THE

NEW · GRESHAM

ENCYCLOPEDIA

VOLUME · IV · PART · 2

The GRESHAM · PUBLISHING
COMPANY · Limited

66 CHANDOS STREET · STRAND
LONDON W.C.2.
1922

LIST OF PLATES AND MAPS

VOLUME IV PART 2

EBERT to ESTREMADURA

PLATES

MAPS IN COLOUR

KEY TO PRONUNCIATION

The method of marking pronunciations here employed is either (1) by marking the syllable on which the accent falls, or (2) by a simple system of transliteration, to which the following is the Key:—

VOWELS

ā, as in fate, or in bare.

ä, as in alms, Fr. âme, Ger. Bahn = á of Indian names.

a˙, the same sound short or medium, as in Fr. bal, Ger. Mann.

a, as in fat.

a¨, as in fall.

a, obscure, as in rural, similar to u in but, ė in her: common in Indian names.

ē, as in me = i in machine.

e, as in met.

ė, as in her.

ī, as in pine, or as ei in Ger. mein.

i, as in pin, also used for the short sound corresponding to ē, as in French and Italian words.

eu, a long sound as in Fr. jeûne = Ger. long ö, as in Söhne, Göthe (Goethe).

eu, corresponding sound short or medium, as in Fr. peu = Ger. ö short.

ō, as in note, moan.

o, as in not, soft—that is, short or medium.

ö, as in move, two.

ū as in tube.

u, as in tub: similar to ė and also to a.

u¨, as in bull.

ü, as in Sc. abune = Fr. û as in dû, Ger. ü long as in grün, Bühne.

u˙, the corresponding short or medium sound, as in Fr. but, Ger. Müller.

oi, as in oil.

ou, as in pound; or as au in Ger. Haus.

CONSONANTS

Of the consonants, b, d, f, h, j, k, l, m, n, ng, p, sh, t, v, z, always have their common English sounds, when used to transliterate foreign words. The letter c is not used by itself in re-writing for pronunciation, s or k being used instead. The only consonantal symbols, therefore, that require explanation are the following:—

ch is always as in rich.

d, nearly as th in this = Sp. d in Madrid, &c.

g is always hard, as in go.

h represents the guttural in Scotch loch, Ger. nach, also other similar gutturals.

n˙, Fr. nasal n as in bon.

r represents both English r, and r in foreign words, which is generally much more strongly trilled.

s, always as in so.

th, as th in thin.

th, as th in this.

w always consonantal, as in we.

x = ks, which are used instead.

y always consonantal, as in yea (Fr. ligne would be re-written lēny).

zh, as s in pleasure = Fr. j.

Ebert, Fritz, first President of the new German Republic, born at Heidelberg in 1870, the son of a tailor. Having received an elementary education in his youth, he first worked in his father's shop, and was then apprenticed to a saddler. He spent his spare time in reading and acquiring knowledge, entered journalism, and in 1892 became editor of the Bremer Bürgerzeitung. In 1908 he was elected to the Reichstag, and in 1916 became president of the Socialist group of this Assembly. He appealed for peace in the Reichstag in Sept., 1918, and having thus become rather prominent, he succeeded Prince Max of Baden as Chancellor of the Empire. The office was suppressed a few days later, and Ebert became Provisional President of Germany. He crushed the efforts made by the Spartacus group to prevent the elections for the National Assembly, and altogether showed tact and energy in those critical days. The National Assembly met at Weimar, and elected Ebert as first President of the Reich on 11th Feb., 1919.

E´bionites (Heb. ebyonim, poor), a sect of the first century, so called from their leader, Ebion. Irenæus described them as Jewish Christians. They held several dogmas in common with the Nazarenes, united the ceremonies of the Mosaic institution with the precepts of the gospel, and observed both the Jewish Sabbath and Christian Sunday. They denied the divinity of Christ and rejected many parts of the New Testament.

Eblis, or Iblis, in Mohammedan mythology, the chief of the evil spirits; also the name given to the prince of darkness, or Satan.

Eb´oli, a city of Campania, Southern Italy, a few miles from the Gulf of Salerno. Pop. 12,741.

Eb´ony, the popular name of various plants of different genera, agreeing in having wood of a dark colour. The best-known ebony is derived from plants of the genus Diospyros, nat. ord. Ebenaceæ. The most valuable is the heart-wood of D. Ebĕnum, which grows in great abundance in the flat parts of Ceylon, and is of such size that logs of its heart-wood 2 feet in diameter and from 10 to 15 feet long are easily procured. Other varieties of valuable ebony are obtained from D. melanoxylon of Coromandel, D. tesseleria of Mauritius, and other species. Ebony is hard, heavy, and durable, and admits of a fine polish or gloss. The most usual colour is black, red, or green. The best is jet black, free from veins, very heavy, astringent, and of an acrid pungent taste. On burning coals it yields an agreeable perfume, and when green it readily takes fire from its abundance of fat. It is wrought into toys, and used for mosaic and inlaid work.

Ebony Lore. In ancient times ebony was a sacred wood. The Indians carved from it images of gods and drinking-cups. It was first used by the ancient Egyptians, who called it heben, and imported it from 'God-land' (Punt). The Hebrew name is hobnīm, the Greek ebenos, the Hindi ābanūsa. Ezekiel (xxvii, 15) connects ebony with Tyre. The ebony displayed in Rome by Pompey in his triumph over Mithridates came, according to Solinus, from India. The Chinese call it Wu-men ('black-streaked wood'), and anciently imported it from India and Indo-China.

E´bro (Lat. Ibērus), one of the largest rivers in Spain, which has its source in the province of Santander, about 25 miles S. of the Bay of Biscay, and after a south-easterly course of about 500 miles enters the Mediterranean. Its navigation is much interrupted by rapids and shoals, to avoid which a canal about 100 miles long has been constructed nearly parallel to its course. Saragossa is the principal town on the river.

Écarté (ā-kär´tā), a card-game for two players, is played with thirty-two cards, the smaller ones, from two to six inclusive, not being used. The remaining cards rank as follows: king (highest), queen, knave, ace, ten, &c. In the English mode of playing, the players cut for the deal, which is decided by the lowest card. The dealer gives five cards to either player, three and two at a time, and turns up the eleventh card for trump. If he turns up a king he scores one; and if a king occurs in the hand of either player, the holder may score one by announcing it before the first trick. The non-dealer leads; trumps take all other suits, but the players must follow suit if they can. Three tricks count one point, five tricks two points; five points make game. Before play begins, the non-dealer may claim to discard (écarter) any of the cards in his hand, and to replace them by fresh ones from the pack. This claim the dealer may or may not allow. Should he allow it, he can himself discard as many cards as he pleases. Sometimes only one discard is allowed, sometimes more. Cf. Cavendish, The Laws of Écarté adopted by the Turf Club.

Ecbat´ana, the chief city or ancient metropolis of Media, the summer residence of the Median and Persian and afterwards of the Parthian kings. It was a place of great splendour at an early period. Its site can no longer be fixed with certainty, though many explorers agree in identifying it with the modern Hamadan.

