer of French chalk over a sheet of paper, and to roll the stars in it, one by one, as they are punched. When dry, brush off the superfluous chalk, and prime with a bit of match, tied across the mouth.

Enveloped Stars.

Pump and drive the stars exactly as for roman candle stars, They may be 3¹⁄₂/8 diameter, and ⁵⁄₈ long; or they may be formed with figs. 1, 2, and 3, and the side pin of fig. 2 may be removed to c, in which case the stars will be ⁵⁄₈ diameter, and 3¹⁄₂/8 deep; the former will be an oblong cylinder, the latter an oblate. Cut a strip of red, blue, green, or yellow double-crown, of a suitable breadth, and long enough to go twice round the star. Paste the strip all over, or gum it at the edge only, and lay the star upon it, as at a, fig. 41, with a bit of match behind it; then roll it up and put by to dry. When pasted, it shrinks and holds the match tight; when gummed at the edge this is not always the case; it may then have a piece of thin binding-wire twisted round it. It will have the appearance of fig. 32. In fig. 31, the match is embedded, and dries in the damped composition; in the enveloped stars the stars are dried first, and the match lies outside and blows through. Enveloped stars show well in the air.

The word envelope, as used in these pages, must not be confounded with the same word as applied to the coverings for letters. It is rather synonymous with the term wrapper; you lay an ounce of tobacco on a piece of paper, roll it up and tuck in the ends. So with cases: you roll them up in a piece of paper, and leave an inch vacant at each end to receive quickmatch, &c. This is termed the envelope, that is, the wrapper.

Rocket Heads.

Heads for small rockets may be made of two or three rounds of paper rolled dry, and secured on the inner and outer edges with paste. After sticking it on the case, which it may be made to fit, as in fig. 36, pinch the top in like a choke, only tight, and tie it round with twine or flax. For coloured rocket heads, ⁶⁄₈ and upwards, the head may be enlarged by fixing a collar round the top of the case. To make the collar for a ⁶⁄₈, roll a case on a ⁹⁄₈ former, and when dry cut it into short lengths in the lathe, as recommended for pill-boxes; if unprovided with a lathe, saw it with a fine-toothed saw. The advantage of the enlarged head is, that it brings the stars nearer to the rocket, and prevents it from being top-heavy. Another way is to make the heads tapering, and the tops conical, as in fig. 39. One part is rolled on fig. 34, the other on fig. 35; or, a cone may be made of a circular piece of paper, without a former. Cut the circle, along the radius, to the centre; bend it into a cone; secure the edge with sealing-wax, and paste paper over it to overlap the rim: snip the edge with the scissors; paste it inside, and secure it to the other part. But the quickest way of all is to make a long paper bag, which may be made to fit to the greatest nicety. For this purpose take a tape-measure; or lay down, on the edge of a strip of writing paper, 7 or 8 inches long, and 1 inch broad, 6 inches, divided into eighths, transferred from a foot-rule. Suppose the ⁶⁄₈ rocket has a collar, which, on being measured by the paper just alluded to, is found to be 4²⁄₈ inches round; add to this ³⁄₈ for lapping over, making 4⁵⁄₈ inches. Cut a piece of imperial brown 4⁵⁄₈ broad, and as long as the case, 6 inches. Make this into a paper bag, 2¹⁄₈ inches broad. Be careful that the corners are perfect; a strip of double-crown may be pasted over them. When dry, pinch the mouth open till cylindrical, and merely allow the stars to drop in without forcing them; this will keep the top edge of a wedge shape, fig. 37, and answer the purpose of a cone. If the paper is thin, the bag must be made of two thicknesses; the paper will, then, require to be 9 inches by 6; 4³⁄₈ of this will have to be kept dry, and the other 4⁵⁄₈ pasted.

A head, made in this way, if required to hold gold rains, or serpents, can instantly be reduced to a cylindrical shape, by pushing the rocket-case right up it, to the top; this will cause the corners to stick out, like two horns; press them down, and secure them with sealing-wax. Attach a cone, if desired.

Heads made like figs. 38 and 39 may be of three thicknesses of paper, pasted all over.

Fig. 39 shows the manner of tying on the sticks. No variation must be made in their lengths, and it is not advisable to alter their size. To adapt it to the wood, however, a slight alteration might be permitted. For instance, instead of ³⁄₈ square, it might be 2¹⁄₂/8 by 3¹⁄₂/8, a slight increase one way, compensated by a slight diminution the other. It must, however, on no account, be so increased and diminished, as to approach the shape of a lath, as such stick would vibrate, and cause the rocket to quiver. When the heads are a paper bag of the shape of fig. 37, the stick must be tied on, as indicated by the dotted lines.

If the stick is suited to the rocket, it will, when suspended on the finger almost against the mouth, as at f, fig. 40, lie, not quite horizontal, but slightly sloping downward. The wood should be dry pine, free from knots. The sticks are generally cut with a carpenter's cutting-gauge. If the learner has a lathe he will find a 6-inch circular saw convenient for cutting them.

For amateurs, a ⁶⁄₈ rocket is a good size; large enough, and small enough. If ⁵⁄₈ and ⁴⁄₈ are made, two hollow drifts will be sufficient; for ³⁄₈, one hollow drift. Very small rockets, ²⁄₈, are made for children; they are rammed solid, and a hole is pushed up them with a bradawl.

Rockets in former times, before the present days of competition, were charged in moulds. These were of gun-metal, bored truly cylindrical, furnished with hinges, to open and admit the case; they were then screwed up, and might be charged as hard as possible. Names were given them according to the bore of the mould, that is, the external diameter of the cases; a ⁴⁄₈ was termed an ounce rocket; a ⁵⁄₈, a two ounce; a ⁶⁄₈ a quarter pound; a 7¹⁄₂/8 a half pound; a ⁹⁄₈, a pound; a ¹²⁄₈, a two pound.

These names were determined by the weight of a leaden ball of the same diameter as the bore. Now a sphere of lead, 7¹⁄₂ inches diameter = 90 lbs., or 1440 ounces; consequently one of 15 inches = 720 lbs., similar solids being to each other as the cubes of their like dimensions: the latter sphere being twice the diameter from top to bottom; twice the diameter from left to right; and twice the diameter from front to back; 2 × 2 × 2 = 8.

