Transcriber’s notes:

In this transcription, hyperlinks are indicated by a black dotted underline (and a teal highlight when the mouse pointer hovers over them). A red dashed underline indicates the presence of a transcriber’s comment; scrolling the mouse pointer over such text will reveal the comment. Footnote markers in the text are hyperlinked to the footnotes located at the end of the book. Page numbers are shown in the right margin.

Cross-references to tables, figures and pages within this volume have been hyperlinked, but cross-references to the other three volumes of the publication have not been hyperlinked because they are not yet available in html format.

The table of contents contains a mix of italicised and non-italicised entries that generally correspond to different heading levels in the body of the text, but the correspondence is inaccurate and not all headings are listed. No attempt has been made to correct these anomalies.

Where appropriate, illustrations have been repositioned close to their first reference in the text, and their page locations have been adjusted in the list of illustrations at the beginning of the book.

The text contains several archaic symbols representing measures of weight that were used by apothecaries. Modern browsers display the symbols correctly with Times New Roman or Lucida Sans Unicode fonts. The main symbols are ‘ʒ’ representing the drachm unit of weight, and ‘℥’ representing the ounce unit of weight (8 drachms = 1 ounce). The third symbol does not have an exact computer equivalent and has been represented in this transcription by the character ‘ɱ’, which can signify ‘minim’ (a measure of volume equal to 1/60th of a fluid drachm), ‘drop’, or ‘part by volume’. If the symbols are not displayed correctly, try using a different font or a different browser, or click on ‘[minim]’, ‘[drachm]’ or ‘[ounce]’ to see images of what they look like. Roman numerals x, v, i and j (i and j both represent 1) indicate the quantities associated with these symbols.

Various inconsistencies of spelling and hyphenation occur throughout the text; some are simple typographical errors but most are probably variations attributable to the book's multiple authorship. Words with variable spellings that occur with similar frequency (e.g. trocar / trochar, aneurism / aneurysm) have not been changed, but most other spelling inconsistencies have been ‘corrected’ to the predominant form (e.g. Caesarian --> Caesarean, turbinate --> turbinal). Omitted letters have been corrected by inserting the missing letters in square brackets (e.g. sella turc[ic]a). Simple typos such as uretha (urethra) and polpyus (polypus) have been corrected silently, and likewise with missing punctuation such as commas omitted from the index and the table of contents. An apostrophe is used inconsistently with the proper noun Bruening or Bruenings.

Inconsistencies of spacing and hyphenation have been treated similarly. For example, spaces have been removed from the abbreviations i.e. e.g. and from percentage values. Compound nouns that occur equally often with/without hyphens, have not been changed, e.g. bone forceps / bone-forceps, attic wall / attic-wall, whereas those that are more often either hyphenated or not hyphenated, have been standardised accordingly, e.g. punch forceps --> punch-forceps, heart-failure --> heart failure.

OXFORD MEDICAL PUBLICATIONS
A SYSTEM OF
OPERATIVE SURGERY
OXFORD: HORACE HART
PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

A
SYSTEM
OF
OPERATIVE SURGERY

EDITOR’S PREFACE

Great as have been the advances made in Surgery during the last fifteen years, there is no direction in which they have been more noticeable than in the elaboration of those comparatively small but important details of operative technique which do so much to ensure a low mortality and a successful result.

These improvements have been developed simultaneously throughout the whole of the vast field covered by modern Surgery, and it has become increasingly difficult for any single writer to deal with such an important subject as Operative Surgery in an authoritative and efficient manner. The scope of the subject is so wide that it is difficult to ensure that the work when published shall be thoroughly up to date, while a second and even greater difficulty is for any one, however great his ability and experience, to deal equally exhaustively and authoritatively with all of the many branches of which he would have to treat.

To avoid both of these difficulties and thus to make sure that the work shall reflect faithfully the present position of British Operative Surgery, the plan has been adopted of securing the co-operation of a number of prominent British Surgeons. Each writer deals with a branch of the subject in which he has had special experience, and upon which, therefore, he is entitled to speak with authority.

Besides the two important points just referred to, a third equally important one has been kept in view throughout. Particular care has been taken to make the work of as much practical utility to the reader as possible. Not only are the various operations described in the fullest detail and with special reference to the difficulties and dangers and the best methods of overcoming and avoiding them, but the indications for the individual operations are described at length, and the after-treatment and results receive adequate notice.

It is therefore hoped that the work will be useful alike to those who are about to operate for the first time, and to those surgeons of experience who desire to keep themselves informed as to the progress that has been made in the various branches of Operative Surgery.

The division of the work into a number of sections each written by a different author, necessarily involves some overlapping of subjects and some diversity of opinion upon points of technique. Efforts have been made to prevent overlapping of subjects as far as possible by care in their distribution and by conference between the authors concerned, but no attempt has been made to harmonize conflicting views. Each author supports his individual opinions by the weight of his authority, and any discrepancies may be taken to represent the absence of unanimity on various minor points that is well known to exist among surgeons of all countries.

The task of editing a work contributed to by so many writers might well appear to be an onerous one, but, owing to the promptitude, courtesy, and forbearance of all concerned, it has been a source of great pleasure, and the Editor’s most cordial thanks are tendered to all those who have devoted so much time and trouble to the work.