Ecce Homo (ek´sē; Lat., 'Behold the man!'), a name often given to crucifixes and pictures which represent Christ bound and crowned with thorns. The most celebrated of these paintings are by Sodoma, Correggio (in the National Gallery), Titian, Tintoretto, Guido Reni, and Murillo. The expression is derived from the words spoken by Pilate when he showed Christ

to the multitude before he was led forth to Crucifixion (John, xix, 5).

P, Pulley. M, Strap. N, Rod. O, Centre of shaft. E, Centre of eccentric. O, E, Is the throw or radius of the eccentric.

Eccen´tric, a term in mechanics applied to contrivances for converting circular into reciprocating (backwards and forwards) rectilinear motion, consisting of circular discs attached to a revolving shaft, not centrally, i.e. eccentrically.

Ecchymosis is extravasation of blood into the tissues underlying the skin. It is most frequently produced as the result of a bruise from injury, but may be due to some pathological condition.

Ecclefechan (ek-l-feh´an), a Scottish village in Dumfriesshire, near the Caledonian Railway main line, noteworthy as the birth-place and burial-place of Thomas Carlyle. Pop. 670.

Eccles, a town of England, in Lancashire, 4 miles from Manchester, of which it may be considered a suburb. The town, engaged in textile industries, is famous for its cakes. Since 1918 it returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 41,946.

Ecclesias´tes (-tēz), the title by which the Septuagint translators rendered the Hebrew Koheleth ('the gatherer of the people'), a symbolic name explained by the design of the book and the dramatic position occupied by Solomon in it, one of the canonical books of the Old Testament. The book consists of 12 chapters, being a series of discourses on the vanity of earthly things, and the tone, which is sceptical, is such as is found in Omar Khayyám. According to Jewish tradition, it was written by Solomon; but the best modern criticism has decided that its style and language, no less than its thought, belong to a much later date.

Ecclesiastical Commissioners, in England, a body corporate, constituted in 1836, with extensive powers in regard to the organization of the Church, the distribution of episcopal duties, and the formation of parishes. It consists of all the bishops of England and Wales, five cabinet ministers, four judges, and twelve others. Their decisions are ratified by orders in council, and acquire the force of Acts of Parliament. The Commissioners deal with an annual income of about 2 million pounds.

Ecclesiastical Courts, courts in which the canon law is administered and which deal with ecclesiastical cases, affecting benefices and the like. In England they are the Archdeacon's Court, the Consistory Courts, the Court of Arches, the Court of Peculiars, the Prerogative Courts of the two archbishops, the Faculty Court, and the Privy Council, which is the court of appeal, though its jurisdiction may by Order in Council be transferred to the new Court of Appeal. No separate ecclesiastical courts existed in England before the Norman Conquest, but by a charter of William I a distinction was made between courts civil and courts ecclesiastical. In Scotland the ecclesiastical courts are the Kirk-session, Presbytery, Synod, General Assembly (which is the supreme tribunal as regards doctrine and discipline), and the Teind Court, consisting of the judges of the Court of Session, which has jurisdiction in all matters affecting the teinds of a parish. In the Isle of Man ecclesiastical courts still have, as formerly in England, jurisdiction in probate and matrimonial cases.

Ecclesiastical Law may, in the broad sense of the term, be taken to include the regulations existing in any Church or sect, however small, for the formation of its own polity and for the control of its members. It is, however, more generally applied to those legal bonds which exist between Established Churches and the State. The Roman Catholic Church claims to be the one and only true Church, regards her laws as being of universal application, and herself as an equal with the State; nevertheless she has, in non-Catholic countries, no higher legal standing than any small and obscure dissenting congregation, and is in this respect a 'free' Church. Protestant ecclesiastical law claims no such sovereign power, and in no way interferes with the State law. In England the Convocations of York and Canterbury have no authority to change the law, their power being limited to the making of recommendations. All changes in Church law are made by Parliament. Laymen can be, and often are, officials of the ecclesiastical courts. The civil law is subject to the canon law, above which is the common law, with, yet higher, statute law. Over all is the nominal supremacy of the Crown. Ecclesiastical law deals with such affairs and property of the Church of England as ecclesiastical parishes, churches, and matters matrimonial; but only so far as these are not controlled by common or statute law. It has long ceased to have any practical control of the laity. In Ireland, ecclesiastical law disappeared with the disestablishment of the Church.

Ecclesias´ticus, a book placed by Protestants and Jews among the apocryphal scriptures. The author calls himself Jesus the son of Sirach,

Originally written in Hebrew, it was translated into Greek by the author's grandson in the second century B.C. In 1896 fragments of four MSS. in the Hebrew original were discovered in the Geniza, or hiding-place for worn out copies of biblical books, in the synagogue at Cairo. Another fragment was discovered in Palestine by Mrs. Agnes Lewis.—Cf. Schechter and Taylor, The Wisdom of Ben Sira: Portions of the Book Ecclesiasticus.

Échelles, Les (lā-zā-shāl; 'the Ladders'), a village, France, department of Savoie, 12 miles south-west of Chambéry, in a valley from which egress at one end was formerly by means of ladders, but now by a tunnel. Pop. 798.

Échelon (esh´e-lon), a formation of successive and parallel units facing in the same direction, each on a flank and to the rear of the unit in front of it.

Echeneis, the type genus of a small family (Echeneididæ) of aberrant spiny-finned fishes, in which the first dorsal fin is modified into a transversely ridged suctorial disc. See Remora.

Echeveria (ech-e-vē´ri-a), a genus of succulent plants, ord. Crassulaceæ (house-leek), chiefly natives of Mexico, but now cultivated in European and other gardens and greenhouses, some for their flowers, others for their foliage.

Echidna (ē-kid´na), a genus of Australian toothless mammals, in size and general appearance resembling a large hedgehog, excepting that the spines are longer and the muzzle is protracted and slender, with a small aperture at the extremity for the protraction of a long flexible tongue. The habits of the Echidna are nocturnal; it burrows, having short strong legs with five toes, and feeds on insects, which it catches by protruding its long sticky tongue. It is nearly allied to the Ornithorhynchus, the two forming a peculiar class of animals, having in their structure some peculiarities at once of mammals, birds, and reptiles. In 1884 it was found that, as Geoffrey St. Hilaire had suspected, the Echidna, the closely related Proechidna of New Guinea, and the Ornithorhynchus constitute the lowest sub-class of mammals, the Prototheria or Monotremata, which present many reptilian characters. They possess a cloaca into which the intestine and urinogenital ducts open and are oviparous. During the breeding season a temporary pouch is formed, and into this the milk-glands open, but there are no teats. The egg when laid is put into the pouch by the mother, and is there hatched in a very immature state. It feeds by licking up the milk in the pouch. Later on, the mother digs a burrow, where she leaves the young at night, returning during the day to suckle it. One species (E. hystrix), from its appearance is popularly known as the porcupine ant-eater.

Echinocactus (e-kī´-), a genus of cactaceous plants inhabiting Mexico and South America, and remarkable for their peculiar forms, being globular, oblong, or cylindrical, and without leaves, fluted and ribbed, with stiff spines clustered on woolly cushions. Some of them are very bulky. The flowers are large and showy. See Cactus.