The external diameter of the rocket being 7¹⁄₂ inches, the internal would be 5 inches, and this would be a 90-pounder: hence, for an inch rocket, we have the proportion,

5³ : 1440oz. :: 1³ : 11·52oz.

so that a 12-ounce, or 3-quarter-pound rocket, ought to be a trifle above an inch.

Required the weight of a ⁶⁄₈ rocket. 5 inches = ⁴⁰⁄₈.

40³ : 1440oz. :: 6³ : 4·86oz.

So that a ⁶⁄₈ is a trifle too large for a quarter-pound.

If, conversely, we require to know the size of a half-pound, or 8-ounce rocket,

1440oz. : 40³ :: 8oz. : 3200/9

and ∛(3200/9) = ∛(9600/27) = (∛9600)/3 = 7·08

So, properly, a half-pounder is a trifle over ⁷⁄₈. The names in use enable the makers to understand each other, but they are not mathematically correct, and are of no utility to an amateur.

The following table shows the true weight of leaden spheres, the dimensions being taken in inches.

And ²⁄₃ of the above numbers multiplied by 8, give the correct names for rockets in eighths of an inch.

Required the true size of a half-pounder.

(1·328 × 2 × 8)/3 = 7·08.

A trifle above ⁷⁄₈, as before stated.

A cast-iron ball 6 inches in diameter weighs 30lb.

Cast iron is about ⁴⁰⁄₆₃ the weight of lead.

5280 feet = 1 mile; 3280 feet = 1 kilometre.

[WHEEL AND FIXED CASES.]

Wheel cases may be 5⁵⁄₈ inches long. Cut the paper, without waste, into 4 strips, each 29 inches long. Fixed cases may be 7¹⁄₄ inches long: cut the paper the other way of the sheet, into 4 strips, each 22¹⁄₂ inches long. The extra length, for fixed cases, is to allow of their being reported; that is, filled at the end, with an inch, or more, of grain powder, to make a bang like a squib. The cases are to be gauged to the thickness of roman candle cases, but choked like rockets; ⁵⁄₈ internal, and ⁷⁄₈ external, are a good size. Two solid drifts will be required for wheel cases; one 5¹⁄₂ inches long, besides the head; the other 3 inches: for the fixed cases it will be necessary to have one of 7¹⁄₄ inches. They may be turned of box, beech, or ash; but gun-metal drifts are best, though by no means indispensable. If they are cast in gun-metal, they will simply require filing in the rough places. The cases are to be rammed solid throughout, on a foot, fig. 42, turned in one piece, with a nipple, and a pin ¹⁄₃ of a diameter thick, and just high enough to keep the choke clear.

In all wheel and fixed cases, whatever the remainder of the fuse may be, begin by putting in one scoop of starting fire; this, when malleted firmly in, should fill about ³⁄₈ of an inch in the case. The subsequent fuse can be selected from the Tables. The choke may be protected with a little clay, before the starting fire, like rockets, if thought desirable: no clay is to be used anywhere else. Wheel cases containing steel-filings are termed brilliant.

To prime the cases, very slightly damp some meal powder, by sprinkling it with a few drops of water; mix and chop it up, or mince it, as it were, with a knife: put a little into the mouth of the case, press the nipple, fig. 42, into it, and work it round; this will prime the choke and the mouth at once, still leaving the choke clear; or, paint the choke and mouth with the sash-tool, with meal paste, just sufficient to wet them, then plunge them into dry meal, give them a rap to shake off the superfluous dust, and lay them by to dry.

Wheel and fixed cases need not be choked at all, but plugged ¹⁄₄ of an inch, with plaster of paris, as directed for roman candles. When dry, charge them by setting them flat on the block, without using the foot. Mallet in a scoop of starting fire, then the other. Afterwards, when a number are charged, bore through the centre of the plaster, with a shell-bit, ¹⁄₃ the diameter of the case; insert a piece of match in the hole; wash the face of the plaster over with meal paste, and plunge into dry meal. A sheet of double-crown makes 8 wheel case envelopes (2.2.2) 10 by 7¹⁄₂, so that the void at each end, to receive the match, is nearly 1 inch.

It is not possible to devise a formula that will indicate the exact quantity required for wheel cases, as the fuses vary; but, representing the length, in inches, by I; and the diameter in eighths by e, the following will help to serve as a guide.

(I e²)/7 = drams.

Suppose a wheel case 5⁵⁄₈ inches long, and 4 eighths diameter,

(5⁵⁄₈ × 4 × 4)/7 = ⁹⁰⁄₇ = 13 drams.

Suppose a fixed case 7¹⁄₄ inches long, and 5 eighths diameter,

(7¹⁄₄ × 5 × 5)/7 = ¹⁸¹⁄₇ = 26 drms. = 1 oz. 10 drms.

[GERBES.]

Gerbes, so called from the French word for wheat-sheaf, which they resemble, are fixed choked cases: they do not show well on wheels. As they contain grains of iron, they must not be under ⁶⁄₈; for private exhibitions a good size is ⁹⁄₈, ⁹⁄₈ internal diameter; ¹²⁄₈ external; ³⁄₈ the diameter of the choke; 11¹⁄₄ inches, length of case. Charge the case on a nipple, exactly like a wheel case. It is advisable to put in, first, a little clay, to protect the choke, as the fire, being fierce, would, otherwise, enlarge it, and diminish the ascent of the sparks. Upon the clay drive in a scoop of starting fire, and fill up with gerbe composition. This, when containing iron borings, is termed Chinese fire; the pieces, Chinese trees.

The most magnificent of all, however, is the coloured gerbe. For this, some green, blue, and crimson grains, or small stars must be prepared. They may be quarter-inch cubes, cut as directed for the chopped nitre stars. A far better way, however, of preparing them, is to remove the pin a, of fig. 2, up to c, so that the stars, driven in the tube, will be ⁵⁄₈ inch diameter, and ³⁄₈ thick. When these are dry, chop them into 4 pieces, by holding a knife, or chisel, across them, and giving it a smart blow with the mallet. They are harder made this way.