PREFACE TO VOLUME IV

Every effort has been made to keep this volume strictly within the definition of a work upon Operative Surgery—a somewhat difficult task in the case of certain of the special subjects with which it deals. In some cases methods of examination or manipulation have been described that are not strictly operative in nature, but their inclusion has been justified upon the ground that many of them are essential in operations upon the regions concerned, and all require special manipulative skill and dexterity.

The Index to this volume has been arranged in five parts, one part for each Section comprised in it. In this way it has been possible to economize space and, it is hoped, to render the task of reference easier.

In the Section on Vaginal Gynæcological Operations, instrument blocks have been kindly supplied by Messrs. Montague, Down Bros., and Griffin. The remaining illustrations are from original sketches by the author.

In the Section on Ophthalmic Operations, Messrs. Weiss have kindly supplied the instrument blocks. The remainder of the illustrations are original. Mr. Mayou desires to thank Mr. W. H. McMullen for valuable help in reading the proof sheets.

In the Section on Operations upon the Ear, all the illustrations, with the exception of the instrument blocks kindly supplied by Messrs. Mayer and Meltzer and a few illustrations from Tod’s Manual of Diseases of the Ear, are original.

In the Section on Operations upon the Nose, the instrument blocks have been supplied by Messrs. Mayer and Meltzer, who have also furnished them in the Section on Operations upon the Throat. Mr. F. A. Rose has kindly read the proof sheets of the latter Section, for which Mr. Harmer desires to thank him.

CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME

JOHN BLAND-SUTTON, F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, and Senior Surgeon to the Chelsea Hospital for Women, London

Abdominal Gynæcological Operations

JOHN PHILLIPS, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.P.

Professor of Obstetric Medicine, King’s College, London; Obstetric Physician and Gynæcologist to King’s College Hospital

Vaginal Gynæcological Operations

M. S. MAYOU, F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Assistant Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital; Ophthalmic Surgeon to the Children’s Hospital, Paddington Green

Ophthalmic Operations

HUNTER F. TOD, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Aural Surgeon to the London Hospital

Operations upon the Ear

W. DOUGLAS HARMER, M.C. (Cantab.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Surgeon to the Throat and Nose Department, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital

Operations upon the Larynx and Trachea

StCLAIR THOMSON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Lond.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Professor of Laryngology and Physician for Diseases of the Throat, King’s College Hospital, London

Operations upon the Nose and its Accessory Cavities

CONTENTS

SECTION I

OPERATIONS UPON THE FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS

PART I

ABDOMINAL GYNÆCOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

By JOHN BLAND-SUTTON, F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital and Senior Surgeon to the Chelsea Hospital for Women, London.

CHAPTER I

PAGES

CHAPTER II

CHAPTER III

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER V

CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER IX

CHAPTER X

CHAPTER XI

PART II

VAGINAL GYNÆCOLOGICAL OPERATIONS

By JOHN PHILLIPS, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.P.

Professor of Obstetric Medicine, King’s College, London; Obstetric Physician and Gynæcologist to King’s College Hospital.

CHAPTER XII

CHAPTER XIII

CHAPTER XIV

CHAPTER XV

CHAPTER XVI

SECTION II

OPHTHALMIC OPERATIONS

By M. S. MAYOU, F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Assistant Surgeon to the Central London Ophthalmic Hospital; Ophthalmic Surgeon to the Children’s Hospital, Paddington Green.

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER II

CHAPTER III

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER V

CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER IX

CHAPTER X

SECTION III

OPERATIONS UPON THE EAR

By HUNTER F. TOD, M.A., M.D. (Cantab.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Aural Surgeon to the London Hospital.

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER II

CHAPTER III

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER V

CHAPTER VI

CHAPTER VII

CHAPTER VIII

CHAPTER IX

CHAPTER X

SECTION IV

OPERATIONS UPON THE LARYNX AND TRACHEA

By W. DOUGLAS HARMER, M.C. (Cantab.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Surgeon to the Throat and Nose Department, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital.

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER II

CHAPTER III

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER V

SECTION V

OPERATIONS UPON THE NOSE AND ITS ACCESSORY CAVITIES

By StCLAIR THOMSON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Lond.), F.R.C.S. (Eng.)

Professor of Laryngology and Physician for Diseases of the Throat, King’s College Hospital, London.

CHAPTER I

CHAPTER II

CHAPTER III

CHAPTER IV

CHAPTER V

CHAPTER VI

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

SECTION I

PART I

CHAPTER I
CŒLIOTOMY

When the abdomen is opened for the purpose of removing a diseased viscus, the operation receives a specific name, such as nephrectomy, gastrectomy, splenectomy, and so forth. In many instances the abdomen is occupied by a tumour which defies the skill of the surgeon to localize to any particular organ until it is exposed to view through an incision; it is usual to apply the term cœliotomy to an operation of this kind, and it merely implies that the belly is opened by a cut. Cœliotomy is a useful expression, because many abnormal conditions arise in the abdomen which require treatment through an incision in its walls which do not lend themselves to an expressive term, for example, the removal of omental cysts, the evacuation of pus, blood, or the removal of foreign bodies, &c. It is true that a cœliotomy performed on an uncertain diagnosis may become a colectomy, ovariotomy, hysterectomy, &c., and the preliminary step to the performance of the operations to be described in this section is an abdominal incision, or cœliotomy. For whatever purpose a cœliotomy is required in the treatment of diseases of the female pelvic organs, the preparation of the patient and the initial steps are alike; it will therefore be convenient to describe the manner of carrying them out.