Echinococcus, the very large compound cyst which forms the bladder-worm stage in the life-history of a small tapeworm (Tænia echinococcus) living in the intestine of the dog. The cysts are found in various abdominal organs of herbivorous animals, and sometimes infest human beings, especially in Iceland.

Echinodermata (e-kī-nō-dėr´ma-ta), a phylum or sub-kingdom of invertebrate animals characterized by having a tough integument in which lime is deposited in scattered plates (sea-cucumber), flexibly articulated plates (star-fishes), or so as to form a rigid test or shell like that of the sea-urchin; and by the radial arrangement of many of the parts of the adult. Movable spines are commonly present. There is a system of tubes into which seawater is admitted (ambulacral system), and commonly tube-feet, that are put into use by being distended with fluid. Some of them, as the encrinites or sea-lilies, are permanently fixed by a stalk when adult. Their development is accompanied by metamorphosis, and the embryo shows a distinctly bilateral aspect, though the radiate arrangement prevails in the adult. By some they are classed with the Scolecida in the sub-kingdom Annuloida. The phylum is divided into nine classes: Asteroidea (star-fishes); Ophiuroidea (brittle-stars), Echinoidea (sea-urchins), Holothuroidea (sea-cucumbers), Crinoidea (sea-lilies, feather-stars, the latter free-moving), Thecoidea or Edrioasteroidea (extinct, stalkless but fixed), Carpoidea (extinct, stalked), Cystoidea (extinct, stalked), Blastoidea (extinct, stalked). All are marine.

Echinomys, or Spiny Rat, a genus of South American rodent mammals distinguished by the presence of spines among the coarse fur. The long tail is covered by scales and hair intermixed, the ears are large, and all the extremities possess five digits.

Echinus (e-kī´nus), Sea-urchin, or Sea-egg, a genus of marine animals, the type of an order (Echinoidea) of the phylum Echinodermata (see above). In this type the body is spheroidal and invested in a test or shell composed of regularly arranged plates closely united together. It is covered with movable spines articulated by ball-and-socket joints. The mouth is situated in the centre of the under surface, and there is a complicated masticatory apparatus (Aristotle's lantern) consisting of five chisel-ended teeth

supported by an elaborate framework. The anus is similarly placed on the upper side, and is surrounded by a circlet of ten plates (apical disc), one of which bears a furrowed tubercle (madreporite) perforated by small holes through which water enters the water-vascular system. Locomotion is effected by meridional rows of tube-feet, aided by the spines. E. esculentus and some other species are edible. See Sea-urchin.

Echinus (e-kī´nus), in architecture, the ovolo or quarter-round convex moulding, seen in capitals of the Doric order. It is especially frequently found carved with the egg-and-dart ornament.

Echo (ek´ō), the repetition of a sound caused by the reflection of sound-waves from some surface, as the wall of a building. The echo may, however, be very distinct when the reflecting surface is very irregular, and it is probable that the resonance of the obstacles and the masses of air which they enclose contribute in producing the echo. The waves of sound on meeting the surface are turned back in their course according to the same laws that hold for reflection of light. In order that the echo may return to the place from which the sound proceeds, the reflection must be direct, and not at an angle to the line of transmission, otherwise the echo may be heard by others but not by the transmitter of the sound. This may be effected either by a reflecting surface at right angles to the line of transmission, or by several reflecting surfaces which in the end bring the sound back to the point of issue. Sound travels about 1125 feet in a second; consequently, an observer standing at half that distance from the reflecting object would hear the echo a second later than the sound. Such an echo would repeat as many words and syllables as could be heard in a second. As the distance decreases, the echo repeats fewer syllables till it becomes mono-syllabic. The most practised ear cannot distinguish in a second more than from nine to twelve successive sounds, so that a distance of not less than 60 feet is needed to enable an average ear to distinguish between the echo and the original sounds. At a near distance the echo only clouds the original sounds, and this often interferes with the hearing in churches and other large buildings. Woods, rocks, and mountains produce natural echoes in every variety, for which particular localities have become famous.

Echo, in Greek mythology, a mountain nymph (one of the Oreads). Legend relates that by her talking she detained Hera, when the latter sought to surprise Zeus among the mountain nymphs. To punish her the goddess deprived her of speech, unless first spoken to. She subsequently fell in love with Narcissus, and because he did not reciprocate her affection she pined away until nothing was left but her voice.

Echuca (e-chö´ka), an Australian town, colony of Victoria, on the Murray, over which is an iron railway and roadway bridge, connecting it with Moama in New South Wales; trade (partly by the river) in timber and wool. Pop. 4137.

Écija (ā-thē-ha˙), an ancient town of Southern Spain, province of Seville, on the Genil, with manufactures of textile fabrics and a good trade. It is one of the hottest places in Spain. Pop. 23,217.

Eck, Johann Maier von, the celebrated opponent of Luther, born in 1486, died in 1543. Having obtained a reputation for learning and skill in disputation, he was made doctor of theology, canon in Eichstädt, and pro-chancellor of the University of Ingolstadt. He went to Rome in 1520, and returned with a Papal bull against Luther, in attempting to publish which he met with violent popular opposition. In 1530, while at the Diet of Augsburg, he made the remarkable admission that he could confute the Augsburg Confession by the fathers but not by the Scriptures. Eck was present also at the Diets of Worms (1540) and Ratisbon (1541).

Eck´ermann, Johann Peter, German writer, born in 1792, died in 1854. In 1813 he served in the army against the French, and was afterwards appointed to a small governmental post. He finally settled in Weimar, where he became private secretary to Goethe. After Goethe's death he published his Conversations with Goethe, a book which has been translated into all European languages.

Eckmühl (ek´mül), a village of Bavaria, circle of Lower Bavaria, on the Gross Laber, 13 miles S.S.E. of Ratisbon, the scene of a sanguinary battle between the French and Austrians on 22nd April, 1809, in which the latter were defeated.

Eclamp´sia, a medical term applied to convulsions that seem to be of an epileptic character, but differ from true epilepsy as being due to some special poison. The use of the term is now practically restricted to puerperal eclampsia, convulsions occurring in pregnant women, generally those suffering from kidney disease.

Eclec´tics (Gr. eklektikos, select) is a name given to all those philosophers who do not follow one system entirely, but select what they think the best parts of all systems. The system is called eclecticism. In ancient philosophy Cicero was the most conspicuous representative of eclecticism, and in modern times the eclectic

method found a notable supporter in the French philosopher Victor Cousin.

Eclipse (ek-lips´; Gr. ekleipsis, a failing, ekleipō, I fail), an interception or obscuration of the light of the sun, moon, or other heavenly body by the intervention of another and non-luminous body. A star or planet may be hidden by the moon; in this case the phenomenon is called an occultation.

An Eclipse of the Moon is an obscuration of the light of the moon occasioned by an interposition of the earth between the sun and the moon; consequently, all eclipses of the moon happen at full moon. Further, the moon's direction from the earth must make only a very small angle with the axis of the earth's shadow, or line joining centres of sun and earth produced. But as the moon's orbit makes an angle of more than 5° with the plane of the ecliptic, it frequently happens that though the moon is in opposition it does not come within the shadow of the earth. The theory of lunar eclipses will be understood from fig. 1, where S represents the sun, E the earth, and M the moon. If the sun were a point of light, there would be a sharp outlined shadow or umbra only, but since the luminous surface is so large there is always a region in which the light of the sun is only partially cut off by the earth, which region is known as the penumbra (P P). Hence during a lunar eclipse the moon first enters the penumbra, then is totally or partially immersed in the umbra, then emerges through the penumbra again.

