THE INTER OCEAN
CURIOSITY SHOP
FOR THE YEAR 1883.

EDITED BY

WILLIAM P. JONES, A. M.

SEVENTH EDITION.

CHICAGO:
THE INTER OCEAN PUBLISHING COMPANY,
MADISON AND DEARBORN STREETS.
1891.

PREFACE

So well known now is this little annual cyclopedia of facts in agriculture, manufactures, commerce, politics, literature, science and the arts, that this sixth volume of Our Curiosity Shop needs no preface, except to make due acknowledgments to the many who have aided the editor with information, and to explain to such of its readers as are not yet fully advised of this fact, that these pages constitute but a part of the several columns of questions and answers published every week in the Daily, Semi-Weekly and Weekly editions of The Inter Ocean. To have all such answers for the year, one must be a regular subscriber to, and reader of, the paper. Hundreds of disputes, raised in political gatherings, in debating societies, in Sunday schools, in social and sporting circles, at the village postoffice when waiting for the mail, on railway cars, in club rooms, around pioneer camp-fires, and in all kinds of places are referred to The Inter Ocean for amicable settlement. When none of the several thousand books on the shelves of The Inter Ocean and the Chicago Public Library give response to such questions, original sources of information are appealed to; and, again therefore, the grateful acknowledgments of the editor of Our Curiosity Shop are very heartily made to the Heads of the several executive departments at Washington and many of their chiefs of bureaus, to State and city officials, to his obliging associates of The Inter Ocean staff, and to that daily companion and efficient assistant, his daughter.

Every answer given here is in response to at least one person enough interested to call it forth. Not one started up at the editor’s own bidding, but each of them might use the speech put into the mouth of King Philip of Pokanoket, when summoned to meet the General Court of New Plymouth: “You sent for me, and I am here.” So, being here in response to popular call, the editor hopes this volume will have as cordial a welcome as the public has accorded to its predecessor of last year, of which, already, the second edition is nearly exhausted, and to the still earlier volumes of 1878 to 1882, inclusive. It is now a matter of regret that the volumes of 1878 and 1879 were not stereotyped, as all succeeding volumes have been; since that fact renders it impossible for the Publishers to supply the repeated calls for the entire series of six volumes. Readers will take note that the first two are out of print, but all the others will be supplied as fast as called for.

The Editor.

OUR CURIOSITY SHOP.

NATURE’S STORM SIGNALS.

Recent questions and answers in Our Curiosity Shop about the aurora borealis and the Government Signal Service have moved S. H. Ruple, M., M. D., of Oquawka, Ill., to give the result of his observations as follows:

Falling weather follows the aurora borealis, because the lower stratum of the atmosphere at such a time is sufficiently rarified for the manifestation of aqueous vapor, as is indicated by the evolution or liberation of so great a quantity of electricity as is necessary to produce conspicuous and extensive “northern lights.” A continuous south wind, in most localities, will in a few days cause rain, because by its warmth it rarifies the cooler and denser atmosphere of more northern or elevated localities, and reduces its capability of sustaining moisture. A continuous north wind dispels all rain signs for the time being. This is no new theory. Solomon, 3,000 years ago, put it on record in Western Asia. (Prov. xxv., 23.) And a careful observation during twenty-five years has convinced me that it is true for this age and country as well as for his. Flaky clouds, or low-running ones, from any direction but the north, denote rain or snow. Salmon, leaden, or silvery colored clouds denote falling weather; bright red, clear. When the sunset is followed by bright lances or streaks of light of various hues radiating from the point where the sun disappeared, continuing across the heavens and converging to a common point in the opposite horizon, there exists a storm-cloud in line with the sun, though it may be so distant as to be for awhile entirely hidden from view by the rotundity of the earth. If the rays of light are evenly divided north and south of the line between the observer and the radiating point, and continue so till they have faded out, the cloud is approaching. A few years since the writer, becoming interested in an exhibition of this phenomena, sat up to watch the results of his calculations. About 1 a. m. the storm (a moderate cyclone) reached the Mississippi River, about five miles north of his residence, having, according to telegraphic reports, crossed the State of Iowa in five hours and a half. When “heat lightning” is visible you may be sure that there is a storm-cloud in the same direction, though you may neither see it nor hear the thunder. When the lightning is continuous and very brilliant the storm may be regarded as a violent one. In this event the track of the destructive elements may be from 100 to 200 miles away. Some five years ago the writer’s attention was called, a little after dark, to an extraordinary display of heat lightning in the southern horizon, and he ventured the opinion that a devastating cyclone was traveling eastwardly, probably in the vicinity of St. Louis. Though residing in Oquawka, Ill., fourteen miles above Burlington, Iowa, within twenty-four hours The Inter Ocean, ever watchful and intelligent, was in his hands with telegraphic reports corroborating his theory and predictions. Jefferson Barracks were reported damaged by the cyclone, and across in Illinois a whole village was laid waste and several lives lost. This was, to say the least, pretty accurate guessing. If the old pioneers of Colorado, traveling at the rate of twenty-five miles a day, had to toil from five to seven days after catching their first view of the snow-cap of Pike’s Peak before gaining the mountain foot hills, how far off may not one see the intensely white, dazzling, and flashing illumination capping a cloud that is from three to five miles above the earth.

LEPROSY.

Lidell’s Grove, Ill.

Please state some facts regarding leprosy and the leper settlement on the Hawaiian Islands. Is the same disease prevalent among the Chinese in California? Are Caucasians liable to contract the disease?

S. Gray.

Answer.—There is no other malady so loathsome and so dreaded among mankind as the terrible disease of leprosy. A little blotch appears, often on the face of the victim, which gradually extending covers the whole body. Scales drop from the sufferer; his limbs become frightfully swollen, his voice grows hoarse, his eyes almost burst from their sockets, as the irresistible decay saps his life’s blood. While thus afflicted the victim suffers no physical inconvenience, except the gradual loss of his limbs. His body is numb and he does not feel the hand of the destroyer; his appetite is as good as ever, and he sleeps with as much relish as he did when he was in health. But in Eastern countries that which is almost as unbearable as the disease itself is the leper’s exclusion from society, even from that of his nearest relatives. In most countries leprosy operates as a divorce of husband and wife. Although it does not fill the air with contagion, yet the possible inoculation by personal contact or by handling the same objects, has led to the banishment of lepers not only from communities but from their homes. Whatever discussion may still be maintained as to the contagiousness of leprosy there exists no reasonable doubt of its transmission by heredity or licentiousness. During the past twenty years and more the Hawaiian Islands have received a large influx of Chinese coolies of the basest sort through the coolie traffic. Many of these associated in the loosest manner with the lower classes of natives, and in 1868 the authorities awakened to the fact that leprosy was spreading at an alarming rate. They determined on the Asiatic remedy of isolation. The western portion of the island of Molokai was selected for this purpose, and here to-day are found over 2,000 lepers shut out from all hope of ever seeing their friends, unless the latter become similarly afflicted. Three times a week a steamer visits the island, carrying provisions and mail, and the latest victims. Among these sufferers is William Ragsdale, the first Governor of the colony. In California a few of the Chinese have been afflicted with the disease, but it is not considered prevalent among them. In Salem, Mass., there is a pitiable case. Charles Derby was living in the Hawaiian Islands, when a slight blotch on his left temple revealed to the experienced islanders the fact that they had among them another leper. To escape banishment, Mr. Derby sailed for San Francisco; but was offered no refuse there, that city following the example of Honolulu. He then went to Salem, where they knew nothing of the disease, and there remained until discovered by two medical students from the Hawaiian Islands. His swollen and decaying face presents a frightful appearance. What is to be done with him is a question which the Salem authorities have not yet decided upon.