The preparation of the patient. It rarely happens that an operation is so urgent as to leave little time for a thorough preparation of the patient. It is desirable that the preliminaries should occupy two days at least. During this time the patient is kept in bed and the bowels are freely evacuated, either by calomel at night, with a saline draught in the morning, or by an ounce of castor oil.

On the morning of the operation the large bowel is thoroughly emptied by a soap and water enema, care being taken to use soft soap, to avoid producing a pimply eruption known as the ‘enema rash’.

It is well known that injuries to the abdominal organs, whether by accident or in the course of a surgical operation, are liable to be followed by septic parotitis. Recent writers attribute this complication to microbic infection of the ducts of the salivary glands (see [p. 99]); its occurrence may be avoided by including careful cleaning of the teeth among the preliminaries advisable for an abdominal operation. It is such a simple and comfortable ordinance that there is no reason for not following it.

The preparation of the skin needs to be very thoroughly carried out. After a warm bath the hair is shaved from the abdomen, pubes and vulva, and the skin is well washed with warm soapy water and swathed in gauze compresses wrung out of a solution of perchloride of mercury, 1 in 5,000. These compresses remain for twelve hours. The abdomen is again washed, and a second compress is applied which remains on until the operation.

Occasionally patients object to have the abdomen and pubes shaved. In such cases the hair can be easily removed by a depilatory. I have found a powder prepared according to the following formula useful:—

Sodium monosulphide, 1 part; calcium oxide, 1 part; starch, 2 parts; sufficient water is added to make a stiff paste, which is spread over the parts. After five minutes it is washed off by means of a dab of cotton-wool and the skin freely washed with warm water. This preparation is only efficacious when freshly prepared.

The washing and application of compresses require care on the part of the nurse, for some patients have skin so tender that it is easily blistered, and a crop of small pustules is a source of inconvenience, and leads to stitch-abscesses. In certain cases over-preparation may be worse than no preparation.

When patients are advanced in years it is extremely necessary to protect them from being chilled by undue exposure. It is well to clothe their lower limbs in warm flannel garments or drawers made out of Gamgee tissue. No open doors or windows should be permitted; though in summer this is comfortable to the surgeon it may be disastrous to the patient. In winter the temperature of an operating-room should not be below 65°F. In this way ether pneumonia is best avoided.

In operations, such as oöphorectomy, ovariotomy and hysterectomy, it is the rule not to operate during menstruation; experience has taught me that operations performed during this period are not followed by evil or untoward consequences, and for many years I have disregarded it.

Immediately before the patient is placed on the table the bladder should be emptied naturally, or by means of a sterilized glass catheter.

In all pelvic operations it is a great advantage to employ nurses who have had a special training in ‘abdominal nursing’.

Basins and dishes. All receptacles such as basins, pots, instrument dishes and the like should be boiled. Mere rinsing or washing in warm water is insufficient.

Instruments. These should be constructed of metal throughout, as this enables them to be thoroughly sterilized by boiling. Needles and scalpels may be enclosed in perforated metal boxes. Forceps and the handles of scalpels are nickelled, and this keeps them bright. The following instruments are necessary: Scalpel, twelve hæmostatic forceps, dissecting forceps, two fenestrated forceps which are also useful as sponge-holders, a volsella, six curved needles of various sizes, two straight needles, silks of various thickness, and six dabs.

The surgeon should make a practice of employing a definite number of instruments and dabs for all occasions, as it will save him much anxiety in counting them at the end of the operation.

During the operation the instruments and silks are immersed straight from the sterilizer in warm sterilized water.

Suture and ligature material. The most useful material at present employed in pelvic surgery is silk. This material has a wide range of usefulness, as it is employed to secure pedicles, for the ligature of blood-vessels, and for sutures; it can be obtained of any thickness, and is easily sterilized by boiling without impairing its strength. In abdominal surgery there are four useful sizes, No. 1, 2, 4, and 6, of the plaited variety of silk. The thread is wound on a glass spool and boiled for one hour immediately before use. If any silk is left over from the operation it may be reboiled once or twice without impairing its strength. (The fate of silk ligatures is discussed on [p. 117].) Many surgeons employ catgut and hold it in high esteem. I regard it as an unsatisfactory and dangerous material; moreover it cannot be boiled, which is the simplest and safest method of making ligatures sterile.

Dabs. Nothing is so convenient for removing blood from a wound as sponges; their absorbent property and softness are excellent, but they are difficult to sterilize; therefore they are highly dangerous, and on this account should be banished from surgery. An excellent substitute is absorbent cotton-wool enclosed in gauze (Gamgee tissue). This material can be cut to any size or folded into any shape, and is easily sterilized by heat, or by boiling, without damage to its absorbent properties.

For a cœliotomy six dabs are prepared of various sizes, according to the nature of the case. These are boiled for one hour and then immersed in sterilized warm water and washed from time to time in the course of the operation.

I always employ six dabs, then there is no difficulty at the end of the operation concerning their number. The dabs at the completion of the operation are destroyed.

Many serious consequences have arisen from dabs and instruments accidentally left in the peritoneal cavity after pelvic operations. This subject is considered on [p. 105].

The operator should remember that his responsibility in this matter is determined by a decision in a Court of Law.

The employment of dry gauze dabs in abdominal operations is objectionable because it is harsh and irritating to the peritoneum and leads to the formation of adhesions.