An Eclipse of the Sun is an obscuration of the whole or part of the face of the sun, occasioned by an interposition of the moon between the earth and the sun; thus all eclipses of the sun happen at the time of new moon. Fig. 2 is a diagram showing the cause of a solar eclipse. The dark or central part of the moon's shadow, where the sun's rays are wholly intercepted, is here the umbra, and the light part, where they are only partially intercepted, is the penumbra; and it is evident that if a spectator be situated on that part of the earth where the umbra falls, there will be a total eclipse of the sun at that place; in the penumbra there will be a partial eclipse, and beyond the penumbra there will be no eclipse. As the moon is not always at the same distance from the earth, and as the moon is a comparatively small body, if an eclipse should happen when the moon is so far from the earth that her shadow falls short of the earth, a spectator situated on the earth in a direct line with the centres of the sun and moon would see a ring of light round the dark body of the moon. Such an eclipse is called annular, as shown in fig. 3; when this happens, there can be no total eclipse anywhere. An eclipse can never be annular longer than 12 minutes 24 seconds, nor total longer than 7 minutes 58 seconds. The longest possible entire duration of an eclipse of the sun is a little over 4 hours.

An eclipse of the sun begins on the western side of his disc and ends on the eastern; and an eclipse of the moon begins on the eastern side of her disc and ends on the western. The largest possible number of eclipses in a year is seven,

four of the sun and three of the moon, or five of the sun and two of the moon. The smallest is two, both of the sun. But a solar eclipse affects only a limited area of the earth, while a lunar eclipse is visible from more than a terrestrial hemisphere, as the earth rotates during its progress. Therefore at any given place eclipses of the moon are more frequently visible than those of the sun.—Bibliography: R. Buchanan, The Theory of Eclipses; W. T. Lynn, Remarkable Eclipses.

Eclip´tic, the sun's path, the great circle of the celestial sphere, in which the sun appears to describe his annual course from west to east—really corresponding to the path which the earth describes. (See Earth.) The Greeks observed that eclipses of the sun and moon took place near this circle; whence they called it the ecliptic. The ecliptic has been divided into twelve equal parts, each of which contains 30°, and which are occupied by the twelve celestial signs, viz.:

These are also called signs of the zodiac, the zodiac being a belt of the heavens extending 9° on each side of the ecliptic. The days of the month annexed show when the sun, in its annual revolution, enters each of the signs of the zodiac. From the First Point of Aries, or the place of the sun at the vernal equinox, the degrees of the ecliptic are counted from west to east. The plane of the ecliptic is that by which the position of the planets and the latitude and longitude of the stars are reckoned. The axis of the earth is not fixed in direction in space, but performs a slow conical motion about the pole of the ecliptic in about 26,000 years. In consequence of this the points at which the equator intersects the ecliptic, viz. the First Point of Aries and First Point of Libra, recede westwards upon the ecliptic at the rate of about 50 seconds a year. The signs of the zodiac, therefore, do not now coincide, as they did some 2000 years ago, with the constellations of the same names, and the First Point of Aries has now regressed through the greater part of the constellation Pisces. The angle at which the ecliptic and equator are mutually inclined is also variable, and has been diminishing for about 4000 years at the rate of about 50 seconds in a century. Laplace gave a theory to show that this variation has certain fixed limits, and that after a certain time the angle will begin to increase again. See Precession and Nutation.

Eclogue (ek´log), a term usually applied to what Theocritus called idyls—short, highly finished poems, principally of a descriptive or pastoral kind, and in which the loves of shepherds and shepherdesses are described. Eclogues flourished among the ancients (Bucolics of Virgil), and, under the name of pastorals, were fashionable in the sixteenth century, Spenser's Shepherds' Calendar being a good example. They were revived in the eighteenth century by Pope.

École des Beaux Arts ('School of Fine Arts'), the French Government school of fine arts at Paris, founded by Mazarin in 1648, and provided with an extensive staff of teachers. The competitions for the grands prix de Rome take place at this school. All artists between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five, whether pupils of this school or not, may compete, after passing two preliminary examinations. The successful competitors receive an annual allowance from the State for three or four years, two of which must be passed at Rome. The Palais des Beaux Arts, the home of the École, was begun in 1820 and finished in 1863.

École Normale Supérieure ('Superior Normal School'), a school at Paris for the training of those teachers who have the charge of the secondary education in France, founded by decree of the Convention in 1794, reorganized by Napoleon in 1808, and again in 1830 by the Government of Louis-Philippe. By the decree of 1903 the school forms part of the University of Paris. It maintains a hundred students and has a course of three years' duration.

École Polytechnique ('Polytechnic School'), a school in Paris established with the purpose of giving instruction in matters connected with the various branches of the public service, such as mines, roads and bridges, engineering, the army and the navy, and Government manufactures. It was founded in 1794, and is under the direction of the Minister of War. Candidates are admitted only by competitive examination, and have to pay for their board 1000 francs a year. The pupils who pass satisfactory examinations at the end of their course are admitted to that branch of public service which they select.

Ecology, or Œcology, the study of the relations of plants to their surroundings, a branch of plant geography.—Bibliography: Horwood, British Wild-flowers; Tansley, Types of British Vegetation; Warming, Œcology.

Economics is the name applied, in

substitution for the older one of political economy, to the scientific study of men in relation to the production, exchange, distribution, and consumption of wealth. The origin of both names lies in the analogy between provision for the needs of a household and for those of a State. To the former the term 'economy' was originally applied, as in Xenophon's treatise on the subject. But it was soon adopted to describe that branch of the art of government which dealt with public revenue and expenditure, and a matter intimately connected therewith, the enrichment of the community as a whole.

This conception of economics inspired all economic writings until late in the eighteenth century, a typical example being Thomas Mun's England's Treasure by Foreign Trade (1664), containing an exposition of the mercantile system which sought to increase natural wealth by regulation of the balance of trade. The treatment of economics as a science had its origin in the writings of the Physiocrats, a group of French philosophers of whom Quesnay (1694-1774) was the most prominent, and with whom Turgot (1727-81), the great minister of Louis XVI, held many doctrines in common. The Physiocrats argued that the wealth of the community was raised to the maximum, not by State regulation, but by entire freedom in the economic sphere. But the chief importance of the Physiocrats lay in their paving the way for Adam Smith (1723-90), who in 1776 published The Wealth of Nations, a book which has exercised profound and widespread influence on thought and action, and is still a leading authority on the subject. Adam Smith definitely retained the conception of economics as part of the art of government. "Political economy", he says, "proposes two distinct objects: first, to provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people ... and secondly, to supply the State or Commonweal with a revenue sufficient for the public service. It proposes to enrich both the people and the sovereign." But the book is also largely occupied with an investigation of the production, distribution, and exchange of wealth when free from all regulation and restriction, together with a powerful indictment of such regulation. This doctrine of non-interference by the State came to be known as the laissez-faire doctrine, from a phrase used by Gournay, one of the Physiocrats. Mainly through Adam Smith's influence, it became the orthodox view of the State's relation to trade and industry. This meant that the aims of economics, in its older sense, were best achieved without State action at all; and, consequently, economics came to mean simply the study of what are in fact men's activities in relation to wealth. This conception is clearly expressed in such writers as Ricardo (1772-1823), whose Principles of Political Economy and Taxation enunciates the theory of rent which has formed the basis of all subsequent reasoning on the subject, and states a theory of wages which gave colour to Karl Marx's doctrine of the exploitation of wage-earners by capitalists. It is also evident in the work of Nassau Senior (1790-1864), in the important Principles of Political Economy of John Stuart Mill (1806-73), and is most fully expressed by J. E. Cairnes (1823-78).