To charge the cases: having driven in the clay, and the starting fire, put in 7 or 8 stars, then a scoopful of fuse No. 1 or 2, then 7 or 8 more stars, and another scoop of fuse; mallet the whole 4 layers down firm, with blows not too heavy at a time, but many times repeated. Then put in 7 or 8 more stars, another scoopful, 7 or 8 more stars, and another scoop, and mallet the 4 layers as before; and so repeat. The two layers and the two scoopfuls may fill up, when malleted in, ³⁄₄ of an inch, in a ⁹⁄₈ case.

Instead of choking the cases, plaster of paris is far preferable. Let it be ³⁄₈ of an inch thick, and well dried, before charging. After the cases are charged, bore a hole through the plaster, ¹⁄₃ of a diameter, that is, with a ⁹⁄₈ case, ³⁄₈ of an inch diameter. For this purpose it is not necessary to have another shell-bit; bore it with the ³⁄₁₆, and enlarge it with a penknife. It is better arched under, till conical, as shown in fig. 48. Prime with 4 or 5 pieces of match, and wash with the sash-tool.

The gerbe being finished, make a cylindrical box, or paper bag, of 2 or 3 thicknesses of paper: fill it with a number of crackers, and a scoopful of meal powder, and fasten it to the gerbe.

No single piece is more effective than a coloured gerbe; the stars will be projected 30 feet, or more: they may be put in, mixed; or, one layer may be blue, another green, another crimson. Twist a piece of wire, deprived of its elasticity, round the neck, and another piece round the bottom, and leave long ends; it can then be fastened by them to the top of a post. To remove the elasticity from iron wire, lay it in the fire till red hot; withdraw it with the tongs, and put it aside, to cool slowly. If copper wire is used, it will bend without preparation. String must not be employed, as it might burn, and let the case fall. Common pins, patent short whites, deprived of their elasticity, are useful for connecting the parts of lustres together.

[FLOWER POTS.]

These are choked cases, charged with spur fire: the fire is somewhat slow, so the cases must be short: 4 inches long, and ⁵⁄₈ diameter is a good size. Rub the composition thoroughly up in the mortar; the vegetable black produces beautiful star-like sparks, totally dissimilar to any other. Put a little composition, at a time, into the case, and jolt it with the roman candle rammer.

Vegetable black, introduced into a star, causes it to tail, like linseed oil. Light such star on the hob; it will burn, and leave a residue, unaltered in shape; blow upon this continuously with the mouth, or, better still, with a pair of bellows: the supply of oxygen will cause it to boil up, in a state of fusion, when it will begin to throw out clusters of the peculiar starlike sparks, before mentioned, bright and yellow as new sovereigns.

Vegetable black is a pure lamp black; some samples of lamp black make equally good stars, but others are worthless. Greater reliance can be placed upon vegetable black. Vegetable black and lamp black must not be mixed with linseed oil, as such mixture is liable to spontaneous combustion.

Roll up a tube for pill boxes, of two thicknesses of brown paper. When dry, cut it into pieces about 1¹⁄₈ inch long: choke one end, like a wheel case; set it on a nipple,and charge it with spur fire, till full within ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch: fill up flush with a little plaster of paris, pressed in flat with a knife: prime the choked end, and put a number of such cases into a rocket head, or shell.

[PORT FIRES AND SHELL FUSES.]

These are unchoked cases, like roman candles; 6 inches long, ³⁄₈ internal, 4¹⁄₂/8 external, is a good size. They should be rammed, as hard as possible; and, for this purpose, it is best to have a mould. Now, if a case is rolled of such a size that it will exactly fit into a brass tube, and is charged, in it, very hard, it will swell, and it will be almost impossible to get it out again; but if it be made a trifle smaller, so as to just slip through the tube; then, if a piece of writing paper be rolled, dry, round it, once or twice, so as to make it a tight fit, and the case is charged, it can be pushed out, like a pellet from a popgun, leaving the writing paper, generally, in the tube, or mould, and the case will come out without a wrinkle.

Let the composition be put in, very little at a time, and well driven with a solid rammer and mallet. Fig. 59 represents the mould; the foot b fits the tube a; the tenon c fits the case; a wire, d, goes through 2 holes in the brass tube, and a hole through the foot; a nut, e, to keep the wire from jarring out, is made of a piece of indiarubber: make a hole through it, with a bradawl, and slip it on the wire; or, a screw-eye may be passed through and held with a leaden, or wooden nut.

TOURBILLIONS.[A]

A tourbillion, so called from the French word for whirlwind, is a case made to rotate and ascend at the same time, forming a spiral of fire, and ending in the shape of an umbrella.

To Make a Tourbillion.

Roll the case like a roman candle case, but gauge it to the thickness of a rocket case. Let the inner diameter be ⁶⁄₈; the outer ⁹⁄₈; the length of the case 7¹⁄₄ inches, fig. 43. To charge the case, have a mould, as directed for port-fires; and let the tenon rise exactly ³⁄₈ of an inch up the case. Put in a little composition at a time, and mallet it as firmly as possible, till within exactly ³⁄₈ of an inch of the top of the case; so that there will be a vacancy of ³⁄₈ of an inch, at each end. Fill each of these ends flush with plaster of paris. It is, better, too, if you can manage to fill the middle half-inch of the case with plaster of paris. It can be effected with care, and will hold the screw, hereafter to be described, more firmly.