Gloves. Increasing experience proves that gloves are most valuable in securing freedom from sepsis. It is a very important matter that the surgeon, the assistant, and the nurses who help at the operation should wear rubber gloves boiled immediately before the operation for ten minutes.

The wearing of gloves diminishes the mortality of the operation, and minimizes its unpleasant and often dangerous sequelæ, such as suppuration around sutures, septic emboli, tympanites, and the like. Care must be taken to impress upon all who take part in an operation that it is as essential to thoroughly wash and disinfect the hands before inserting them in gloves as when no gloves are worn. It is also necessary to warn nurses that the smallest hole in a glove renders it useless.

To the operator thorough disinfection of the hands is of the highest importance, for he may puncture or tear the gloves during the operation; or a difficulty may arise in the course of it which will render it advantageous for him to remove one or both gloves to overcome it. It is with me a rule that if in the course of an operation it is necessary to remove the gloves, I resume them for the final stages, and particularly for the insertion of the sutures. The use of rubber gloves marks a most important advance in operative surgery.

The operating table. In many cases of cœliotomy a table such as is employed for the ordinary operations of surgery answers very well, but for hysterectomy, oöphorectomy, and similar procedures it is a great convenience to use a table on which the patient can be placed in the Trendelenburg position, that is, with the pelvis raised, and the head and shoulders lowered: this allows the intestines to fall towards the diaphragm and leave the pelvis unencumbered. There are many varieties of tables employed for this purpose. As these tables are made of metal, it is necessary before the table is tilted to fix the patient’s arms parallel with her trunk, otherwise they fall across the edge of the table, and in some instances a troublesome paralysis of the muscles of the upper limb has been the consequence.

It is worth while pointing out that most of the examples have happened in the course of long operations (see Post-anæsthetic paralysis, [p. 95]).

Anæsthesia. The majority of surgeons employ a general anæsthetic, such as ether, chloroform, or a mixture of chloroform and ether, in pelvic operations. The most usual practice in London is to render the patient unconscious with nitrous oxide gas and maintain the anæsthesia with ether. It is a method which has given me the greatest satisfaction. As a rule, it is wise whenever possible to employ an experienced anæsthetist and trust to his judgment in regard to the selection of the anæsthetic.

In exceptional cases pelvic operations such as ovariotomy and hysteropexy have been successfully performed with the aid of intradural injections of a solution of eucaine, novocaine, or stovaine.

The incision. The operation-area is isolated by sterilized towels and the pelvis well tilted and so arranged as to face a good light. When the patient is completely unconscious, the operator (standing usually on the right side with the assistant opposite him) freely incises the wall of the abdomen in the middle line between the umbilicus and the pubes (this incision is conveniently termed the median subumbilical incision; its length varies with the necessities of the case, but is usually 7 to 10 centimetres). The first cut generally exposes the aponeurotic sheath of the rectus; any vessels that bleed freely require seizing with hæmostatic forceps. The linea alba is then divided, but as it is very narrow in this situation, the sheath of the right or left rectus muscle is usually opened. Keeping in the middle line, the posterior layer of the sheath is divided and the subperitoneal fat (which sometimes resembles omentum) is reached; in thin subjects this is so small in amount that it is scarcely recognizable, and the peritoneum is at once exposed, and, as a rule, the urachus comes into view. In order to incise the peritoneum without damaging the tumour, cyst, or intestine, a fold of the membrane is picked up with forceps and cautiously pricked with the point of a scalpel; air rushes in, destroys the vacuum, and generally produces a space between the cyst (or intestines) and the belly-wall; the surgeon then introduces his finger, and divides the peritoneum to an extent equal to the incision in the skin.

It is important to remember that the bladder is sometimes pushed upward by tumours, and lies in the subperitoneal tissue above the pubes; it is then liable to be cut.

On entering the peritoneal cavity, the surgeon introduces his hand, and proceeds to ascertain the nature of any morbid condition that he sees or feels, or he evacuates any free fluid, blood, or pus which may be present. Occasionally he finds that attempts to remove a tumour would be futile or end in immediate disaster to the patient; then he desists and closes the wound, and the procedure is classed as an exploratory cœliotomy. Should a removable tumour, such as an ovarian cyst, an echinococcus colony in the omentum, or the like be found, it is removed.

Before suturing the incision, the surgeon usually spreads the omentum over the small intestine; occasionally he will be surprised to find this structure, even in well-nourished women, represented by a mere fringe of fatty tissue attached to the lower border of the transverse colon.

The recesses of the pelvis are then carefully mopped in order to remove fluid, blood, or pus; the dabs and instruments are counted, and preparations made to suture the incision.

Misplaced viscera. In addition to tumours and normal enlargement of the uterus due to pregnancy, or an overfull bladder, there are certain malformations as well as displacements of normal viscera the surgeon may encounter in the pelvis which will, in some cases, cause him a certain amount of embarrassment, such, for example, as a bifid uterus or a spleen which has elongated its pedicle, or even twisted it, and, falling so low in the abdomen as to occupy the pelvis, may even cause prolapse of the uterus. In some of these cases it drags the tail of the pancreas with it. The cæcum and the vermiform appendix often occupy the true pelvis; in middle-aged and elderly women the transverse colon sometimes forms a loop (the omega-loop), the extreme convexity of which often reaches to the pelvis. I have seen the right lobe of the liver extend into the pelvis, and come in contact with the unimpregnated uterus. It is important to remember that a kidney sometimes occupies the hollow of the sacrum; such a misplaced kidney has been removed under the impression that it was a tumour. When a kidney occupies the pelvis it lies behind the peritoneum as when it occupies its normal position in the loin. A horseshoe kidney is a fertile source of divergent opinion in diagnosis. A very large hydronephrosis simulates very closely an ovarian cyst until exposed through an abdominal incision; in such a contingency the operator performs nephrectomy; when the kidney is large enough to resemble an ovarian cyst it can easily be removed through the median incision.