This conception has formed the basis of all modern economics, despite important differences in the method of treating material. The modern view of the matter is well stated by Dr. Alfred Marshall in his Principles of Economics, a most important contribution to the subject, which has exercised much influence. Economics he defines as "a study of mankind in the ordinary business of life; it examines that part of individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the rise of material requisites of well-being". The separation between economics and the investigation of social phenomena in general is not so rigidly maintained to-day as in the past. It is realized that men's activities in relation to wealth are affected by other than purely economic considerations, and that political, moral, religious, and æsthetic forces must be taken into account. At the same time, the science deals only with what is, and not with what ought to be done; and is therefore distinct from Ethics, which is concerned with moral judgments. Of late years, interest in the application of ethical considerations to economic problems has increased considerably, using the conclusions of economic science as its material, mainly in connection with problems of distribution, especially wages. One of the most important of modern political movements, Socialism, makes a just distribution of wealth the keynote of its doctrines. In so far as man's conduct is studied in economics, the science is concerned with psychological considerations; but it is distinct from psychology, taking the principles thereof as data rather than establishing them as conclusions. The traditional arrangement of the subject matter of economics into the production, exchange, and distribution of wealth is still maintained; but in recent years consumption, the end of almost all man's productive activity, has received much attention, notably from W. S. Jevons (1835-82) and Marshall. Important conceptions in this connection are those of the diminishing utility to an individual or group of individuals of each successive increment of any commodity received beyond a certain point; and of consumer's surplus, measured by the difference between the

price a person pays for a thing and what he would pay rather than go without it. Any rigid distinction between the different branches of economics is, however, impossible. For example, all processes of exchange may be considered as part either of distribution or of production.

The central problem of economics is really that of how the exchange value of commodities and services is determined; since in this determination all the forces regulating production, distribution, and consumption are brought to a focus, and their action and interaction can be investigated. The study of value covers that of all forces affecting either the demand for or the supply of a commodity, including its cost of production. On the side of production, technical processes are not studied in detail, though some knowledge of them is indispensable; but matters common to all production are dealt with, such as the so-called laws of increasing and diminishing return, which are statements of the relation between the amounts of labour, land, and capital used in production, and the amount of product. Other questions considered are transport, markets of all kinds, banking, currency, finance, and trusts and combinations. The study of distribution includes the methods by which wages, interest and profits, and rent are determined; and since each of these is payment for a service (of labour, capital, and land respectively) it is really an aspect of the study of value. Distribution also covers such subjects as trade unionism, co-operation, and labour disputes. Economics also deals with public finance (including taxation), treating of the effects of different methods of collecting and expending the State revenue. In considering the above-mentioned subjects, the method of economics is strictly that of a science, in that it aims partly at a descriptive analysis of material, and partly at a statement of cause and effect. The laws of economics are, like other scientific laws, statements of tendencies. They are not laws such as the commands or prohibitions of the State, though they are often loosely referred to in this way. That economics should be able to generalize and to predict about the action of men is due to its dealing not with individuals, but with large groups, so that individual peculiarities can be neglected and the general characteristics of the group ascertained. It is in this connection that considerable controversy has arisen. The older writers on economics were mainly deductive in method, i.e. they took a few general principles, such as that every man follows his own interest and knows where that interest lies, and made certain assumptions, such as the existence of free competition; and on this basis worked out a group of principles which were sometimes quite unrelated to actual facts. This method is undoubtedly a most powerful one, and of great value provided that the original assumptions are kept clearly in mind, and variations from them in a particular case allowed for in applying conclusions. But the unreality of some of its results produced a reaction, of which an early instance is the famous Essay on the Principle of Population by T. R. Malthus, published in 1798. This book inaugurated the rise of a school of economists who treated their subject from an inductive and historical point of view. The historians, who have been especially prominent in Germany, and of whom representatives are Roscher (1817-94), de Laveleye (1822-92), and Cliffe Leslie (1825-82), hold that economics should in the main be descriptive, and not attempt to formulate laws. The inductive school, of whom J. S. Mill is an important member, base their work upon more extensive investigation than the older writers, and constantly test their conclusions by reference to facts. Another important reaction against the early economists arose from the identification of the latter with the doctrine of laissez-faire. Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804) and Friedrich List (1789-1840) argued in favour of an extension of State activity, especially for the purpose of protecting industry against foreign competition, and may be considered the fathers of modern protectionist doctrine. In most modern treatment of economics, the deductive and inductive methods are employed side by side. The study of economic history has developed as a separate branch, but economists recognize that it provides them with much valuable material. Important recent developments in method are the increased use of statistics, made possible by their more widespread and careful compilation, and the application of mathematical methods to economic data. It is recognized that, with due care, many conceptions which are with difficulty expressed in words can be treated on mathematical lines to yield results of great service. In this work the researches of Italian writers, such as Pantaleoni and Pareto, are of conspicuous importance.—Bibliography: A. C. Pigou, Wealth and Welfare; Preferential and Protective Import Duties; E. Cannan, Wealth; J. N. Keynes, Scope and Method of Political Economy; G. Cassel, Nature and Necessity of Interest; W. Smart, Distribution of Income; C. R. Fay, Co-operation; A. Andreades, History of the Bank of England; H. Levy, Monopoly and Competition; C. F. Bastable, Public Finance.

Écraseur is a wire loop or chain for amputating a growth suitably situated for such an instrument. The chain is passed round the base or pedicle of the growth, and gradually tightened by a screw till the growth falls off. Its application in surgery is limited.

Ectocarpaceæ, a family of Brown Algæ, section Phæosporeæ. The typical genus is Ectocarpus, comprising small, branched, filamentous plants of salt or brackish water. According to the species, growth of the filaments may be apical, intercalary, or common to all cells, whereas among the more advanced members of the Brown Algæ either apical or intercalary growth is characteristic of entire families. The gametes show every gradation from complete similarity (isogamy) to a condition like that of Cutleria.