THE MILITARY ROAD, ARKANSAS.

Orion, Miss.

By whom and for what purpose was the road known as the Military Road, extending west of Memphis, Tenn., laid out? Where does it terminate?

J. F. Mc.

Answer.—When the Creeks and Cherokees were being transferred to lands west of the Mississippi, under the command of General Jackson, this military road was constructed to facilitate the movement. The road terminates at Little Rock, Ark.

AURORA BOREALIS NOT A MODERN DISCOVERY.

Lowell, Mich.

I am informed, on what appears to be good authority, that the aurora borealis has been seen for only about two hundred years, and that we have no record of its previous appearance. Is such the case?

W. A. D.

Answer.—The aurora borealis is not a phenomenon peculiar to modern times. The ancients used to call it chasmata, bolides and trabes, names which expressed the different colors of the lights. The scarlet aurora was looked upon by the superstitious barbarians as an omen of direful slaughter; so it is not unusual for descriptions of bloody battles to contain allusions to northern lights. In the annuls of Cloon-mac-noise it is recorded that in 688 A. D., accompanying a terrible battle between Leinster and Munster, Ireland, a purple aurora lit the northern skies, foretelling the slaughter. To the Latins and Greeks of Southern Europe the phenomenon rarely appeared, and therefore their writings are almost, if not entirely, silent concerning it, yet it was not unknown to them.

WHERE WAS EDEN.

Virgil City, Mo.

In what part of the world was the Garden of Eden located?

C. A. Sharp.

Answer.—This is still a matter of dispute among Biblical scholars of the highest reputation. Some have endeavored to locate it by means of the fruits and mineral productions named in the description given in the second chapter of Genesis, verses 8-17. But the main question in the opinion of most investigators is, What are the four rivers mentioned? The weight of tradition and scholarly study inclines to an agreement that the Tigris and Euphrates, which, after flowing in a southeasterly direction, unite and empty into the Persian Gulf, are the third and fourth rivers mentioned in the sacred word. But those who agree so far differ widely as to what rivers should be regarded as the Pison and Gihon. Some affirm that the River Pison is the Ganges, and the Gihon the sacred river of Egypt: others that the Garden of Eden was located on the high table-lands of Armenia, from which rise the Tigris and Euphrates. By choosing two rivers which flow into the Caspian Sea, or by giving the name Gihon to one river, and the name Pison to the sea, and extending the boundaries of Eden so as to take in these waters and the head-waters of the Euphrates and Tigris, they consider that they have solved the mystery that veils the cradle of our race. The fact that all the European races of the Aryan family, and also the Semitic races, trace back their origin to this region gives color to this solution. A few scholars of some distinction have argued that the Adamic paradise was in the vicinity of the mountains of the Moon in Africa, regarding the Nile as the Pison, and the Niger as the Gihon, and reconciling it with the views of former scholars by affirming that the Assyrian rivers at that time had their source in the mountains of the Moon, but flowed underneath the ground to their apparent source in the continent of Asia. Others locate Eden in the vicinity of the ancient city of Babylon, considering the doubtful rivers as the two channels by which the united Tigris and Euphrates empty into the Persian Gulf. But two things have not been explained by any of these theories. The four rivers flow from one river, and the River Pison “compasseth the whole land of Havilah.” Until these questions are solved the location of the Garden of Eden will continue to remain a mystery.

THE GLACIAL PERIOD.

Hebron, Neb.

Please give some information in regard to what geologists term the ice or glacial period. What evidence have they that such a period ever existed?

James Knox.

Answer.—The loose soil which covers so large a part of the surface of the northern continents to a depth varying from 30 to 100 feet, over which lie the vegetable deposits of later ages, is considered by geologists the effect of glaciers that in the quaternary, or latest geological age, slowly moved southward across the country. Upon examination it is found that the erratic boulders scattered over the Western prairies and other northern regions are unlike the native rock of the same region, being entirely foreign to the localities where they now appear. Sometimes the nativity of the rock is traced hundreds of miles north of where it now rests showing that some powerful agency has carried it southward. Again, if the native rock be uncovered and closely examined, it will be observed to be polished and grooved with parallel marks, running north and south, as if chiseled out by some coarse and heavy instrument. These marks are attributed to sharp, hard rocks projecting through the lower surfaces of the moving glaciers. That glaciers do produce such markings is proven by examination of the rocks which the moving ice fields of Switzerland and other glacial regions have worn and are marking to-day; also, the general appearance of the loose, unstratified, heterogeneous deposit is similar to that of the moraines that the modern glaciers leave as they slowly melt away. Geologists are generally agreed that long before the advent of man parts of the northern hemisphere were elevated several thousand feet higher than they are at present, causing the cold of the arctic zone to extend far southward into the present temperate regions, and that a vast glacier rising in the vicinity of Hudson Bay covered our whole continent north of the 40th parallel. In New York and other Eastern States the rocks are scratched from a northwesterly direction, in Ohio from a northerly, and in Iowa from a northeasterly direction, showing in each State the direction of the origin of the glacier. Afterward there followed a subsidence to a few hundred feet below the existing level, followed by a gradual elevation to the situation of the present era. These elevations and subsidences are evidenced by stratification and fossil remains.

MAYORS OF NEW YORK.

Chicago, Ill.

How long has New York City enjoyed a city charter? How many mayors has it had, and who have held this office since the villainous Oakey Hall, under whom Boss Tweed flourished?

E. D. Walker.

Answer.—The lower portion of Manhattan Island was incorporated as a city under the original Dutch regime, in 1652. Charles II. of England, claiming all the country from the French possessions south to Florida and west to the Pacific as belonging to the English crown, granted a charter covering New York to his brother, the Duke of York, who suddenly appeared before New Amsterdam and took unopposed possession in August, 1664. The name of the city was changed to New York. The Dutch recovered the place in August, 1673, and changed its name to New Orange. The next year it was restored by treaty to the English, and ever since it has kept the name of the city of New York. Since the office of mayor was created there have been seventy-two mayors, of whom the first one elected by the people was Cornelius W. Lawrence. Since Oakey Hall’s administration the following persons have held this office: Wm. F. Havemeyer, Wm. H. Wickham, Smith Ely, Edward Cooper, Wm. R. Grace, and the present Mayor, Franklin Edson.

TENDENCY OF DUTIES TO INCREASE.

Dow City, Iowa.

When were the present tariff duties passed? Was it not when Congress was Democratic? Are the duties now greater or less than formerly?

Answer.—The first United States tariff law on imported goods was approved July 4, 1798. A small tax was then imposed, according to the suggestion of Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, upon sugar, coffee, tea, salt, manufactured iron, glass and wool, silk goods, and several articles of minor importance. While the rate of duty has fluctuated, the general tendency has been toward an increase. This is shown by the different enactments from 1832 to the present time. In the latter year the duty on sugar was made 2½ cents per pound; in 1841, 20 per cent; in 1842, 2½ cents per pound; in 1846, 30 per cent; in 1857, 24 per cent; in March, 1861, ¾ cent per pound; in August, 1861, 2 cents per pound; in December, 1861, 2½ cents per pound; in 1862, 3 cents per pound; while the present rate ranges, according to grade, from 57½ to 61¾ per cent. In 1832 the duty on woolen manufactures was 50 per cent; in 1841, 20 per cent ad valorem; in 1842, 40 per cent; in 1857, 24 per cent; in March, 1861, 25 per cent and 12 cents per pound; in 1862, 30 per cent and 18 cents per pound; in 1864, 40 per cent and 24 cents per pound; in 1867, 35 per cent and 50 cents per pound, while the present duty upon woolen imports ranges, according to value, between 41 and 80 per cent. The same gradual increase is observable in silks, which in 1832 were admitted on an ad valorem duty of 10 per cent; in 1841, 20 per cent; in 1842, $2.50 per pound, changing in the same year to 25 per cent. In 1857 it was 19 per cent; in March, 1861, 30 per cent; in August, 1861, 30 per cent; in 1864, 60 per cent, and in 1881, 58 to 70 per cent. With the exception of a few years when Andrew Jackson was President, the different Congresses, Democratic as well as Republican, have sustained the duties upon the imports of this country. While the Republicans are mainly responsible for whatever is good or bad in our present tariff laws, Democratic Representatives from manufacturing districts have of late years, as a rule, given cheerful aid to the maintenance of a protective tariff.