A very distended stomach will reach the hypogastrium and has many times been mistaken for an ovarian cyst; such a distended stomach has received a thrust from an ovariotomy trocar and the operator has been astonished to see food issue through the opening.

Tumours of the pelvic organs are often complicated with abnormal and diseased conditions of the intestines, large and small; it is therefore necessary for any one undertaking gynæcological abdominal operations to be prepared to perform resections of the colon, enterorrhaphy, gastro-jejunostomy, and the like when necessary.

Transposition of the viscera is a rare anomaly to encounter in the course of an abdominal operation. I met with it once in 3,000 cœliotomies; the condition was recognized before operation.

Closure of the wound. There are about fifty methods known and advocated for the closure of the median subumbilical incision, and the following is a list of materials used by surgeons for this purpose: silk, silkworm-gut, catgut, linen thread, and horsehair; silver, iron, aluminium, bronze, and platinum wire, and Michel’s metal clips. The object of these various methods and materials is to obtain a firm scar.

The first requisite for securing an unyielding scar is perfect asepsis; but even the most perfectly healed abdominal scar may yield. Nature in her great operation of uniting the lateral halves of the belly-wall in a median cicatrix, the linea alba, cannot secure a non-yielding scar, it is therefore presumptuous of the surgeon to think he can always ensure it.

The method which has given me the best results is a simple one. The peritoneum, sheath of the rectus, and rectus muscle are carefully approximated by interrupted sutures of No. 4 silk carefully sterilized and inserted with the hands covered with rubber gloves. The sutures are inserted at intervals of rather less than 2 centimetres apart. Care must be taken to include the peritoneum in these sutures. The skin is then brought together by a continuous suture of No. 2 silk. When the operation has been undertaken for a septic condition, such as pelvic peritonitis, suppuration of an ovarian cyst, an acute pyosalpinx, or the like, then it is useless to introduce buried sutures for the muscular and aponeurotic layers, as they will quickly become infected. In such conditions the abdominal walls are brought together by interrupted sutures involving all the layers.

Those who are curious in regard to the various methods of closing median cœliotomy wounds should consult a brochure published in 1904 on The Closure of Laparotomy Wounds as practised in Germany and Austria, by Walter H. Swaffield. This little book contains the detailed methods and views communicated to him by more than fifty leading surgeons.

In Great Britain there is plenty of variety in the methods and material employed for the closure of the incisions in abdominal operations, but at the present time there is a marked tendency to return to the older and simpler methods. The most dangerous and unreliable suture material for the abdominal incision is catgut (see [p. 96]).

In studying the details of such operations as ovariotomy and hysterectomy from books, it should be remembered that it is merely the principles that can be explained. There are so many details in every operation that can only be learned from watching, or, what is far better, assisting a skilful and experienced surgeon in their performance. This is true of all forms of surgical procedure. No man can become a navigator without going to sea, however thoroughly he masters the principles of seamanship from books, so no surgeon can acquire the art of operating from merely reading descriptions of surgical operations. If a surgeon can bring to bear upon abdominal gynæcological operations, in addition to mere surgical dexterity, a competent knowledge of the pathology of the organs, he will find it of the greatest assistance. I would warn him particularly to take little heed of the sneers of those eminently practical surgeons who affect to despise pathology.

CHAPTER II
OVARIOTOMY

Ovariotomy signifies the removal through an abdominal incision of cystic and solid tumours of the ovary, and parovarian cysts.

The history of this operation is of great interest to surgeons because it was the forerunner, so to speak, of all abdominal gynæcological operations; they followed as a natural consequence on the establishment of ovariotomy, and operations on the abdominal viscera generally are to be regarded as an extension of pelvic surgery.

It is usual to state that ovariotomy was first performed by Ephraim McDowell, of Kentucky, 1809: this is of historical interest only, for it had no effect whatever in drawing attention to the feasibility of removing ovarian cysts: it was in fact a still-born operation. The pioneers of this operation were undoubtedly Baker Brown and Spencer Wells in London, Thomas Keith in Edinburgh, and Clay in Manchester. These surgeons brought the operation out of a ‘slough of despond’ and placed it on firm ground. Spencer Wells and Keith were fortunate later in their work in receiving guidance from Lord Lister’s discovery of antisepsis: this, combined with the introduction of the short ligature, firmly established the operation.

The improvement in securing the pedicle has played an important part in the development of ovariotomy. McDowell tied the pedicle, but left the ligature hanging out of the wound. Doran, who has written an excellent review of this matter, ascribes the intraperitoneal method of dealing with the pedicle to the systematic advocacy of Tyler Smith. The method has been followed by brilliant results.

Baker Brown used to sear the pedicle with a cautery, and this method was adopted with great success by Thomas Keith. The method of ligature is so simple and safe that the cautery for this purpose has been long abandoned.