Ecuador (ek-wa˙-dōr´) (Republica Del Ecuador), a republic of South America, situated under the equator, whence it takes its name, between Peru and Colombia. It is of triangular shape, its base resting on the Pacific, but the boundaries between it and its neighbours are not very definitely fixed; estimated area, about 116,000 sq. miles. The state has still a boundary dispute with Peru, that with Colombia having been settled by treaty in 1917. The country is divided into fifteen provinces, one territory—'El Oriente'—and the Archipelago of Galapagos, officially called 'Colon'. It falls, as regards the surface, into three sections: the comparatively narrow and low-lying coast regions, the mountain region, and the extensive plains on the east. The mountain region is formed by a double range of snow-clad mountains—several of them active volcanoes—which enclose a longitudinal valley or tableland, with a breadth of 20 to 40 miles, and varying in elevation from 8500 to 13,900 feet. The most elevated of these mountains are, in the western range, Chimborazo, Pichincha, and Cotacachi, Chimborazo being 20,703 feet high. In the eastern range are Cayambe, Antisana, and Cotopaxi (19,500 feet). The cultivated land and the population of Ecuador lie chiefly in this elevated region, which extends along between the summits of the Cordillera, and may be considered as divided by transverse ridges or dikes into the valleys of Quito, Hambato, and Cuenca. The chief towns here are Quito, the capital, with a pop. of 70,000, Riobamba, and Cuenca, all situated at a height of 9000 feet or more above the sea. The chief ports of Ecuador are Guayaquil and Esmeraldas. The most considerable rivers, the Tigre, Napo, Pastaza, &c., belong to the basin of the Amazon; and some of them, notably the Napo, are navigable for long distances. On the western slope of the Andes the chief rivers are the Esmeraldas and the Guayaquil. Ecuador is comparatively poor in Mammalia; although various kinds of deer as well as tapirs and peccaries are found in the forests. Parrots and humming-birds are also numerous, but perhaps the most remarkable of the birds in Ecuador is the condor, which dwells on the slopes of the Andes. Reptiles, including serpents, are numerous. The forests yield cinchona bark, caoutchouc, sarsaparilla, and vegetable ivory. The climate on the plains, both in the east and the west, is moist, hot, and unhealthy. In the higher regions the climate is rough and cold, but in great part the elevated valleys, as that of Quito, enjoy a delightful climate. Here the chief productions are potatoes, barley, wheat, and European fruits. In the lower regions are grown all the food-products of tropical climates, cocoa, coffee, and sugar. The foreign commerce is not large, the exports and imports being annually about £2,700,000 and £1,670,000 respectively. In 1919 the imports from Ecuador to the United Kingdom amounted to £1,257,350, and the exports to Ecuador to £373,346. Cocoa forms three-fourths (or more) of the whole export; the remainder is made up of tagua or ivory-nuts, rubber, straw hats, coffee, and gold. A little gold is mined, and Panama hats are made. The State recognizes no religion, but grants freedom of worship to all. A system of education was organized in 1897 and improved in 1912. There are three universities: the Central University, at Quito; the Guayas University, in Guayaquil; and the Azuay University, in Cuenca. There are schools for higher education and primary schools. The executive government is vested in a President elected for four years, who is assisted by a Council of State. The Congress is the legislative body, and consists of two Houses, one formed of Senators, two for each province, the other of Deputies, one for every 30,000 inhabitants, both elected by universal suffrage. The Congress has extensive privileges, and cannot be dissolved by the President. The seat of government is Quito. In 1920 both the revenue and expenditure amounted to nearly £2,000,000. The debt amounts to about £5,620,000. The monetary standard is gold, the gold condor of ten sucres being equivalent to a sovereign. The metric system of weights and measures is the legal one. Railways and telegraphs have made little progress.—Ecuador at the time of the conquest of Peru by the Spaniards formed part of the great empire of the Incas. As the Presidency of Quito it was long included in the Vice-Royalty of Peru. From 1710 it became part of the Presidency of New Granada (or Santa Fé de Bogotá). In the revolutionary war against Spain, Ecuador, along with the neighbouring territories, secured its independence (1822), and was ultimately erected into a separate Republic in 1831. The present Constitution of the Republic was promulgated on 6th May, 1906. Of the present population, the aboriginal red race form more than half; the rest are negroes, mulattoes, mestizoes, a degenerate breed of

mixed negro and Indian blood, and Spanish Creoles or whites. The last-named are the chief possessors of the land, but are deficient in energy. Pop. (estimated) 2,000,000.—Bibliography: F. Garcia-Calderon, Latin America: its Rise and Progress; C. R. Enock, Ecuador; T. H. Stabler, Travels in Ecuador.

Ecumenical Council, a general ecclesiastical council regarded as representing the whole Christian world or the universal Church; specially applied to the general councils of the early Christian Church, beginning with that of Nicæa in 325, and later to those of the Roman Catholic Church, of which the most recent was the Vatican Council at Rome in 1870.

Ec´zema is a skin eruption marked by the appearance of papules or vesicles and accompanied by irritation of the affected part, frequently very severe. The characteristic watery discharge of the disease is produced by the bursting of the vesicles. There is difference of opinion among dermatologists as to whether or not it is primarily caused by germs. Various predisposing causes, like digestive disturbances, anæmia, and nervous disorders are important factors in determining the course of the disease. Eczema may affect practically any part of the skin, but is most frequently seen on the scalp, ears, face, hands, nipples, armpits, and the genital regions.

Ed´am, a town of North Holland, near the Zuider Zee, 12 miles N.N.E. of Amsterdam, noted for its cheese markets; but 'Edam cheese' is mostly made elsewhere. Pop. 6623.

Edda (meaning 'great-grandmother'), the name given to two ancient collections of Icelandic literature, the one consisting of mythological poems, the other being mainly in prose. The first of these collections, called the Elder or Poetic Edda, was compiled in the thirteenth century, and discovered in 1643 by Brynjulf Sveinsson, an Icelandic bishop. For a long time an earlier date was given, the compiler being erroneously believed to have been Sæmund Sigfusson, a learned Icelandic clergyman, who lived from about 1056 to 1133. It consists of thirty-three pieces, written in alliterative verse, and comprising epic tales of the Scandinavian gods and goddesses, and narratives dealing with the Scandinavian heroes. These poems are now assigned to a period extending from the ninth to the eleventh century. The Prose Edda, or Younger Edda, presents a kind of prose synopsis of the Northern mythology; a treatise on the Scaldic poetry and versification, with rules and examples; and lastly a poem (with a commentary) in honour of Haco of Norway (died 1263). In its earliest forms this collection is ascribed to Snorri Sturlason, who was born in Iceland in 1178, and was assassinated there in 1241 on his return from Norway, where he had been scald or court poet. Cf. S. Bugge, Home of the Eddic Poems.

Eddy, Mary Baker, founder of Christian Science (q.v.), born at Bow, New Hampshire, United States, 16th July, 1821, died 3rd Dec., 1910. She was married three times, to Mr. Glover, Mr. Patterson, and Mr. Asa Gilbert Eddy, all of whom she survived. She began to teach her system of psychotherapeutics in 1866, and founded the first Christian Science Church in Boston in 1879. In 1881 she established the Metaphysical College at Massachusetts. Her works, besides Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, include: Unity of God, No and Yes, Pulpit and Press, The First Church of Christ, Christian Science versus Pantheism.—Cf. G. Milmine, Life of M. B. G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science.