WHAT IS A CARAT.

Chicago.

Is a carat a measure of weight or fineness?

J. A. Young.

Answer.—It is used by jewelers to express both. A carat weighs 4 grains, or the 120th part of an ounce, troy. In determining the fineness of a precious metal 24 carats is considered the standard of purity; hence an 18-carat gold ring would be a ring containing 18 parts in 24 of pure gold.

INSTITUTIONS FOR FEEBLE-MINDED.

Howard City, Mich.

Do any of the States support asylums for weak-minded or imbecile persons?

C. J. Burtch.

Answer.—The State of Ohio supports such an institution at Columbus, and the State of Illinois at Lincoln. Several other States have similar asylums.

DUTY ON GUNS.

Lowell, Ind.

Please give the amount of duty on imported guns and gun material.

F. Castle.

Answer.—The rate of duty on guns is 35 per cent; gun barrels, wholly iron, 35 per cent; gun blocks, wooden, rough-hewn, or sawed only, 20 per cent; gun locks, steel, 45 per cent; plugs and nipples, for guns of iron and steel, 45 per cent.

HENRY JAMES, SENIOR AND JUNIOR.

Denver, Ind.

Will you please mention the titles of the works of Henry James, concerning whom an article recently appeared in The Semi-Weekly Inter Ocean.

R. F. Oplinger.

Answer.—Henry James, concerning whose death an interesting article recently appeared in this paper, was the author of “Moralism and Christianity;” “Lectures and Miscellanies;” “The Church of Christ not an Ecclesiasticism;” “The Nature of Evil;” “Christianity, the Logic of Creation;” “Substance and Shadow;” “The Secret of Swedenborg,” and “Reminiscences of Carlyle.” He was a clergyman and not a writer of romance; but his son, Henry James, Jr., is a novelist, and has written the following popular works in this line: “Watch and Ward;” “The American;” “Daisy Miller;” “An International Episode;” “The Diary of a Man of Fifty;” “Washington Square;” “A Bundle of Letters,” and other works of fiction; also, “Transatlantic Sketches,” a volume of travel; “Hawthorne,” one of the series entitled “English Men of Letters,” and “French Poets and Novelists,” a book in the nature of a criticism.

THE LANGUAGE OF GEMS.

Alden, Iowa.

Please give the language of gems and precious stones.

C. L. F.

Answer.—The language of the various precious stones is as follows:

Moss Agate—Health, prosperity, and long life.

Amethyst—Prevents violent passions.

Bloodstone—Courage, wisdom, and firmness in affection.

Chrysolite—Frees from evil passions and sadness.

Emerald—Insures true love, discovers false.

Diamond—Innocence, faith, and virgin purity, friends.

Garnet—Constancy and fidelity in every engagement.

Opal—Sharpens the sight and faith of the possessor.

Pearl—Purity; gives clearness to physical and mental sight.

Ruby—Corrects evils resulting from mistaken friendship.

Sapphire—Repentance; frees from enchantment.

Sardonyx—Insures conjugal felicity.

Topaz—Fidelity and friendship; prevents bad dreams.

Turquoise—Insures prosperity in love.

PHRENOLOGY.

Mt. Ayr, Iowa.

Give a short history of phrenology, mentioning in particular its more prominent advocates.

E. E. Davis.

Answer.—The history of phrenology is embodied in the lives of its expounders. Although the prominent thinkers of mediæval Europe acknowledged many of its principles, it was not until 1796 that phrenology found an able and persistent advocate. Franz Joseph Gall, who in 1758 was born in Baden, began in his childhood to study the human face and head, and connect the various dispositions of men with certain prominences noticeable in the shape of their skulls. He studied medicine at various colleges, receiving his degree at Vienna. Eleven years after his graduation he delivered a lecture in that city, expounding his views on the subject which had been his constant study. It was not well received, and his subsequent writings and lectures were subjected to considerable censure and ridicule. They were, indeed, to such an extent unpopular that in 1805 the Austrian Government interdicted them, and he was compelled to refrain from further advancing his views in that country. With Kasper Spurzheim, a talented young man, who had embraced his doctrines while attending the school of medicine in Vienna, Dr. Gall changed his abode to Paris. In that city, with the aid of his pupil, he succeeded in making a considerable impression. He afterward became a citizen of France, and died in 1828, near Paris, leaving several works valuable to the student of phrenology. In the meantime Dr. Spurzheim visited England. His lectures were listened to with considerable interest and many in that country adopted his views. In 1832 he came to the United States; but soon after his first lecture, which had created quite a sensation, he died in Boston. His efforts in England and Scotland were continued by George Combe, a lawyer, who wrote and lectured in those countries, and who also visited the United States. But he to whom most credit is due for extending the tenets of phrenology in this country is Oscar Squire Fowler, who was born at Cohocton, N. Y., Oct. 11, 1809, was educated at Amherst College, and has spent most of his life in advocating his views. In 1876 he made his home at Boston, although much of his time was spent in lecturing in various parts of the land. Although one of the fundamental principles of phrenology is that the mind is material and inseparable from the body, yet many who deny such a conclusion accept some of its inferences.

THE CAPITOL OF NEW YORK.

Valparaiso, Ind.

How much has the State of New York expended on its State House? What will be the total cost of the building?

J. M.

Answer.—In 1880 a report presented to the State Legislature of New York in reference to the State House declared that $13,000,000 had already been expended and that the ultimate cost of the building would be fully $20,000,000. With all this lavish expenditure the State House is said to be inadequate; its lower rooms are dark and unwholesome; the acoustics of the Senate Chamber render it difficult to hear a debate; and considerable complaint is made because the building, which covers three acres, is three-fifths halls and corridors.

SILVER POLISH.

Chicago, Ill.

What chemical used in boiling water will polish German silver.

A Subscriber.

Answer.—To clean and polish silver, silver-plate, and alloys, the following method is often employed: To 1 quart of water is added 1 ounce of carbonate of potash and ¼ pound of whiting. This is heated, and the silver immersed. When the liquid has boiled for twenty minutes it is removed from the fire and permitted to cool. Each piece is then taken out and polished with soft leather.

THE FAMOUS BURLEIGH.

Colfax, Ind.

Give me a short history of Lord Burleigh.

Samuel Smith.

Answer.—William Cecil Burleigh, who, Hume declares, was the “most vigilant, active and prudent Minister ever known in England,” was born in Lincolnshire in 1520. He studied law and graduated at Cambridge. When only 28 years old, he became Secretary of State, but at the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary he resigned. Although he was a stanch supporter of the Protestant cause, he was one of the few who was not persecuted. When Queen Elizabeth in 1558 succeeded her sister, Burleigh again assumed control of the state and became virtually the Prime Minister. For forty years he retained this office, until his death. To his ability much of the credit of Elizabeth’s wise and prosperous reign is due. He was a man in whom “the Virgin Queen” could place entire confidence. He was rewarded in 1571 with a barony and in the following year was made Lord Treasurer. His rule has been severely criticised in some particulars, and especially as regards his treatment of Mary, Queen of Scots; but his integrity and statesmanship have never been called in question by well-informed, impartial historians.