Construct a wooden box, fig. 44, consisting of a bottom and two sides only, firmly screwed together. Each of the pieces of wood is to be 7¹⁄₄ inches long, and ¹⁄₂ an inch thick. The internal breadth of the box is to be exactly ⁹⁄₈ of an inch; and its internal depth exactly 4¹⁄₂/8 or ⁹⁄₁₆, so that when the tourbillion is laid evenly in it, and pressed down to the bottom, half of the case will be in it, and half out of it. At a point b, fig. 44, on the top of the side, half an inch from a, make an ink mark: and, at a point d, half an inch from c, make another ink mark. Fig. 45 is the bottom of the box. At a point w, ⁵⁄₈ of an inch from the end; and, at a point z, ⁵⁄₈ of an inch from the other end, make holes with a fine bradawl, truly, in a line down the middle of the wood, as between side and side. The distance w z is 6 inches; divide it into 3 equal parts, in the points x and y, two inches asunder. Bisect x y in the point s. Procure 5 carpet pins, fig. 47: they will, probably, be ³⁄₄ of an inch long. Drive them through the holes w, x, s, y, z, inverting the box for the purpose, so that they shall stand bolt upright in the box. Now screw, or nail a piece of wood over the bottom of the box, entirely to cover it, to prevent the carpet pins from getting displaced. It will be seen, that, if the tourbillion be now laid evenly in the box, and pressed down till it rests on the bottom, the projecting pins will make 5 holes, in the under part of the case. While it is thus lying, with a stiletto, such as used by sempstresses, for making eyelet holes, prick the side of the case over the line b, of fig. 44; and, also, over the point d. There will now be 7 holes; 5 underneath, 1 to the right, and 1 to the left: the latter are the places for the whirlers, or holes of rotation: 4 underneath, for the lifters, or holes of ascension; the centre one, s, receives a nail or screw. Take a bradawl, fig. 49, ³⁄₁₆ of an inch diameter; and slip over it a shield, consisting of a piece of wood with a central hole up it, like a pop-gun, of such a length, that, when it is slipped on, only ¹⁄₄ of an inch of the bradawl protrudes; or, instead of a bradawl, fix in a handle, a wire of equal length, namely ¹⁄₄ of an inch, and file it to a point. Push this into all the holes, except s, making 4 holes underneath, and 2 horizontal holes, one left, one right: all these holes will be exactly of the same depth, on account of the shield: see that they are bored perfectly true, the horizontals exactly 90 degrees above the others, or ¹⁄₄ of the circumference.

The next thing required, is a piece of hooping, or curved stick, about ⁶⁄₈ of an inch broad, and as long as the case, 7¹⁄₄ inches. In the centre of this, bore a hole, and countersink it; then, with a screw, an inch and a quarter long, screw the hooping, at right angles, on the bottom of the case, through the point s of fig. 45, which must be enlarged to receive the screw. A touch of glue may still farther hold the wood in position. It will now assume the shape of a cross, like figs. 50 and 51. Fig. 50 shows the under side of the case; fig. 51 the upper. From w to x lead a bit of naked match; push the ends into both holes, and secure with a little wetted meal, pressed in with a knife. Do the same with y and z. Paste a piece of double-crown, ³⁄₄ of an inch broad, and of sufficient length, and cover each of the two pieces of match, with two layers of the paper. Turn it over, like to fig. 51; connect the holes a and b with a bit of naked match; and, under the centre of it, slip another piece of naked match, having a piece of touch-paper round the protruding end: cover the match with two thicknesses of pasted paper, in the same manner as the under holes. The tourbillion is now complete. See that it will balance, and swing round easily, when laid upon a level surface. The proper way to fire it, is from a flat sheet of iron, or a flagstone. Light the touch paper; the fire will communicate to the side holes, and set it in rotation. As soon as ¹⁄₈ of an inch of fuse has burnt from each end, and the piece has got well into action, the 4 under holes will catch, and cause it to ascend.

Instead of this mode of making a tourbillion, some charge it with an inch of solidly rammed clay, in the middle; fasten the stick, by crossing it with binding-wire; bore a hole through the middle of it, and of the clay, and slip it over a tapering-wire, standing upright in a block, like the spindle of a rocket. Four holes only are then used; two of rotation, and two of ascension; and the whole are fired at once, the match starting from one of the under holes, going to the side hole; over, across, to the other side hole, and on to the other under hole.

Instead of making them with clay in the middle, there is yet a better method of having two cases, each about 4 inches long; and gluing, or fastening them with tin-tacks on a centre-piece, turned with a tenon at each end, fig. 52; two balancing arms, one on each side, must then be fixed to the centre-piece.

In a windmill, as is well known, the vanes, or sails, are set at an angle. There is a toy, made of two slips of tin, forming a cross, and set at an angle, sloping upwards, called the flying dutchman; this, when spun with a string, from a handle like a humming-top, flies up into the air, on escaping from the string. Steel Fliers, with two vanes, are used by sportsmen to practise shooting flying. Small balloons, some years ago, in a room in the Polytechnic Institution, free from a current of air, were guided or driven by a similar contrivance, moved by clockwork. The screw-propeller of a ship acts on the same principle. I think it possible that, if two vanes were fixed in the central piece of wood, set at an upward angle of 10, 15, or 20 degrees from the horizontal, they might assist the ascension, and so cause the tourbillion to reach a greater height; or, the vanes alone might cause it to rise, upon 4 side holes, two to the left, and two to the right, causing it to rotate. The design is shown at fig. 54, the shape of the vane at fig. 53. I have not yet tried it, so offer it only as a suggestion.

FOOTNOTES:

[A] Tourbillion, from tourbillon, like postillion, from postillon, the i being inserted to approximate the pronunciation of the French. In pavilion, from pavillon, and vermilion, from vermillon, one l is dropped; so in battalion, from bataillon; while medallion, from medaillon, retains the ll.

[SAXONS.]

These are unchoked cases, charged like a tourbillion, but pierced only with holes of rotation, for the purpose of turning a coloured fire. Drive them in a mould, as directed before. A good size is, ⁵⁄₈ internal, ⁷⁄₈ external, 6 or 7 inches long. Let the tenon enter the case ³⁄₈ of an inch: charge the composition firm till within ¹⁄₂ an inch of the top, which leave vacant. Remove it, and fill the ³⁄₈ occupied by the tenon, with plaster of paris. Have a centre-piece, turned like fig. 55, with a tenon, ⁵⁄₈ diameter at each end, ¹⁄₂ an inch long. Glue a case on each tenon. Let the centre-piece be 6 inches long, exclusive of the tenons; so, if the saxon cases are 7 inches long, each, the entire length, as fig. 56, will be 20 inches. Make a hole at a, and another at c, with a shielded bradawl, ³⁄₁₆ of an inch diameter. Put a bit of naked match in the hole a, carry it round x and y, along to c and on to z. It must be pushed into c with a blunt wire. Cover it with two thicknesses of pasted paper, like the tourbillion. Leave the match exposed at x, y, and at z, and brush it over with meal paste. If the central piece of wood were now put on a horizontal spindle, and fire communicated to the match z, the holes a and c would cause it to rotate, and produce a white circle of fire. This, however, would be hardly worth making; but, by fixing at b, a little case of coloured fire, a splendid effect is produced. This case of colour is usually tied to a nail, driven in at b; but a little tenon of wood may be glued there instead, and the case of colour must be then charged, with a vacancy at the bottom, to fit on the tenon. The case of colour must be timed to burn as long as the saxon; rather more than an inch will be sufficient.