Eddystone Lighthouse, a lighthouse in the English Channel, erected to mark a group of rocks lying in the fair-way from the Start to the Lizard. The rocks are covered only at the flood. The first lighthouse was of wood, and built by Henry Winstanley in 1696. It was carried away in the storm of 1703. Another lighthouse, also of wood, was built in 1709 by Rudyerd, but was burned down in 1755. It was succeeded by one built by Smeaton between 1757 and 1759, a circular tower 85 feet high; but, as the foundations on which it stood became much weakened, a new structure, designed by Sir J. N. Douglass, was built between 1879 and 1882 on the neighbouring reef. Its light is visible 17½ miles.

Edelweiss (ā-dėl-vīs; Ger., 'noble white'), Leontopodium alpīnum, a composite plant inhabiting the Alps, and often growing in the most inaccessible places. Its flower-heads are surrounded by a spreading foliaceous woolly involucre, and its foliage is also of the same woolly character. It is not difficult to cultivate, but is apt to lose its peculiar woolly appearance.

E´den (Heb. eden, delight), the original abode of the first human pair. It is said to have had a garden in the eastern part of it, and we are told that a river went out of Eden to water this garden, and from thence it was parted into four heads, which were called respectively Pison, Gihon, Hiddekel, and Euphrates (Phrat), but this does not enable us to identify the locality. It was not the whole of Eden that was assigned to man for his first habitation, but the part towards the east, to which the translators of the Authorized Version have given the name of the Garden of Eden, and which Milton, in Paradise Lost, calls Paradise, that word (originally Persian) having in its Greek form (paradeisos) been applied to the Garden of Eden by the translators of the Septuagint.

Eden, a river in England, in Westmorland and Cumberland, falling into the Solway Firth after a course of 65 miles.—Also, a river in Fifeshire, Scotland.

Edenta´ta (ē-), or Toothless Animals, the name applied to a primitive order of mammals mostly native to the neotropical region, but also represented in South Africa and South Asia. The body is often covered by horny scales or bony plates, the digits are clawed, and the teeth either imperfect or absent altogether. I. New World forms.—(1) Ant-eaters. Toothless, with long narrow snout, and protrusible tongue. Covered with dense fur. The great ant-eater (Myrmecophăga jubata) lives on the ground; the much smaller Tamandua and Cycloturus are arboreal. (2) Sloths. Toothed arboreal leaf-eaters, covered by coarse fur, and provided with very strong curved claws, by which they hang upside down from branches. The three-toed sloth (Bradypus) has three digits in the fore-limb, the two-toed sloth (Cholæpus) only two. (3) Armadillos. Burrowing forms protected by a strong carapace of bony plates, and possessing numerous imperfect teeth. (4) Extinct types. The so-called ground sloths were of large size, Megatherium being nearly as large as an elephant, and Mylodon not much smaller. Glossodon, allied to the latter, survived into the human period. Glyptodon resembled a gigantic armadillo. II. Old World forms.—(1) The aard-vark (Orycteropus) is a burrowing African form about the size of a pig, covered with coarse hair; long ears and snout; 20 imperfect grinding teeth. (2) Scaly ant-eaters or pangolins (Manis), native to South Africa and South Asia, are toothless forms not unlike the American ant-eaters in build, but the body is covered dorsally and laterally by large overlapping scales.

Edes´sa, the name of two ancient cities.—1. The ancient capital of Macedonia, and the burial-place of its kings, now Vodhena. It is probably the same as the still more ancient Aegæ. Philip II was murdered at Edessa in 336 B.C.—2. An important city in the north of Mesopotamia, which, subsequent to the establishment of Christianity, became celebrated for its theological schools. In 1098, in the first Crusade, Edessa came into the hands of Baldwin, but ultimately became part of the Turkish Empire. It is thought to be the modern Urfah or Orfa.

Edfu, or Edfoo´ (ancient Apollinopolis), a village in Upper Egypt, province of Assouan, on the left bank of the Nile, with manufactures of cottons and pottery. Its ancient magnificence is attested by several remains, especially a temple, founded by Ptolemy Philopator (181-145 B.C.), the largest in Egypt after those of Karnak and Luxor. Pop. 12,594.

Ed´gar (the Peaceful), one of the most distinguished of the Saxon Kings of England, was the son of King Edmund I. He succeeded to the throne in 959, and managed the civil and military affairs of his kingdom with great vigour and success. In ecclesiastical affairs he was guided by Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, and he was a great patron of the monks. He died in 975, and was succeeded by his son Edward the Martyr.

Edgar Atheling, grandson of Edmund Ironside and son of Edward the Outlaw, was born in Hungary, where his father had been conveyed in infancy to escape the designs of Canute. After the battle of Hastings, Edgar (who had been brought to England in 1057) was proclaimed King of England by the Saxons, but made peace with William and accepted the earldom of Oxford. Having been engaged in some conspiracy against the king, he was forced to seek refuge in Scotland, where his sister Margaret became the wife of Malcolm Canmore. Edgar subsequently was reconciled to William and was allowed to live at Rouen, where a pension was assigned to him. In 1097, with the sanction of William Rufus, he undertook an expedition to Scotland for the purpose of displacing the usurper Donald Bane, in favour of his nephew Edgar, son of Malcolm Canmore, and in this object he succeeded. He afterwards took part in Duke Robert's unsuccessful struggle with Henry I, but was allowed to spend the remainder of his life quietly in England.

Edgehill, a ridge in Warwickshire, England, 7 miles north-west of Banbury, where was fought a fierce but indecisive battle on 23rd Oct., 1642, between the Royalists under Charles I and the forces of the Parliament under the Earl of Essex.

Edgeworth, Maria, Irish novelist, born at Black Bourton, Oxfordshire, 1st Jan., 1767, died 22nd May, 1849, at Edgeworthstown. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1744-1817) of Edgeworthstown, County Longford, Ireland. Her first novel, Castle Rackrent, a tale of Irish life, published in 1800, immediately established her reputation. Her later works include: Belinda, Moral Tales, Leonora, Popular Tales, Tales of Fashionable Life, Patronage, Harrington, Ormond, and Helen, besides an Essay on Irish Bulls, and a work on Practical Education, largely based on Rousseau's Émile. Miss Edgeworth's characteristics are a simple and lucid style and considerable power of observation, but she was not a great creative artist.