STATISTICS OF RELIGIOUS SECTS.

Corning, Iowa.

Please give the names of the various religious denominations in the United States and their respective membership.

J. B. G.

Answer.—The denominational statistics of the census if compiled are not available. The Rand-McNally Index of the World gives the following data for Jan. 1, 1881, which may be considered a fair estimate:

THE ITALIAN POET TASSO.

Charleston, Ill.

Will you please give something of the life and writings of Torquato Tasso?

H. B. Glassco.

Answer.—Torquato Tasso, the unfortunate Italian poet, was born in 1544. With the intention of practicing law he studied at Naples, Rome, and afterward at Bergamo. The wonderful popularity of his first poem, “Rinaldo,” written when only 18 years old, led him to abandon jurisprudence and devote himself entirely to literary pursuits. This production was a lively epic composed of twelve cantos, full of the romance of mediæval times. Soon after he began to labor on his “Gerusalemme Liberata,” or Jerusalem liberated, his chief work, which he completed in 1575. He was for a time in great favor at court and in the Vatican, and the Pope bestowed many favors upon him, and King Alfonso II. gave him a pension. The Duke of Ferrara became his especial patron, and treated him as a member of his household, until Tasso conceived an uncontrollable affection for the Duke’s daughter, which she did not reciprocate, while the Duke was offended. In despair he yielded to melancholy, which soon grew into a species of insanity, so that it became necessary to remove him to the home of his sister. Here he partially recovered, but he would not be satisfied until again admitted to the Duke of Ferrara’s household, where his malady returned, and the Duke, in 1579, removed him to an insane asylum. There he remained seven years, while all Italy was singing his praises. After his release he resided at Mantua, and then at Naples. In 1594, the Pope, Clement VIII., invited him to come to Rome and be crowned; but before he could go to receive the promised honors, he died, April 25, 1595. Two of his dramatic poems “Aminta” and “Torrismondo,” were received with great favor; but that which contributed most to his fame was the “Gerusalemme Liberata,” translated into the English by Edward Fairfax as early as 1600 and by J. K. James as late as 1865. Tasso takes rank among Italian poets next after Dante.

THE GUITEAU JURY.

Dunlap, Iowa.

Give the names of the jurors in the Guiteau trial.

John Keitges.

Answer.—After three days’ labor the following jury was selected for the Guiteau trial: John P. Harlin, Fred W. Brandenburg, Charles G. Stewart, Henry J. Bright, Thomas H. Langley, Michael Sheehan, Samuel F. Hobbs, G. W. Gates, Ralph Wormley, William H. Browner, T. Heinlein, and Joseph Prather.

THE ERIE AND MICHIGAN CANAL.

Fairmont, Ind.

Is there a prospect of a canal connecting Lakes Erie and Michigan? What would be the length of the canal? What would be the distance around the lakes between the mouths of the proposed canals?

C. T. Cox.

Answer.—There is no prospect of an early union of Lake Erie and Lake Michigan by a canal. The length of such waterway would be about 200 miles. The distance around the lakes, from the eastern mouth of the proposed canal to the western mouth is about 700 miles.

A RETIRED CONGRESSMAN.

Minneapolis, Minn.

Who represented the Ninth District of Ohio in Congress in 1864 and 1865? Please give a brief sketch of his life.

A Reader.

Answer.—Warren P. Noble, who represented the Ninth District of Ohio in Congress from 1861 to 1865, was born in Pennsylvania, June 14, 1821. He received a common school education, and in his youth moved to Ohio, where he studied law. He began to practice at Tiffin, where his abilities were soon recognized, and he became a member of the Legislature of his State, serving in that capacity from 1856 to 1860. He was elected as a Democrat to the Thirty-seventh Congress in 1860, re-elected in 1862, serving in both Congresses on the Committee on Patents. Being defeated by the Republican nominee in 1864, and this party having grown powerful by the success of its wise and patriotic policy before another biennial election came around, Mr. Noble retired permanently from politics.

SAMUEL J. RANDALL.

Bloomington, Ill.

Send us a few facts in regard to ex-Speaker Randall, one of the big chiefs in the Democratic camp.

S. Moore.

Answer.—Samuel J. Randall is undoubtedly one of the leading spirits in his party. He is a shrewd, sagacious politician rather than a great statesman, but in statesmanship he is one of the prominent figures on the Democratic side of the House. He is shrewd enough to know that a Democrat of out-and-out free-trade professions would have no encouragement to aspire to any office in the gift of Pennsylvania, but besides this it is only fair to grant him credit for knowing that it would be ruinous to the enormous mining, manufacturing, and farming interests of his State for this country to practice free trade. So he has been instrumental in keeping a considerable following of Democrats who will vote with him against violent reductions in the present tariff. Mr. Randall is a Philadelphian by birth. He was born Oct. 10, 1828; received a fair academic education; was for a time engaged in mercantile business; was for four years a member of the City Council; then a member of the State Senate for a year; was elected to the Thirty-eighth Congress, and has held membership in the House ever since. In the election of 1880 he carried his district by 13,661 votes, against 9,880 for B. L. Berry, Republican, and he was re-elected last November by a still larger majority. He has sat on several of the most important committees in the House; was Speaker for the last session of the Forty-fourth Congress, for the Forty-fifth and the Forty-sixth Congresses, and has a fair prospect of being Speaker of the next Congress.

CAN A JEW BE A GERMAN?

Rock Falls, Ill.

Is it possible for a Jew to be a German, or a German a Jew? And how is it in other countries?

L. E. C. Roe.

Answer.—A German may be a Jew, or a Jew a German, Englishman, Frenchman, Italian, American, or of any nationality under the sun. As a Jew his nationality embraces the world; in many respects he still observes the laws of Moses, and by marriage and other peculiar institutions he maintains his race distinctions and national feelings. At the same time he is now in most Christian states a citizen of the land he happens to be born in, and in most such lands is permitted to enjoy all the rights of other citizens, as is the case with American Jews. It was not always so. It is only since the establishment of the German Empire, in 1871, that the Jew has enjoyed full civil equality in Germany. France granted it in 1790, and confirmed this grant in the constitution of 1795. In all but a few petty, contemptible particulars, since 1858 English Jews have enjoyed all the privileges of other British subjects. In Russia and some other European countries the Jew is still denied the rights of citizenship.

DUTIES ON FARM PRODUCTS AND COAL.

Rest, Kas.

Give the present import duty on the various kinds of grain, also potatoes, butter, cheese, and coal, and oblige several readers.

John F. Coulter.

Answer.—The following are the import duties on some of the principal farm products and coal:

The import duty on potatoes, seed or otherwise, is 14 cents per bushel; on butter, 4 cents per pound; on cheese of all kinds, 4 cents per pound; on salt in bulk, 8 cents per 100 pounds; in bags, sacks, barrels, or other packages or in brown earthenware jars, 12 cents per 100 pounds; on bituminous coal, 75 cents per ton of 28 bushels of 80 pounds each; on dust coal, 40 cents per ton; on cannel coal, 75 cents per ton.

ST. HELENA.

Raccoon, Ill.

What are the area and present population of the island of St. Helena? What is its history? Was the banishment of Napoleon just?

Subscriber.