Saxons are sometimes made by charging a roman candle case with an inch of clay in the middle, and boring a hole through the clay, to receive a spindle. Only one half of the case burns at a time; a leader, placed at the bottom, near the central clay, conveys the fire to the other end; and continues the rotation. For distinction, they are called Chinese fliers.

[FIVE-POINTED STARS.]

These are cases about 2¹⁄₂ inches long, and 1 inch diameter. Make a bottom to the case with ¹⁄₄ inch thickness of plaster of paris, so that it looks like a large pill box. Charge it solid, and at ³⁄₈ of an inch from the extremity, that is, ¹⁄₈ of an inch beyond the plaster bottom, round the circumference make five holes, as for saxons; run a bit of match round, connecting the holes. These, when fired, stand out at right angles, the plaster towards the spectator, so that the fire resembles a gas star, with 5 points, as in fig. 130.

[SQUIBS.]

Take a sheet of 60-lb. imperial brown, and a sheet of 12-lb. white demy. The imperial, as said before, is 29 by 22¹⁄₂. Cut it into 24 equal parts (2, 4, 3), that is, first into two equal parts, down the natural fold of the paper; then each into four equal parts, at right angles to the first fold; and each of these into three equal parts, at right angles to the second fold. Each piece will then be 5⁵⁄₈ by 4⁵⁄₈. The demy is 22¹⁄₂ by 17¹⁄₂. Cut the sheet into sixteen equal parts (2, 4, 2), each piece will be 5⁵⁄₈ by 4³⁄₈. A piece of brown and a piece of white will make a case 5⁵⁄₈ inches long. For a former, procure a piece of brass wire, or stair-rod, about a foot long, and ¹⁄₄ inch diameter. Lay eight pieces of the demy evenly on each other; draw the thumbnail of the right hand from the farther edge of the paper straight over the middle towards you, a few times. If properly performed, this will draw piece behind piece; proceed till about ¹⁄₈ of an inch of each is left exposed, in the same manner as a pack of cards would arrange themselves, if set upright, and allowed to fall forwards; something after the manner of the laths of a venetian blind, or slates upon a roof, imbricated. If you cannot acquire the knack of doing this, you must so lay them, one by one. Paste the edges of all the eight pieces thus lying. Place one of the pieces of brown paper before you; lay the former, or stair-rod, across it, nearly in the middle; bend the paper over it, and press it in with the fingers of both hands; roll for an inch, or so; lay it on the middle of a white piece; bend the white over; infold the brown in it, and roll forward, till it catches the pasted part, and sticks. After a number have been prepared, and are dry, choke them, as directed for rockets. The wire of the choker, fig. 24, should be about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch thick. Now take a piece of square steel, or iron wire, 12 inches long, the thickness of the wire being about ³⁄₅ the diameter of the stair-rod, that is, ¹⁄₄ x ³⁄₅ = ³⁄₂₀ of an inch; if it be found difficult to procure square wire, file a round piece. Bore a hole down a bradawl or chisel handle, 2 inches in depth, and ¹⁄₄ diameter; fix the square wire in it, with melted lead, like fig. 4; the lead is for the purpose of giving weight to the blows in charging. Black the wire all over with ink, and allow it to dry. The next requisite is a tin funnel, without a neck, of the size and shape of fig. 65. Any tinman will readily make one to order; but if the learner procure a soldering-tool, he can construct one himself. For this purpose, dissolve a piece of zinc in a little hydrochloric or muriatic acid, till the acid is saturated: heat the tool, and dip the tip end, momently, into it; the acid combines with the oxide of copper formed by heating, and the zinc adheres to the clear surface of copper produced; it will now easily take up the solder: the joint to be soldered must be clean, and also touched with a feather dipped into the acid. It is best to make a funnel with a piece of writing-paper, first, for a pattern; when this is got correct, the tin can be cut according to it. By describing a circle with a 3-inch radius, and cutting out a sector of 100°, the correct size is obtained at once; ¹⁄₈ of an inch breadth, outside the radius, is to be allowed to lap over. The bore of the squib is ⁵⁄₂₀ of an inch; the size of the ramming wire ³⁄₂₀; the hole at the bottom of the funnel may be half way between, ⁴⁄₂₀ or ¹⁄₅ of an inch diameter. Push the wire rammer through the funnel, till it protrudes 2 inches beyond the bottom; observe the part of the wire which is now level with the top of the funnel; withdraw it, and file a bright mark round the part: it will be about 4¹⁄₂ inches from the end. The wire, having been inked, shows the bright mark more plainly.

Make a deal box, 3 inches square, and 4 inches deep, and nail a bottom to it. Also have a little nipple, fig. 73, with a wire, as drawn; it can be secured to a flat board.

To charge the cases. Set the choked end of one on the nipple, insert the funnel in the other end, put the wire rammer down through the funnel, and let it fall to the bottom of the case: put in some fuse, and jolt the rammer up and down, till the case gets so far filled, that the bright, filed notch, before described, is on a level with the top of the funnel. It is necessary to sit at a table to charge the cases; the eye is, then, on a proper level to see the mark. As the cases are thus charged, set them in the square box, choked end downwards, till a number are filled. Now take out a handful, invert them over a sheet of paper, and give them a few taps with the rammer; this will shake out a great deal of loose composition, that has got puffed up, in the case. Return them to the deal box.