The operation. The preliminary preparation of the patient and the necessary instruments are described on [p. 5]. The Trendelenburg position is not so necessary for the removal of large ovarian tumours as the smaller examples which are apt to be firmly adherent to the floor of the pelvis. In cases where the abdomen contains free fluid, ascitic or due to the bursting of a cyst, or pus, it is a wise precaution to conduct the early stages of the operation with the patient in the horizontal position, otherwise the tilting will cause the fluid to gravitate towards the diaphragm. As soon as the fluid has been removed the pelvis may be raised if it be likely to facilitate the operation.

In the early days of ovariotomy it was the custom to tap the cyst, or, in the case of multilocular tumours, to force the hand into the mass and break down the septa of contiguous loculi and allow the viscid material to escape. These devices were recommended because it was regarded as a method making for safety to extract the cyst through a small abdominal incision. Occasionally it is possible to extract the wall of a large single-chambered parovarian cyst, after tapping, through an incision 7 centimetres in length. When the tumour is multilocular, or malignant, or full of grease or pus, it is difficult and extremely dangerous to tap it, as the material may infect the peritoneum either with septic matter or with malignant particles, and end disastrously.

Cases have been reported in which, after traumatic rupture, or tapping, of a dermoid, the epithelial contents escaped into the belly. Subsequently the peritoneum was found dotted over with minute nodules furnished with tufts of hair growing among the visceral adhesions. When a woman with an ovarian cyst contracts typhoid fever, the cyst may become filled with pus which contains the bacillus typhosus. Such a case occurred in my practice in 1907.

For many years I have abandoned the use of clumsy trocars of all kinds and remove the tumour entire, although it may require an incision from the ensiform cartilage to the pubes. These large incisions heal quickly, and are no more prone to hernia than the short incisions. This is the only way of ensuring the safety of the peritoneum from being contaminated by the harmful, dirty, and often malignant contents of the cysts. In dealing with burst cysts a free incision enables the surgeon to thoroughly and gently clean the peritoneal cavity.

The abdominal cavity is opened by a median subumbilical incision (see [p. 7]). Occasionally a difficulty may be encountered on reaching the peritoneum, for, if the cyst has been infected, the peritoneum and cyst wall may be so intimately adherent that they cannot be separated. In these circumstances it is a wise plan to extend the incision upwards and enter the abdominal cavity above the tumour. It is also to be borne in mind that when the tumour adheres to the abdominal wall it is extremely probable that a coil of intestine may be adherent also. When a tumour is impacted in the pelvis it may push the bladder high in the abdomen; in such an event this viscus is apt to be opened in making the incision. If the surgeon has any doubt concerning the position of the bladder, he should instruct an assistant to introduce a sound into it through the urethra.

In a typical case, when the peritoneum is opened the surgeon at once recognizes the bluish-grey glistening surface of the ovarian cyst, and gently sweeps his hand over it in order to ascertain its relations and to learn whether the cyst wall be free from adhesions. It is of the utmost importance to be satisfied as to the nature of the tumour, especially when the operator follows the unsatisfactory practice of tapping, for if he plunge a trocar into a uterine tumour, or into a pregnant uterus, he will involve himself in anxious difficulty. Decomposing fluid, tenacious mucus, or blood-stained fluid may obscure the parts, and should be sponged away: they indicate a ruptured cyst, a malignant tumour, or a twisted pedicle. Much free blood may be due to the bursting, or abortion, of a gravid tube. When the surgeon has satisfied himself that the cyst or tumour is free to be removed he lifts it out of the abdominal cavity, and if in this process the wall be so thin that it is likely to burst, or actually leaks, the weak spot may be freely incised with a knife over a convenient receptacle.

Adhesions. Although the surgeon may have had reasons to suspect the presence of adhesions, frequently he finds none, and on other occasions when he least expects them there are many. The most frequent adhesions are omental, and fortunately they are the least important: they should be detached and tied with thin silk. Adherent epiploic appendages require the same treatment. Intestinal adhesions require care and patience. When the intestines are adherent by strands and bands, these may be cautiously snipped with scissors; when the adhesions are sessile and soft the gut may be gently detached by means of a moist dab; but if very firm it may be necessary to dissect off a piece of cyst wall and leave it on the gut. The vermiform appendix requires especial care, for it may be mistaken for an adhesion and divided. When intestines are accidentally opened in the course of an ovariotomy they require the most careful attention. Wounds in the colon may be safely sutured. Holes in adherent small intestine may sometimes be sutured, but if the gut has been extensively involved it may be necessary, and often judicious, to resect a few centimetres and join the cut ends by a circular enterorrhaphy.

Adhesions to the parietal peritoneum are as a rule easily detached with the finger. The most serious adhesions are those which occur in the depths of the pelvis, involving the uterus, bladder, or rectum, and the separation of these may involve such accidents as wounds opening the rectum or bladder, and injury to the ureters and iliac veins. The treatment of such misfortunes will be considered later.

The pedicle. When the tumour is withdrawn from the belly the pedicle is easily recognized: the Fallopian tube serves as an excellent guide to it. The pedicle consists of the Fallopian tube and adjacent parts of the mesometrium containing the ovarian artery, pampiniform plexus of veins, lymphatics, nerves, and the ovarian ligament. When the constituents of the pedicle are unobscured by adhesions, the round ligament of the uterus is easily seen and need not be included in the ligature.