Answer.—The island of St. Helena, whose name always recalls the gloomy downfall of Napoleon I., contains an area of about forty-seven miles. It supports a population of 6,241 souls. It was discovered in 1501 by Juan de Nova Castella, a bold Portugese navigator, who gave it the name St. Helena, because he first saw it on the day sacred to that saint in the Romish calendar. In the following century the Dutch took possession and retained it until England seized it in 1673. When Napoleon Bonaparte was first banished to this island and held here as a political prisoner under British surveillance, the population was but about 800,200 of whom were soldiers and 300 slaves. The importance to a maratime nation like Great Britain of St. Helena, lying as it does in the path of European, South African, Australian, and India and China trade, developed as years passed: its value as a naval station and its other strategic advantages have become more and more apparent, and now it is looked upon as one of the strong keys of English power in the South Atlantic.

HOW SLAVERY AFFECTED CONGRESSIONAL APPORTIONMENTS.

Henrietta, Neb.

Were slaveholders entitled to extra votes for the slaves which they possessed?

Inquirer.

Answer.—In Congressional apportionments before the war, five negroes were counted as equal to three whites. Of course the slaves were not permitted to vote, but the voting power of the whites was plainly magnified over that of an equal number of whites in the free States. For example, the first Congressional apportionment allowed one representative for every 30,000 inhabitants; but in the South 21,000 whites owning 15,000 slaves counted the same as 30,000 whites in the North where there were no slaves, or 15,000 whites holding 25,000 slaves were granted the same representation in Congress and the electoral college as double the number of Northern whites.

JEFFERSON AND JEFFERSONIANISM.

Belle Plaine, Iowa.

Please give a brief biography of Thomas Jefferson.

A Son of Vulcan.

Answer.—“Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of American Independence, of the statute of Virginia for religious freedom, and father of the University of Virginia,” is the inscription upon Jefferson’s tombstone. He was born April 2, 1743, in the county of Albemarle, in the interior of Virginia, then a desolate forest. His diligence and study was encouraged by his parents, who placed him under the care of a talented Scottish clergyman. When he was 17 he entered William and Mary College, and after graduation studied law. In 1759 he was chosen to represent his county in the House of Burgesses, where he continued with but little interruption until the days of the revolution. Like George Washington, disappointed in his first love, he married a widow, in 1772. Three years later he was sent as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. As Chairman of the committee to draft the Declaration of Independence, he is said to have written the whole of that document, which, with a few minor amendments, was adopted by Congress and sent to the King of England. In October he resigned and retired to his farm, but only again to be forced into civil life by his election to the State Legislature. During the war he was not only busy in originating and advocating measures to aid the cause of liberty but also he began a thorough revision of the statutes of Virginia. From 1779 to 1781 he served as Governor. After a short term in the House of Burgesses he was sent to the Confederate Congress, which, in 1784, thought fit to appoint him as one of the three commissioners to negotiate treaties with European nations. Upon Franklin’s return Jefferson was made Minister Plenipotentiary to the court of Louis XVI. He watched with eager interest the progress of the French Revolution, and when given a leave of absence in 1789 returned filled with democratic ideas from the new republic. Upon his landing he was immediately tendered by Washington a position in his Cabinet as Secretary of State. Soon it became evident to Jefferson that among the President’s advisers there existed a radical difference of opinion on nearly every important subject. Hamilton was regarded by the Secretary of State as a man in favor of a constitutional monarchy, and the latter’s ideas of centralization were construed to mean the destruction of the existing Constitution and the formation of a government like that of England. The Secretary of the Treasury, on the other hand, believed Jefferson to be infused with the socialistic democracy of France, and one whose principles if put in practice would overthrow the Constitution and produce anarchy. To Jefferson the financial policy of Hamilton was very aggravating. The recommendations of the Treasurer to Congress he believed to be in the interest of the speculators and the moneyed classes. On New Year’s Day, 1794, he resigned his office, greatly to the annoyance of Washington, who was reluctantly compelled to acquiesce, and returned to his farm. The position occupied by the first President was a peculiarly embarrassing one. He had in his Cabinet Jefferson and Randolph, the leaders of the Republican, or Anti-Federal party, and Hamilton and Knox prominent Federalists. With such associations the administration as a whole was comparatively little criticised, although Hamilton and Jefferson were the targets for the denunciations of their respective opponents. In 1800 Jefferson and Burr each received 73 electoral votes to Adams’ 65, which threw the election into the House. According to the decision of that body Jefferson was inaugurated March 4, 1801. His frugal administration increased the popularity of his party, which continued to remain in power twenty-four years. After having served two terms he again retired to his farm, a poor man, considerably burdened with debt. Congress purchased his library, which their committee valued at $23,000, although its cost had been nearly double that sum. Mr. Bacon, who had charge of the removal, says that there were sixteen wagon loads, each wagon being required to carry at least 3,000 pounds. The remainder of his life he spent in endeavoring to introduce schools and colleges, and in general, the New England system of local government into his native State. After witnessing the establishment of the University of Virginia, he died July 4, 1826, upon the same day that John Adams passed away. In politics Jefferson was considered by the Federalists as a theorist. Speaking of his administration, Gouverneur Morris says: “There is just now so much philosophy among our rulers that we must not be surprised at the charge of pusillanimity.” In religion he was very bitter against the Calvinists, and held Unitarian views.

WHAT IS MICA—WHERE OBTAINED?

Aurora, Neb.

What is mica, and where is it found?

B. O. B.

Answer.—Mica consists of a silicate of alumina, combined, according to species, with small proportions of potash, soda, lithia, oxide of iron, oxide of manganese, etc. The most common and serviceable variety is known as potash mica. It is a constituent of granite, gneiss, mica slate, and several other kindred rocks. It is found both disseminated and in veins. It is very widely distributed, especially in composition with other minerals; but there are comparatively few localities where it is known to exist in such quantities and form as to be mined with profit. Its most valuable form is that of muscovite, in which it appears in translucent lamina or plates. The larger and clearer these plates the greater the value of the mine or quarry. In Siberia they have been found more than three feet across, and they have been obtained of great size in Sweden and Norway. This is also the case at Acworth, Grafton, and Alstead, N. H., and mica has been found large enough for economic use in Canada. Mica is used largely for the doors of stoves and the sides of lanterns. It is employed in some countries as a substitute for window glass, and its toughness recommends it for this purpose on board vessels of war. It has also been used for spectacles. When ground it makes a cheap bronzing powder. There are some mica factories in North Carolina, near Mitchell County mica mines. In the state of a fine powder it is used to give a brilliant appearance to walls, and as a sand for drying ink on manuscripts. Lithia mica contains a small proportion of lithia, which gives it in many cases a fine rose or peachblow color, so that it is used for ornamental purposes.

WHY THE GREAT DIPPER SPINS AROUND THE POLE.

Coldwater, Mich.

Please explain the apparent revolution of the Dipper about the Polar Star.

J. C. A.

Answer.—The Great Dipper only appears to revolve, owing to the revolution of the earth. Of course, it makes an apparent revolution every twenty-four hours, the same as the sun. It is visible throughout the entire night because it is within what is called the circle of perpetual apparition, or that part of the heavens which is always in sight to the observer. This circle enlarges as one travels from the equator, where it is nothing, to the pole, where it takes in the whole northern hemisphere.

THE OLD UNITED STATES BANK.

Creston, Iowa.

Please give the location and explain the government of the first and second banks of the United States.