The next operation is to bounce, or bang them. For this purpose take a long slip of paper, 7 inches broad. Stretch it lengthwise before you. Lay a number of the cases upon it, so that all the choke ends lie flush with the left edge of the paper; then roll them up in the paper; turn and set them upright on the choke ends; the paper will now stand up more than an inch above the cases, as a tumbler, three parts full of water, stands up with an empty space above the water. Rest them on a sheet of paper, and pour in a quantity of F grain powder; this will fill every case; loosen the paper wrapper, and allow the superfluous grain powder to fall on the paper. Set the cases, choke downwards, in the square box. As they are all full, it is necessary to get a little out of each. For this purpose, lay the square box, containing them, horizontally on a sheet of paper, on one of its sides; turn it gently over, and lay it on the next side; a little of the gunpowder will spill out; turn it gently over again, and lay it on the next side; and so proceed, till every case has about ³⁄₈ of an inch empty. The ends of the cases are now to be closed. Take a case, in the left hand, as in fig. 63, and wind a piece of string, or whipcord, three or four times round it, holding the end of the string, a, firmly with the thumb; then, with the right hand, bring the end, b, back over all the folds, as in fig. 64; pull the end, B, tight, and the case will be closed.

Melt some common bottle sealing-wax in a pipkin; carry it to a distance from the fire, and dip the ends of the squibs into it. Next, prime them, by pressing the choked ends into very slightly damped meal powder, as directed for wheel cases. Take a piece of touch-paper, 15 inches by 10. Divide it into 48 pieces (2, 2, 3, 4); each piece will be 2¹⁄₂ by 1¹⁄₄. Roll a piece round the primed end, twist to a point, and fasten it with a bit of carpet thread, hitched three times round it.

[SERPENTS.]

These are simply squibs, made short, in order to burn out quickly, as they are intended to be thrown from mines, and would otherwise lie too long on the ground. They are best made entirely of brown paper, pasted all over, exactly like wheel cases, and choked in the same manner. Cut the paper 6 inches by 2¹⁄₂, and roll them on the squib former, so that they shall be 2¹⁄₂ inches long. Ram them with the funnel and wire, but continue the ramming till the guide-mark stands a little higher than the level of the funnel; until, in fact, the cases get half full. Bounce, close, and dip them in melted wax, like squibs. The best way to prime them is to paint them with the sash-tool, slightly, then plunge them into dry meal, so that they may be, as nearly as possible, like quickmatch. If they were pressed into wet meal powder, of the consistency of mortar, and then rubbed smooth on a Dutch tile, or slate, or plate, they would dry hard and glazed. In this case, if they were fired from a mine, in all probability three-fourths of them would miss. In brushing them with the sash-tool, with meal paste, turn the brush well round, to leave little in; so that, after being pressed into the dry meal, they may not be choked up, but the cup shape still be left. They are not to be touch-papered, being intended only for mines, rockets, or shells.

[PINWHEELS.]

Procure some 16-lb. double-crown white paper.

The small strip may be used for odd purposes. Divide the 30 by 17 into 10 strips, each 3 by 17, for penny pinwheels. If the paper were cut the other way of the sheet, it would not wind smoothly, but crumple up. The fibres, from some cause or other, appear to arrange themselves in one direction, like the grain in wood. For halfpenny wheels, divide the sheet into two pieces, each 10 by 30; then cut each of these into 12, each 10 by 2¹⁄₂. For a former, have a straight piece of iron, or steel, wire, ¹⁄₈ of an inch thick, and 24 inches long. One end of this must have a basil, or sloping enlargement upon it, which is thus made. Take a piece of double-crown 4 inches square; lay it straight before you, and cut it diagonally, from the right top corner to the left bottom corner; remove the left half; paste the right; lay the wire upon it, so that the rectangular corner is 5 inches from the right end of the wire; roll it up, and press it smooth; the sloping edge will now form a spiral, commencing at 9 inches from the right end of the wire, and being enlarged at 5 inches from the end. Paste a thin strip of paper over the whole, to protect the spiral edges. It will now be something of the shape of fig. 27, only turned the reverse way. The 5 inches at the end are for a handle. To roll the pinwheel pipes, lay the strips of paper evenly upon each other, and work them back with the thumbnail, as before. Paste the edges; lay half-a-quire of double-crown, or of blotting-paper, flat upon the table, to roll on. Place one of the strips of pasted paper upon it; lay the wire upon it, the basil end being towards the right hand; the wire is to be laid, not quite parallel with the near edge of the paper, but slightly sloping, about an inch and a quarter distant from it on the left, and not quite an inch on the right, or basil end. So much of the basil must lie on the paper as will make the mouth of the pipe large enough for the nozzle of the funnel to enter half-an-inch. The basil, of course, gathers up the paper more quickly than the wire, and brings the edge straight, on the completion of the pipe. Now to roll, bend the paper over the left end of the wire, press it in with the fingers, and begin immediately to move it forward; at the same time draw the fingers of the right hand rapidly along, pressing in the paper, and rolling forward, keeping the right, or basil, end of the wire tight, and slightly pulled towards you: the paper round the left end of the wire will have thus become rolled half round the circumference of the wire, before the basil end has begun. There is very great difficulty, at first, in rolling so long a pipe as 17 inches; it is advisable to begin with the halfpenny pipes, which are much shorter; the same wire-former will serve for both. If you cannot succeed, get a person to help you; sixteen fingers can manage the matter easily; but it is best to master the difficulty yourself. Have a funnel as nearly the size and shape of fig. 66 as possible. It is best with a lid soldered on the top, with a circular hole in the middle, about the size of a shilling, to prevent the composition from getting spilt. A slightly tapering neck is also to be soldered on at the bottom. Take especial care that the mouth of the funnel dips into the neck, and not have the neck sticking up in the funnel. The joint inside must be perfectly smooth. A charging wire will now be required; this should be a square steel wire, as large as the neck of the funnel will admit, to move easily up and down; let it also have a piece of lead at the end, to give it weight. Take a piece of brass tube, about ³⁄₈ of an inch diameter, and an inch long. Hold the wire in it, with a piece of flannel, or woollen cloth, and pour in melted lead. To charge the cases, first bend a quarter of an inch of the small end of the pipe, over the edge of a knife, into a hook, to prevent the composition running out; insert the nozzle of the funnel in the enlarged end; hold the part of the pipe now round it, with the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, slip the wire, through the funnel, down to the bottom of the pipe, which must rest, for a moment, on the table; pour in the composition, jolt the wire up and down; lift the pipe from the table, keep jolting the wire, at the same time turning it round, and let the pipe swing slightly to and fro, till filled. A guide-mark must be filed round the wire, as for squibs, at such a distance as that, when it is level with the top of the funnel, the bottom may protrude about ³⁄₈ of an inch. When a number of pipes are charged, close the large, or basilled, end, which is the one to be lit, by means of a piece of whipcord, or thin twine, wound round it, as directed in figs. 63 and 64. Soak a towel in water; wring it as dry as possible; spread it out flat; lay the pipes in a row, side by side, upon it, like rushes in a chair bottom; roll them up in it, and leave them for 10 or 15 minutes. Then wind them upon the usual circular blocks, and fasten the end with sealing-wax. Be careful that the wax is not in a flame at the moment of touching the case; if necessary, blow it out. Accidents will arise, both from the wax and from the candle, if care is not used. Measure, with a tape, round the wheel, now wound; suppose 4 inches; cut a piece of blue double-crown, 4 inches broad, and any length: cut this into strips about ³⁄₁₆ of an inch broad, and 4 inches long; paste a slate all over; lay these strips, 7 or 8 of them, side by side, flat upon it; paste their upper surface; lay one across each pinwheel, and bend it over to make the ends meet in the centre on the other side. If you wish the pinwheel to be of double or triple size, after you have charged one pipe, paste the small end of a second pipe, outside, and stick it in the other. Let it dry; then charge the additional pipe. Observe, the pipes must not lie too long in the towel; if the nitre gets dissolved, it soaks into the paper, which becomes, virtually, touchpaper, and one pipe ignites the other. The wire formers must not be allowed to get rusty; therefore, before laying them aside smear them with tallow, or olive oil. The wire is much facilitated, too, in delivering, if, just before using it, it is slightly oiled, and then wiped, apparently, perfectly dry. After the wheels are finished, they should be spread out to dry, as soon as possible. It is not usual to prime them; and, as sold, they are very difficult and troublesome to light; for private use, they may have a short piece of match inserted in the mouth, and a small bit of touch-paper wound round it. French nails are now made, of wire, very thin; those, about an inch long, are much better than pins, for firing the wheel upon, as they have larger heads, and prevent its falling off. Pinwheel blocks may be obtained of Merrick, Shuttle Maker, 155, Bethnal Green Road; the same person sells triangular and vertical wheels; caprice, furilona and pigeon frames; rocket sticks; mine bottoms; saxon centres, &c.; also, plait mills, made to order.