In transfixing the pedicle the aim should be to pierce the mesometrium at a spot where there are no large veins, and tie the structures in two bundles, so that the inner contains the Fallopian tube, a fold of the mesometrium, and occasionally the round ligament of the uterus; whilst the outer consists of the ovarian ligament, veins, the ovarian artery, and a larger fold of peritoneum than the inner half.

Pedicles differ greatly; they may be long and thin, or short and broad. Long thin pedicles are easily managed. The assistant gently supports the tumour, whilst the operator spreads the tissues with his thumb and forefinger, and transfixes them with the pedicle needle armed with a long piece of silk doubled on itself. The loop of silk is seized on the opposite side and the needle withdrawn. During the transfixion care must be taken not to prick the bowel with the needle. The loop of silk is cut so that two pieces of silk thread lie in the pedicle. The proper ends of the thread are now secured, and each is firmly tied in a reef-knot; for greater security the whole pedicle may be encircled by an independent ligature, taking care that it embraces the pedicle below the point of transfixion. (I use No. 4 plaited silk for transfixing the pedicle, and a piece of No. 6 silk for surrounding it.)

After the operator has gained some experience in this simple mode of tying the pedicle, he may, if he thinks it desirable, practise other methods.

After securely applying the ligature the tumour is removed by snipping through the tissues on the distal side of the ligature with scissors. Care must be taken not to cut too near the silk, or the stump will slip through the ligature; on the other hand, too much tissue should not be left behind. The stump is seized on each side by pressure forceps, and examined to see that the vessels in it are secure; it is then allowed to retreat into the abdomen. Should it begin to bleed it must be caught with forceps, drawn up, retransfixed, and tied below the original ligature.

Occasionally a pedicle will be so broad that it is unsafe to trust to this simple form of ligature. Broad pedicles will require three or more ligatures. When several ligatures are required it is important to remember that the ovarian artery lies in the outer fold of the pedicle and the uterine artery at the inner end, and it is often possible to secure these vessels separately with a thin piece of silk. The pedicle can then be secured with a series of interlocking ligatures.

When an ovarian tumour has undergone axial rotation and has tightly twisted its pedicle, the ligature should be applied to the torsioned area: a single ligature is then sufficient.

It is impossible to frame absolute rules for ligaturing the pedicle. In this, as in all departments of surgery, common sense must be exercised, and at the present day, when ovariotomy is practised so widely, no one would think of performing this operation without assisting at, or watching its actual performance by an experienced surgeon.

Having satisfied himself that the pedicle is secure, the surgeon examines the opposite ovary, and if obviously diseased it should be removed.

The operator then sponges up any blood or fluid which may have collected in the recesses of the pelvis. Whilst employed in this way he gives instructions to have the dabs and instruments counted.

When the operator limits the number of dabs to six he can easily have them displayed before him. The incision is sutured in the manner described on [p. 9].

Cysts of the broad ligaments. Occasionally the surgeon on opening the abdomen finds that the cyst or tumour is situated between the layers of the broad ligament. Sessile cysts of this kind are removed by what is known as enucleation. The peritoneum overlying the cyst is cautiously torn through with forceps until the cyst wall is exposed; then by means of the forefinger the surgeon proceeds to shell the cyst out of its bed, taking care not to tear the capsule or any large vein in its wall; it is also necessary to exercise the greatest care to avoid injury to the ureter. It is not uncommon, after enucleating a cyst in this way, to find the ureter lying at the bottom of the recess. (For treatment of an injured ureter see [p. 112].)

When the enucleation is completed the walls of the capsule are carefully examined for oozing vessels which require ligature. The capsule can often be closed in such a way as to bring its walls into apposition and thus obliterate its cavity; it then requires no further attention. When there is much oozing the capsule is treated on the plan known as marsupialization. The edges of the capsule are brought to the lower angle of the abdominal wound and secured with sutures, and a drain, either of gauze or a rubber tube, is introduced, and the remainder of the wound closed in the usual manner.

Enucleation is usually accompanied by more loss of blood than simple ovariotomy; this, and the prolonged manipulation, is often responsible for severe shock.

Spurious capsules. It is necessary for the surgeon to remember that an ovarian cyst, and especially an ovarian dermoid, is sometimes invested by a spurious capsule. It is now well known that slow effusions of blood, tuberculous exudations ([Fig. 4]), hydatid cysts, and ovarian cysts become enclosed by capsules of fibrous tissue formed by the organization of the peritoneal exudation which their presence excites. These capsules are often so firm, and so completely encyst the fluid exuded into the pelvis in cases of tubal tuberculosis, that such encapsuled collections of fluid resemble, and are often mistaken for, ovarian cysts. It is also necessary to mention that true ovarian cysts project from, but never invade the layers of the broad ligament. From time to time cases are reported in which ovarian cysts, especially dermoids, have been found between the layers of the broad ligament: such are in all probability instances in which a false capsule has formed around the cyst, and the surgeon committed an error of observation in regarding it as a layer of the broad ligament.

Ovariotomy in carcinoma of the ovary. When an operation is undertaken for the removal of solid or semi-solid tumours of the ovary, and especially when bilateral and accompanied by vomiting, it is incumbent on the surgeon to make a careful examination of the gastro-intestinal tract, for in many of these cases cancer will be found either at the pylorus, or in the cæcum, or the colon, and particularly in the sigmoid flexure. In such circumstances the ovarian masses are secondary to the cancerous focus in the gastro-intestinal tract.