M. M. McKee.

Answer.—The act establishing the old United States Bank, although opposed by the Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, and by Edmund Randolph, the Attorney General, on the ground of its unconstitutionality, was approved by President Washington, July 25, 1791. The bank was organized at Philadelphia. The different clauses declared that the capital should be $10,000,000, which should be divided into 25,000 shares of $400 each; that any person, copartnership or body politic might subscribe for any number of shares not exceeding 1,000—only the United States could subscribe for more than this number of shares; that, with the exception of the United States, the subscriptions should be payable one-fourth in gold and silver, and the remaining three-fourths in certain 6 per cent bonds of the United States; that the subscribers should be incorporated under the name of “The President, Directors, and company of the Bank of the United States,” and the organization should continue until March 4, 1811; that the bank could hold property of all kinds, inclusive of its capital, to the amount of $15,000,000; that twenty-five directors should be chosen, who in turn should choose from their number a President; that as soon as $400,000 in gold and silver was received on subscription the bank could organize, after giving a notice of its intention. The general effect of this institution was very salutary. The credit of the United States became firmly established. The bank notes stood at par with gold and silver. The large deposits made the money available for the use of the Treasury, and the State bank currency, which had flooded the country, with no prospects of redemption, was greatly reduced. But with all its recognized advantages the act to re-charter was defeated in 1811, by the casting vote of the Vice President, George Clinton. Its loss, however, was immediately felt in the sudden and rapid increase of the currency of the State banks. To ward off an impending crisis, the second bank was established by an act approved by President Madison, April 10, 1816, at Philadelphia. A capital of $35,000,000 was required, which was to be equally divided into 350,000 shares, of which the United States took 70,000. The charter extended to March 3, 1836. It was prohibited from lending on account of the United States more than $500,000, or to any prince or foreign power any sum whatever, without the sanction of law first obtained. The bank was also prohibited from issuing bills of less denomination than $5. In time, to facilitate business, branch offices were established in every State. In December, 1829, however, the bank met strenuous opposition in the message of President Jackson, who argued, like Jefferson, against the constitutionality of its charter. When Congress, in 1832, passed a bill to re-charter the institution, Jackson imposed his veto, and soon after removed from the bank the United States’ deposits. The bank corporation, however, continued to exist, hoping that succeeding elections would change the complexion of affairs before their charter expired; but in this they were disappointed. In 1836 the charter terminated, and a few months afterward the business interests of the country were overwhelmed in a most disastrous financial revulsion.

JAMES FENIMORE COOPER.

Perryville, Ind.

Give a short biography of James Fenimore Cooper.

C. A. Moody.

Answer.—J. Fenimore Cooper, the pioneer of American novelists, was born in Burlington, N. J., Sept. 15, 1789. Reared in the wild country surrounding Otsego Lake, he early became acquainted with the natural scenery which he afterward so vividly described. His father, who was a member of Congress, sent him when but 13 to Yale College, where he remained two years. At the age of 16 he joined the United States navy, and made two extended cruises, which gave him all the information he desired concerning the sea. Resigning, he married, and settled at Westchester, N. Y., where he began to write his novels. The first, “Precaution,” appeared in 1819, and from that time he continued to write until his death, in 1851. In 1826 he visited Europe, returning in 1833. The novels of Cooper are considered remarkable for their descriptions; but in the general finish of his stories he has many superiors. His histories, while they are fascinating in interest, are not considered altogether reliable. His principal works are “The Pioneers,” “The Spy,” “The Pilot,” “The Prairie,” “Naval History of the United States,” and “The Pathfinder.”

MACKINAC.

Brimfield, Ind.

Please give a short history of Mackinac Island.

D. D. Poitner.

Answer.—The island of Mackinac, famed in Indian legends and the early French and English history of the West, was first visited by white men in 1634, when John Nicollet and a few Hurons and French voyageurs came to Green Bay to make a treaty with the Indians of that region. In 1670 that devout Jesuit missionary, Jean Marquette, lived on this island for about two years while building a chapel and dwelling on a point opposite on the site of the present Mackinac City. While here he wrote the following description: “Missili-Mackinac is an island, famous in these regions. It is of more than a league in diameter, and elevated in some places into such high cliffs as to be seen more than twelve leagues off. It is situated just in the strait forming the communication between Lakes Huron and Illinois (Michigan). It is the key and, as it were, the gate for all the tribes from the south.” “This place is the most noted in these regions for the abundance of its fisheries; for, according to the Indian saying, this is the home of the fishes.” The history of this gem of the lakes is intertwined with that of the old Mackinac town. This ancient village was for many centuries the headquarters of the Ottawa, Objibwa, and other Indian nations, and when Marquette succeeded in winning their friendship and in constructing his chapel, it became the great trading post of the French-Canadians. Soon a fort was constructed, and the white foreigners lived here and traded in peace. But when in 1759 Quebec was taken by the English, Mackinac fell to the conquerors. These new masters were very unpopular with the suspicious inhabitants, who soon found an opportunity to avenge their previous wrongs and defeats by a complete massacre of the garrison. In order to retain a post in that locality and prevent a repetition of such slaughter, the English constructed in 1780 a fort on the island, which in 1793 was surrendered to the United States. In the war of 1812 it was surprised before its garrison was aware of the declaration of war and surrendered to the English besiegers. Upon the close of the struggle it was returned to the jurisdiction of the United States. For many years the island was the outfitting and furnishing place of John Jacob Astors’ Indian traffic, under the name of the Northwestern Fur Company, but when that gentleman sold out in 1834 to Ramsey Crooks, of New York, the trade of the post gradually decreased. The island is one of the most beautiful localities, in its natural scenery and surroundings, of which our country can boast. The clear water, the imposing rocks, and the old fort, all add luster to its many charms. One of its chief natural attractions is Arch Rock, which, projecting from the precipice on the northeastern side of the island, forms a natural bridge 140 feet in height. The bridge, the Indians say, was constructed by the giant fairies, who formerly made the island their abode, but the unpoetical scientist declares that at one time the water was much higher than in this age, and that its continuous action wore away the calcareous rock, and left this arch.

METALS AND THEIR USES.

Wall Lake, Iowa.

How many kinds of metals are there? For what are they used; where found?

Laura.