[CRACKERS.]

A good tough paper for these is 24 mill, 19-lb. double-small hand.

The strip 30 by 4 may be used for squibs, or any odd purpose. For penny crackers cut the 30 by 16 into 8 strips, each 3³⁄₄ by 16. For halfpenny crackers divide the sheet into 2 pieces, each 10 by 30. Cut each of these into 10, each 10 by 3. For a former have a straight piece of iron, or steel, wire, ³⁄₂₀ of an inch diameter, and 24 inches long. This will not require a basil. Have, also, another wire, of half the thickness, for an opening wire. Lay the strips on blotting-paper, as before; and place the wire parallel with the edge of the strip, as there is now no basil. When a number of pipes are rolled and dry, hold one flat on a table; and, with the handle of a knife, or tooth-brush, rub the pipe flat along, all except the first half-inch, held in the left hand, to form a little cup. Now push the opening wire through it, to partially open it. Bend the bottom, over a knife, into a little hook, as before directed, for pinwheels. Take up a quantity; wind a strip of paper round them, as in banging squibs, and pour in a quantity of FFF, or canister powder. Unless the powder is very fine it will not run down. Pipes may be filled with F grain powder, one at a time, by putting a funnel into the cup part, and tapping the pipe with a wire. You can hear the powder run down, and easily judge when the pipe is full. The powder is now to be crushed into meal, by rolling the pipes through a plait mill, fig. 71. This is furnished with a wooden screw, at top; the screw presses upon a cross-bit, which bears upon two movable collars: these rest on the axis of the top cylinder, by which means the pressure can be adjusted as desired. The cylinders of plait mills are of beech, or boxwood; the latter are, of course, the best; but for making great numbers of crackers, it is necessary to have the frames of iron, and the cylinders of steel. If a mill cannot be procured, the pipes may be rolled with a brass tube, or rolling-pin, or passed through an American mangle; but a very good, and far less expensive plan, is to lay them on an anvil, or flat-iron turned upside down, and beat them with a smooth-faced hammer; this is a tedious process, but it makes good crackers. The cup end, having served its purpose, is to be flattened, and bent into a hook. Now lay the pipes in a damp towel, like the pinwheels. Take two pieces of deal, each about 6 inches long and 1¹⁄₂ inch broad: let the one for the halfpenny crackers be ³⁄₄ of an inch thick; the other, for the penny, 1 inch thick. Saw and chisel a piece out of each, about 4 inches long and ¹⁄₂ an inch broad, as drawn, fig. 67, so that it looks like the first and third fingers of the hand held straight up, with the second finger, between them, shut. Next procure 20 pieces of wire, each 2 inches long, and about ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch thick. Support the cracker-frame in a vice: lay the cracker across the opening; place a wire upon it, as at a, fig. 68; bend the pipe over it; lay on it another wire, on the other side, as b; bend back, and lay on it the wire c; and so on, alternately, till the cracker is bent up. Lift it out of the frame, and let the wires drop. The distance between the wires, in the halfpenny crackers, will be ³⁄₄ of an inch; in the penny, 1 inch; if made according to the directions given. The outside of the frame should be very slightly tapered, or it will be difficult to lift the cracker up out of it. The penny size will probably take 14 wires; the halfpenny 10 wires. Cut the end flush, to expose the crushed powder; wind round it a piece of touch-paper, about 1³⁄₄ inch long, 1¹⁄₄ broad; it need not be pasted; fold up the cracker; pass a piece of flax or thread twice round it; twist the thread in and out, backwards and forwards, among the folds; and the cracker is complete. If the paper does not appear sufficiently thick to make a good report, cut the strips broader, and fewer to the sheet; but always cut them up the short way of the paper, or they will not bend properly. The paper for pinwheels and crackers is 30 inches by 20; the longest pipe that can be cut is 20 inches: as an experiment, try a pinwheel and cracker the other way of the paper. If the cracker is intended to be put into a jack-in-the-box, shell, or rocket head, push a bradawl up the mouth, insert a bit of quickmatch, to project a quarter of an inch, and secure it with a little wetted meal, pressed in with a knife. The way of bending it is shown at fig. 69. It is not necessary that a cracker should contain very much powder; the loudness of the bang depends more upon the thickness of the paper than upon the quantity of the powder. So with maroons; more string and less powder, are better than more powder and less string. A very good paper for crackers is 30-lb. royal cartridge; cut the strips 3 inches broad; 16-lb. double-crown may also be used, the strips 5 inches broad. Crackers for mines may be made with brown paper.