Bilateral malignant tumours of the ovaries are sometimes secondary to primary cancer of the gall-bladder and the breast. Some of these secondary cancerous tumours of the ovaries form masses as big as the patient’s head.

In such conditions the ovaries and sometimes the uterus should be removed even for the purpose of making the patient comfortable. When the primary disease is in the cæcum, colon, or sigmoid flexure, and is operable, the growth should be resected and the cut ends of the bowel united by circular enterorrhaphy. In one instance, where the cancer occupied the ileo-cæcal valve, I succeeded in making a lateral anastomosis between the ileum and ascending colon, after performing bilateral ovariotomy. The woman survived the operation two years.

Incomplete ovariotomy. The surgeon may start on an operation and, after opening the abdomen, may find many adhesions, yet he feels that the removal of the tumour is possible. He sets to work and overcomes many of the difficulties, but finds at last such extensive pelvic adhesions that it is imprudent to proceed further. In such cases he evacuates the contents of the cyst and stitches the edges of the opening in the cyst to the margins of the abdominal wound, and drains the cavity. This mode of dealing with a cyst is usually termed ‘incomplete ovariotomy’.

An incomplete ovariotomy is a very different condition to an enucleation. The cavity left after enucleation closes completely, but when the wall of an ovarian cyst or adenoma is left the tumour gradually grows again, or it may suppurate so profusely that the patient slowly dies exhausted. There are few things sadder in surgery than the slow, miserable ending of an individual who has been subjected to an incomplete ovariotomy.

Anomalous ovariotomy. In a few instances, generally under an erroneous diagnosis, surgeons have removed ovarian tumours through an opening other than the classical one known as the median subumbilical incision. Under the impression that the tumour was splenic, an ovarian tumour of the right side has been successfully removed through an incision in the left linea semilunaris (R. W. Parker). An ovarian tumour, supposed to be a renal cyst, has been successfully extracted through an incision in the ilio-costal space (Le Bec). Strangest of all, a small ovarian dermoid has been removed through the rectum under the impression that it was a polypus of the bowel (Stock, Peters).

Hysterectomy after bilateral ovariotomy. After the removal of both ovaries for cysts or tumours, the uterus is a useless organ: it is fast becoming the practice under such conditions to remove it. There is much to be said in favour of this procedure, especially if the uterus be large and flabby, because it tends to fall backwards into the pelvis. In such circumstances it is better surgery to remove it than to perform hysteropexy. The risk of intestinal obstruction after bilateral ovariotomy is greater than after hysterectomy. Cases are known in which cancer has attacked the uterus years after bilateral ovariotomy and oöphorectomy (see [p. 55]).

Repeated ovariotomy. Very many cases are known in which women have been twice submitted to ovariotomy. Thus it is the duty of the surgeon when removing an ovarian tumour to examine carefully the opposite ovary. So many examples are known of women who have borne children after unilateral ovariotomy (twins and even triplets) that this alone is sufficient to prohibit the routine ablation of both glands.

A second ovariotomy is not attended with more risk than a first ovariotomy. The abdominal incision must be made with extra caution, because intestine may be adherent to it and runs a risk of being wounded. In some instances the cicatrix is very thin, and the surgeon cutting through it is liable to cut the intestine before being aware that the knife has entered the abdomen.

Some surgeons recommend that in a second ovariotomy the opening may with advantage be made a little to one side of the original incision.

Cases have been reported in which patients have been thrice submitted to ovariotomy: in such instances it is probable that one of the tumours was a sessile broad ligament cyst.

Pregnancy after bilateral ovariotomy. It is an interesting fact that several cases have been carefully reported in which women who have had bilateral ovariotomy have subsequently become pregnant. This event has been explained by assuming that in some of the patients a portion of at least one ovary has been left. This meets with more favour than the idea of the existence of a supernumerary ovary. The cases have been collected by Doran.

In order to afford some notion of the relative frequency of the various cysts and tumours classed as ovarian, a list of one hundred consecutive examples which I removed at the Chelsea Hospital for Women is appended:—

The case classed as a carcinoma was secondary to cancer of the pylorus; both ovaries were affected. The three classed as tubo-ovarian were probably exceedingly large examples of hydrosalpinx; one was so big that it came in contact with the liver.

I have compared this table with the experience of other surgeons, and although there is much variation in them it represents a fair average of the proportions of the different ovarian operations usually classified under the head of ovariotomy.

Ovariotomy at the extremes of life. Cysts and tumours arise in the ovary during intra-uterine, and at all periods during extra-uterine life, even in extreme old age: they also attain such dimensions in infants and old women as to demand the aid of the surgeon, and with excellent results. Many years ago I collected the recorded cases and tabulated one hundred instances in which ovariotomy had been performed in infants and girls under fifteen years of age. These tumours fall into three groups:

In the case of simple cysts, adenomata, and dermoids, the results are encouraging. It is possible that some of the cases described as sarcomata belonged to the deadly group now known as malignant teratomata.

Ovarian tumours sometimes attain large dimensions in children, and Keen reported a case in which he removed an ovarian tumour from a girl which weighed 44 kilogrammes: the girl weighed 27 kilogrammes after the operation. An ovarian cyst with a twisted pedicle has been found in a fœtus at birth (Otto von Franque).

The subjoined table shows cases in which ovarian tumours have been removed from infants under three years of age. It is often stated that Professor Chiene performed ovariotomy on an infant of three months. This is an error; it was an ovary occupying the sac of an inguinal hernia.

Ovariotomy in Infants