Answer.—There is a difference of opinion among practical chemists as to the number of existing metals. Professor Youmans affirms that there are at least fifty simple metals, nearly one-half of which are of little importance. Other scientists make the number considerably less. The greater number of metals are rarely or never found in nature in a simple state. They exist in compound forms, and are useful only in such conditions. For example, sodium, the basis of our common salt, cannot be exposed to any moisture, and therefore in its simple state is comparatively useless. Aluminum, as it is found in the ordinary clay, or the alum of commerce, is of great utility, but when separated from its associated elements its use is confined almost exclusively to the laboratory. Of the more important metals iron is the king. In its production Great Britain leads the world. From her furnaces and mills in 1879 were taken 5,995,337 tons of cast and pig iron, and 1,344,297 tons of steel, a ton consisting of 2,240 lbs. During the same year the United States produced 2,741,853 tons of iron, and 1,440,121 tons of steel; Germany, 2,161,192 tons of iron and 800,000 tons of steel, and France, 1,344,759 tons of iron and 561,691 tons of steel. Of the production in the United States, Pennsylvania furnaces yielded about one-half, and those of Ohio about one-seventh. Copper has been in use from early times. Often among the bones of primitive man are found utensils beaten out of this malleable metal. At present it is mined extensively in Wales, Germany, Australia, Upper Michigan, Northern Wisconsin and Minnesota, and to a small degree in various other localities. Tin is found either as rock-tin, in veins with rock and other ores, or as stream-tin in alluvial deposits. The principal mines are in Cornwall, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Mexico and China. Not only is it used in the manufacture of tin-plate, but also in the composition of various valuable alloys. Zinc, in the form of a carbonate or selicate, is obtained from mines in Silesia and Belgium, and also in small quantities in Wales, France, and this country. Like tin, it is used in the composition of various alloys, as well as in the ordinary form of zinc plate. Until a recent date, the value of nickel was not known. The Germans, who, out of derision, gave it its name, were accustomed to cast it aside as a spurious or base copper. The mines of Germany and Wales produce nearly the entire amount, although a little has been obtained from mines in Pennsylvania. Its use is mainly confined to its alloys, such as German silver, white metal, and a few minor coins. Platinum, which, owing to its high fusive point and its lack of affinity for acids is peculiarly adapted for the manufacture of chemical vessels, is found in Brazil, and also in Russia. In the production of gold the United States leads all other countries. The yield of our gold mines in 1881 was valued at $36,500,000, while the total yield from 1845 to 1880 amounted to $1,523,678,301. Between the years 1493 and 1875 Austria produced in gold $889,963,800, New Granada $596,501,675, and Russia $590,629,944. The silver of the world for the last four centuries has been produced mainly in Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. Since the discovery of America Mexican mines have yielded over $2,600,280,659; Peruvian, $1,065,357,084; and Bolivian, $1,286,999,947. The mines of the United States have yielded since their first discovery about $540,000,000. Mercury is obtained either in the fluid state, inclosed in the rocky receptacles of the earth, or is derived by roasting its sulphate. In Southern California and Mexico, and also in Austria and Spain, productive mines are worked. It is valuable in the construction of thermometers, barometers, pendulums, etc., manufactures, and also in refining metals by amalgamation.

A SHORT HISTORY OF SUFFRAGE.

Woodlawn, Mo.

Please give a brief history of the right of suffrage in this country.

Reader.

Answer.—The history of suffrage has been a record of progress and extension. The most limited form is observed in the first election of the Virginia colony in 1607, and the most extensive to-day is in Wyoming Territory. By the charter granted to the Virginia Company the members of a council of settlers, chosen by a higher council resident in England, were privileged to choose annually a President from their own number. In accordance with this the first right of suffrage that existed in any permanent American colony was exercised by six members of the council, who, in May, 1607, chose Edward Maria Wingfield as the first President. In 1619 the different towns of Virginia elected, by general suffrage, twenty-two burgesses, who, assembling at Jamestown, constituted the first legislative body convened in America. In the following year, a few hundred miles north, the Plymouth Fathers gathered on the deck of the Mayflower, and exercised a still more extended right of suffrage in the choice of John Carver as the first Governor of the colony. These privileges continued, with only a few changes in Virginia, until the American revolution, excepting that eighteen years after the election of Carver, in Massachusetts, their mass assemblies were deemed too large, and a representative government was established. Although democratic in principle, a few laws passed by the New England colonists restricted the privilege of suffrage. No person who had not become a freeman by taking the oath of allegiance was permitted to vote. No man, according to a law of 1631, was admitted to the freedom of the body politic who was not a member of some of the churches within the limits of the same. No Quaker was permitted to become a freeman. The two latter restrictions, however, were soon removed. The power of the people was greatly increased through the results of the revolution, yet in several of the original thirteen States the right of suffrage was restricted to property-holders or rate-payers, and otherwise limited for periods extending in some cases through one or more decades of the present century. The tendency was constantly to the wide limits of manhood suffrage, which was then prevailing rule, but only as regards white citizens, until the fifteenth amendment in March, 1870, extended the same right to colored citizens. The present movement toward the extension of the right to women has been successful in Wyoming Territory and to a certain extent in Massachusetts, which permits women to vote for members of the Board of Education. The agitation, also, of the educational qualification of electors has resulted in late years in a slight limitation of the right of suffrage in a few of the States, notably Massachusetts.

ELIZA COOK.

Ohio.

Please give a short sketch of Eliza Cook, the English poetess.

Mrs. Rankin.

Answer.—Eliza Cook, who is now residing in the village of Merton in Surrey, England, was born in Southwark in 1817. In early life she established a considerable reputation through the poems which she contributed to several of the leading magazines of London. In 1840 these poems were collected and with others published in one volume, since which time she has issued several editions of her lyrics that are read with as much interest in our country as in England. In 1849 she published a magazine entitled Eliza Cook’s Journal, which was quite successful for many years. Although the effects of age are beginning to be noticeable, she still contributes to various magazines.

A HISTORY OF OUR FLAG.

Milton, Ind.

Please give a history of our National flag.

Harry Woodard.

Answer.—In June, 1777, a committee having been appointed by Congress to confer with General Washington concerning a design for a National flag, reported in favor of a flag containing thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, and a blue field adorned with thirteen white stars. This was adopted June 14, and the design was carried to the upholstering shop of Mrs. Ross, No. 239 Arch street, Philadelphia, where the first National flag was made. The original design required six-pointed stars, but, upon Mrs. Ross’ suggestion that five-pointed stars would be more symmetrical, the pattern was changed. This lady was afterward given the position of manufacturer of government flags, which occupation upon her death was retained by her children. The stars and stripes were first unfurled at the battle of Saratoga upon the occasion of the surrender of Burgoyne. By an act of Congress, Jan. 13, 1794, the design was changed so as to incorporate fifteen stripes and fifteen stars, and one star was to be added for every subsequent State admitted. This, however, was repealed in 1818, when the original number of stripes were established, the stars continuing to increase as new States were admitted. In designing a flag the field should be one-third the length and cover the width of seven stripes. Of the colors, red represents courage, white, integrity, and blue steadfastness, faith and love.

INDIA, BROWN, AND YELLOW INKS.

Blackberry Station, Ill.

Please give a recipe for making India ink, also recipes for making yellow and brown inks.

Elmer Weyant.

Answer.—Pure India ink, or sepia, is made only in China, but a good imitation and common substitute is made as follows: Ivory black, ground to an impalpable powder, is made into a paste with weak gum arabic water, perfumed with a few drops of essence of musk and half as much essence of ambergris. This is pressed into cakes, ready for use. Brown ink may be made with a strong decoction of catechu. The shade can be varied by cautiously adding a little weak solution of bichromate of potash. A yellow ink may be made with a strong decoction of yellow dyeing ingredient with alum and gum arabic.

ONE OF OUR NEW BRIGADIER GENERAL.

Chicago.

Please give a short sketch of General Mackenzie, lately appointed Brigadier General in the regular army.

M. J. Foreman.

Answer.—Ranal S. Mackenzie was born in New York in August, 1840. Graduating from West Point in 1862, he was made Second Lieutenant of Engineers. He immediately entered active service in the Ninth Corps, and was wounded at the second battle of Bull Run. When Lee, in 1863, advanced into Maryland, Mackenzie was very busily employed in constructing bridges for the Union forces which followed in the rear of the rebel army. He took part in the various battles of the Army of the Potomac in Maryland and in West Virginia, and in May, 1864, had charge of a company before Richmond. He passed through the battle of the Wilderness, and in June was wounded before Petersburg. For his gallantry he was appointed Brigadier General of Volunteers. Resuming the command of his company, he continued his efforts against Petersburg. At the battle of Five Forks he commanded a division of cavalry with so much skill that he was brevetted Major General. After the close of the war he retained the command of a company in his old corps. In March, 1867, he was promoted to the Colonelcy, and in 1870 he was transferred to the cavalry and sent to the Mexican frontier. In quelling the depredations on the Texas border and in putting down the Indian insurrections in New Mexico and Arizona he has since displayed considerable military ability. Previous to his present promotion he had charge of the army in New Mexico, Santa Fe being his headquarters.