To make a cracker with 30 or 40 bangs, it is necessary to join 3 or 4 pipes together, before putting in the grain powder: the mode of making a joining will be understood by attending to the following directions. Cut a piece of paper 3 inches square, and lay it straight before you. At one inch from the right top corner, make a mark; at one inch from the left bottom corner, make a mark; draw an oblique straight line from one to the other, and cut along it with a pair of scissors. Without disturbing the relative position of the two pieces, draw the right piece a few inches towards the right; paste the farther edges, as usual; lay the wire close along the near edge of the right piece, and roll it up; it will have an external spiral; roll up the left piece in the same manner; it will have an internal spiral; when both are dry, paste the external spiral, and screw it, as it were, into the other piece. If managed carefully, and brought up till the edge of the paper forms a straight line, the joining will be as firm as if the paper had not been cut, presenting only a spiral edge, going once round the pipe.

Leader Pipes.

These are for piping quickmatch; they are rolled exactly like pinwheel pipes, on wires of different thickness, to suit the size of the match. They must be large enough to admit the match easily, without much pushing, which would break it; otherwise, the more nearly they fit the match, the more rapidly it blows through. The fire is conveyed from the tail of one case to the mouth of another, by a short piece of pipe, d, fig. 80, with the match projecting at both ends; when the fire has to be conveyed to two other cases at once, a fresh bit of piping is slipped on, and the match left exposed, as at a; or a piece is cut out of the side, as at b; each end should be bent into a hook, as at c, to prevent its slipping back. Wheel cases are to be enveloped by rolling a piece of double-crown twice or thrice round them, two inches longer than the case, as fig. 82, shown by the dotted lines. Suppose you have six wheel cases ready charged; lay six pieces of double-crown flat before you, and work them back with the thumbnail, as before described; paste the 6 edges; lay the 6 wheel cases in a row, side by side, and draw the paste brush across the middle, as if pasting your knuckles; then roll one in each envelope, so that it projects an inch at each end. Put the leader pipe in, and tie it with a piece of carpet thread, thin twine, or waxed yellow flax or hemp, as at fig. 83. To join one pipe to another, to lengthen it; suppose you have a piece of match 40 inches, long, and two pipes of 20 inches each. Slip both the pipes on the match, so that they touch in the middle; take the end of one, so touching, gather it round the match; pinch the end of the pipe tapering, push it into the other, and bind a piece of pasted paper round, to secure the joint. In cutting a matched pipe straight across, of course the match inside gets cut flush; do not leave it so, but, with a pair of pointed scissors, cut away a quarter of an inch of the pipe all round, and bend the exposed match, as at c, fig. 80, before putting it into the envelope of the case. Besides a strong pair of pointed scissors, a small pair, 3 inches long, with rounded ends, to carry constantly in the waistcoat pocket, will be found convenient for many purposes.

[MAROONS.]

Take 3 inches of a ⁶⁄₈ or ³⁄₈ rocket case. Fix, in one end, a cork, half an inch long; put in 2 inches of F grain powder; on this, another cork. Wind string tightly round it, lengthwise, 6 or 8 folds, side by side; bend it to a right angle, and wind 6 or 8 more folds; and so on, till covered; then wind crosswise; and again, at right angles, as in fig. 74. Dip it into melted glue, and put by to dry. When dry, make a bradawl hole through one part, to reach the powder. Make sure of this, by inverting it, and letting a little drop out. Insert a short port-fire, having a piece of match at the bottom, and touch-papered at the top.

Another Method.

Take a rocket case, 5 inches long, and unchoked. Put in one solid inch of plaster of paris. When this is dry, pour in 3 inches of F grain-powder; on this put another solid inch of plaster of paris. When dry, wind string tightly round it, up and down the cylindrical part, not the ends, till of two thicknesses. Paint the string over with melted glue. Make a bradawl hole in the middle of one side; fasten to it a squib, without a bang, having a piece of quickmatch at the end, to enter the hole. Cover the joining with two layers of pasted paper. On the other side, below, fasten a short piece of deal, like a rocket stick, with a point, to put into the ground, fig. 72. After lighting the touchpaper, remove to a distance; as bits of string are likely to get driven into the face, on the explosion.

To fire a salute with maroons, at regular intervals of time. Charge a port-fire, and saw it into inch lengths; envelope each in a piece of double-crown, 3 inches broad, and long enough to go thrice round the port-fire. Hang the maroons to hooks, or otherwise suspend them, on a frame, a foot distance from each other, as a, b, c, fig. 75. Underneath them fasten, with binding screws, or tie to nails, the port-fires x, y. Connect the port-fires with one another, and with the maroons, by leaders, in the usual way. On lighting at w, the first maroon explodes, and the first port-fire catches; this, having burnt, lights the second maroon and the second port-fire; and the port-fires being of the same length, the intervals of time between the explosions of the maroons will be the same.

[GOLD AND SILVER RAINS.]

These are little cases, 2¹⁄₂ inches long, rolled on a ¹⁄₄-inch former, and filled with the funnel and wire. They may be primed like fig. 29 or 30, or like squibs. Put them, mouth downwards, into rocket heads.

[PEACOCK'S PLUMES.]

These are a combination of rain and star. Roll them like pill-box cases, on a ³⁄₈ inch former, about 1³⁄₄ inches long; charge one end, ³⁄₈ of an inch deep, with coloured fire, driven in dry; fill up with gold, or silver rain, with a film of shell fuse at the top, to bind. Cut a bit of match, 2¹⁄₄ inches long, lay it outside the case, so that it projects ³⁄₈ of an inch at one end; envelope it in a piece of double-crown, fig. 90; tuck in the paper, to press the match, at one end, on the colour; twist the other to a point. Both ends thus light at once; and the rain appears, like a coloured star, with a tail.