SOUND AND SENSE.

Wyoming, Ill.

Can sound be produced with no ear to hear?

William E. White.

Answer.—The word sound is used in different senses. In the sense defined in the first definition given by Webster and Worcester, the answer to your question is “no;” but in the sense of his second definition, it is “yes.” This second definition, as given in the last edition of his Unabridged Dictionary, is as follows: “Sound—The occasion of sound: the impulse or vibration which would occasion sound to a percipient if present with unimpaired organs.” This use of the word is strikingly illustrated in the expression “inaudible sounds,” i.e., such as can only be heard by the help of instruments.

GENERAL ROBERT E. LEE.

Monticello, Ill.

Please give a biographical sketch of the late rebel General, Robert E. Lee.

Jacob A. Rhoads.

Answer.—The Commander-in-chief of the rebel forces was born at Westmoreland, Va., Jan. 19, 1807. At the age of 18 he entered West Point, from which he graduated, the second in his class, in 1829. Receiving an appointment of Second Lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers, he spent his time at various places, engaged in the government surveys, until the breaking out of the Mexican war. During the greater portion of the war he served under General Scott, who considered him a very capable officer. For his excellent services he was brevetted major, then lieutenant colonel, and soon afterwards he was made colonel. At Chapultepec, he was wounded, but not seriously enough to prevent his entering the City of Mexico. After the war he was engaged on the Atlantic coast until his appointment in 1852 to the superintendency of the Military Academy. In 1855 he was made Lieutenant Colonel of the Second Cavalry, and was transferred to the Texas border. While on leave of absence in Washington in 1859, he was placed in charge of the troops which quelled the raid at Harper’s Ferry. In March, 1861, he was made colonel, but when he learned of Virginia’s secession he resigned and accepted an appointment in the insurrectionary forces of his native State. Repairing to Richmond he was made commander-in-chief of the forces of Virginia, with the title of Major General. Soon after, by an act of the Confederate Congress, he was made third in rank of the entire rebel forces, Samuel Cooper and A. S. Johnston being his superiors. Because of his inactivity before Rosecrans he was transferred in December to North and South Carolina, where he remained until March, 1862, when he returned to accept the position of commander-in-chief of all the Confederate forces. In June he defeated McClellan and began his northward march, routing the forces of Pope and invading the State of Maryland. The bloody battle of Antietam was claimed as a victory by both sides, but Lee thought best immediately to retire into Virginia. Until his next invasion and defeat at Gettysburg in July, 1863, he remained on the defensive. His subsequent retreat, his generalship in the battle of the Wilderness and other engagements following it disclosed great tact and prudence. The ability which he displayed in the defense of Richmond excites the admiration of every impartial reader of history, and does great credit to his military genius. This genius was more than matched at last by that of General Grant, sustained by the greater resources of the North, and he was compelled to surrender his sword at Appomattox Court House. Subsequently he became President of Washington and Lee College, located at Lexington, Va., where he died Oct. 12, 1870.

VARIATIONS OF THE COMPASS.

Kensett, Iowa.

It is said that the companions of Christopher Columbus were greatly alarmed when the variations of the compass was first remarked. Please explain why the needle of a compass points north, and also give the amount of its variation for different places.

C. E. Locke.

Answer.—Why the magnetic needle points northward is not positively determined. There are several theories but none of them explain all the phenomena of the needle. That which perplexes scientists most is that in every place the needle is subject to variations. By observations at Paris it was found that in 1681 the magnetic needle varied 2 deg. 30 min. to the west, in 1865 18 deg. 44 min. to the west. At London between 1580 and 1692 the needle varied from 10 deg. 15 min. E. to 6 deg. W. In Dakota Territory the average variation is 12 deg. 30 min. east, in Minnesota 11 deg. east, while in Montana it is 20 deg. east. S. V. Clevenger, United States Deputy Surveyor, says in a work on government surveys: “The needle does not point due north, except in a few localities, and at no place does it continue to point with a given angular distance from the north, for any stated length of time. It changes secularly, annually, diurnally, and hourly, and is further subject to fluctuations reducible to no method of tabulation. In the vicinity of iron in any shape, or magnetic sands, the needle is deflected toward the material attracting it. This perturbation is known as local attraction. The author has known the needle to vary 5 deg. in a distance of one mile, and 1 deg. 30 min. during two hours when stationed at one place.” The variation in the magnetic needle of Columbus’ compass was probably caused by some local attraction of which he knew nothing.

DISCOURAGEMENTS TO ANTARCTIC EXPLORATIONS.

Palestine, Ind.

Why is the north pole the object of more research than the south pole?

Subscriber.

Answer.—Soon after the discovery of America European navigators began to search the arctic zone for a passage to Asiatic countries which would be less dangerous and circuitous than that usually traveled. Although the object of polar expeditions has changed somewhat, yet one of the reasons which actuated them influences the explorers of the present time. The nearness of this pole has rendered it of greater interest than its southern counterpart. Expeditions are fitted out more easily for the shorter voyage. Relief can be procured with less delay. Other reasons are that from the closer neighborhood of the continents, and from the action of the Gulf Stream on the one side and the Japan current on the other, and from the fact that the earth is in perihelion during the winter season of the Northern hemisphere, and in aphelion during the winter of the Southern hemisphere, the Arctic Sea is more free from ice, which in the Antarctic region is an impregnable barrier in the way of discovery.

WAGES IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA.

Oskaloosa, Iowa.

Give a comparison of the wages of the United States with those of England.

O. P. L.

Answer.—The following is a comparison of the wages paid per week in Chicago and Great Britain to various artisans:

THE BANKERS’ CLEARING HOUSE, LONDON.

Davenport, Iowa.

Tell us something of the purpose of the great Clearing House of London, and the amount of business done through it.

J. Brown.

Answer.—The Bankers’ Clearing House, London, is the medium through which bankers collect the checks and bills in their hands against other banks. Instead of presenting these checks and bills at each bank to which they are addressed, and receiving cash and notes in payment, clearing bankers settle the whole amount delivered during the day at this establishment in Postoffice Court, Lombard street, by receiving or paying the difference in the totals for or against them by a single check on the Bank of England. Every bank in London and the country is represented by clearing bankers, and as their agents send through the Clearing House all drafts payable in the city and in the country, the amount passing through this establishment every year is enormous. The total amount for the year ending April 30, 1882, was £6,382,654,000, or nearly $32,000,000,000. The total clearings of the Bankers’ Clearing House, Chicago, in the year ending Dec. 31, 1882, amounted to $2,366,526,185. This represented only the transactions of banks doing business in Chicago. It is estimated that the new rule as to settlement applied during the past year has reduced the total clearings nearly 25 per cent below what they would have been under the old rule. London is the center of exchange for the world, and the volume of its bank clearings must necessarily be enormously greater than that of any other city. The totals of bills, checks, and drafts passed through the London Clearing House, between 1869 and 1881 inclusive, foot up £68,010,643,000, or over three hundred and forty billion dollars. The rise and fall in trade not only in England, but in large degree the world over is mirrored in the annual records of these clearings for the period mentioned. Whereas in 1869 the total clearings were but 3,626,396,000 pounds sterling, they increased each year until 1873, when they amounted to £6,070,948,000. Then, in consequence of the widespread commercial depression the total trade transactions fell off, and the London bank clearings fell to £5,936,772,000 in 1874, £5,685,793,000 in 1875, and £4,963,480,000 in 1876, the lowest point touched. Not until 1880 did the clearings rise to nearly six billions again. In 1881, for the first time, did they reach and pass the total in 1873, indicating general business prosperity throughout the world.