Ed´inburgh, the metropolis of Scotland, and one of the finest as well as most ancient cities in the British Empire, lies within 2 miles of the south shore of the Firth of Forth. It is picturesquely situated, being built on three eminences

which run in a direction from east to west, and surrounded on all sides by lofty hills except on the north, where the ground slopes gently towards the Firth of Forth. The central ridge, which constituted the site of the ancient city, is terminated by the castle on the west, situated on a high rock, and by Holyrood House on the east, not far from which rise the lofty elevations of Salisbury Crags, Arthur's Seat (822 feet high), and the Calton Hill overlooking the city. The valley to the north, once the North Loch, but now drained and traversed by the North British Railway, leads to the New Town on the rising ground beyond, a splendid assemblage of streets, squares, and gardens. The houses here, all built of a beautiful white freestone found in the neighbourhood, are comparatively modern and remarkably handsome. The principal streets of the New Town are Princes Street, George Street, and Queen Street. From Princes Street, which is lined by fine gardens adorned with Sir W. Scott's monument and other notable buildings, a magnificent view of the Old Town with its picturesque outline may be obtained. The principal street of the Old Town is that which occupies the crest of the ridge on which the latter is built, and which bears at different points the names of Canongate, High Street, Lawnmarket, and Castle Hill. This ancient and very remarkable street is upwards of one mile in length, rising gradually with a regular incline from a small plain at the east end of the town, on which stands the palace of Holyrood, and terminating in the huge rock on which the castle is built, 437 feet above sea-level. The houses are lofty and of antique appearance. Amongst the notable buildings are the ancient Parliament House, since the Union the seat of the supreme courts of Scotland; St. Giles' Church or Cathedral, an imposing edifice in the later Gothic style, dating from the fourteenth century and carefully restored between 1879 and 1883; the Tron Church; Victoria Hall (where the General Assembly of the Established Church meets), with a fine spire; and also John Knox's House, besides some of the old family houses of the Scottish nobility and other buildings of antiquarian interest. From this main street descend laterally in regular rows numerous narrow lanes called closes, many of them extremely steep, and very few at their entrances more than 6 feet wide; those which are broader, and admit of the passage of carriages, are called wynds. In these and the adjacent streets the houses are frequently more than 120 feet in height, and divided into from six to ten stories, or flats, the communication between which is maintained by broad stone stairs, winding from the lowest part of the building to the top. In the Old Town the most remarkable public building is the castle, an extensive mass, of which the oldest portion—and the oldest building in the city—is St. Margaret's Chapel, the private oratory of the Saxon princess Margaret, queen of Malcolm Canmore; another portion being a lofty range of old buildings, in a small apartment of which Queen Mary gave birth to James VI in 1566; while in an adjoining apartment are kept the ancient regalia of Scotland. Here is also the old Parliament Hall, restored during 1888 and 1889. The castle as a fortress contains accommodation for 2000 soldiers, and the armoury space for 30,000 stand of arms. An old piece of ordnance built of staves of malleable iron, cask fashion, and known as Mons Meg, stands conspicuous in an open area. The palace of Holyrood, or Holyrood House as it is more generally called, stands, as already mentioned, at the lower or eastern extremity of the street leading to the castle. No part of the present palace is older than the time of James V (1528), while the greater portion of it dates only from the time of Charles II. In the north-west angle of the building are the apartments which were occupied by Queen Mary, nearly in the same state in which they were left by that unfortunate princess. Adjoining the palace are the ruins of the chapel belonging to the Abbey of Holyrood, founded in 1128 by David I. On the south side of the Old Town, and separated from it also by a hollow crossed by two bridges (the South Bridge and George IV Bridge), stands the remaining portion of the city, which, with the exception of a few unimportant streets, is mostly modern. Besides the buildings already noticed, Edinburgh possesses a large number of important edifices and institutions, chief amongst which are the Royal Institution (accommodating the Royal Society and other bodies), a beautiful Grecian building; the National (Picture) Gallery, another fine building in the Greek style, the two buildings standing on a conspicuous site between East and West Princes Street Gardens; the National Portrait Gallery, a building due to private munificence and accommodating also the National Museum of Antiquities; the Museum of Science and Art; the Episcopal Cathedral of St. Mary's, one of the largest religious edifices of modern times; the university buildings, including those of the medical department, standing apart from the others; the infirmary buildings; the high school, register office, and others. Amongst the more prominent educational institutions are the university, the high school, the academy, the United Free Church New College, the Edinburgh School of Medicine (connected with the Royal College of Physicians and the Royal College of Surgeons), Medical College for Women, College of Agriculture, the Edinburgh Veterinary College, Fettes College, the Heriot-Watt College, normal schools, technical,

commercial, and other institutions, and endowed secondary schools. The Advocates' Library, the largest in Scotland, contains upwards of 550,000 printed volumes and 3000 MSS.; the university library, 200,000; the library of Writers to the Signet, 100,000. There is also a rate-supported public library in a building erected at the expense of the late Andrew Carnegie. Printing, bookbinding, coach-building, type-founding, machine-making, the making of rubber goods, furniture-making, ale-brewing on a very large scale, and distilling are the principal industries. Edinburgh is the head-quarters of the book trade in Scotland, and the seat of the chief Government departments. It is a great resort of tourists and other travellers. On account of its picturesque and commanding situation and its literary fame, Edinburgh is often called the 'Modern Athens'. The origin of Edinburgh is uncertain. Its name is by many thought to be derived from Eadwinsburh, the Burgh of Edwin, a powerful Northumbrian king of the early seventh century, who absorbed the Lothians in his rule. The town was made a royal burgh in the time of David I; but it was not till the fifteenth century that it became the recognized capital of Scotland, and from that time it was the scene of many important events in Scottish history. The city is now governed by a council, which elects from its members a Lord Provost, a city treasurer, and seven bailies. It returns five members to Parliament, and within the municipal boundaries are included Portobello, Granton, Liberton, Duddingston, and since 1920 also the port of Leith. Pop. 420,281.—Bibliography: J. B. Gillies, Edinburgh, Past and Present; M. O. Oliphant, Royal Edinburgh, Her Saints, Kings, Prophets, and Poets; W. H. O. Smeaton, Edinburgh and its Story; H. E. Maxwell, Edinburgh: a Historical Study.

Edinburgh, County of, or Midlothian, is bounded north by the Firth of Forth, along which it extends 11 or 12 miles; and by the counties of Linlithgow, Haddington, Berwick, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, and Roxburgh; area, 234,926 acres, over half of which is arable or under permanent pasture. The south-south-east and south-west parts of the county are diversified with hills, of which the two principal ranges are the Pentlands and Moorfoots, the former stretching across the county to within 4 miles of Edinburgh. The principal rivers are the North and South Esks and the Water of Leith, all running into the Forth. The lowlands towards the Forth are the most fertile; the farms are of considerable size, and the most approved methods of agriculture are in use. The hilly parts are chiefly under pasturage and dairy farming. The chief crops are oats, barley, turnips, and potatoes. The manufactures are comparatively limited, but include ale, whisky, gunpowder, paper, and tiles. The fisheries are valuable. The chief towns are: Edinburgh, Dalkeith, and Musselburgh. Midlothian and Peebles return two members to Parliament. Pop. 506,378.

Edinburgh, Duke of, H.R.H. Prince Alfred Ernest Albert, K.G., K.T., K.P., &c., Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the second son of Queen Victoria, was born at Windsor Castle, 6th Aug., 1844, died in 1900. At the age of fourteen he joined the navy as naval cadet, and served on various foreign stations. In 1862 he declined the offer of the throne of Greece. On his majority he received £15,000 a year from Parliament, and was created Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Kent, and Earl of Ulster. In 1867 he was appointed to the command of the frigate Galatea, in which he visited Australia, Japan, China, and India. In 1873 he received an additional annuity of £10,000, and next year he married the Grand-Duchess Marie, only daughter of the Emperor of Russia. In 1882 he was made a vice-admiral, and subsequently held important commands. In 1898 he succeeded his uncle as ruler of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and resigned £15,000 of his annuity and his other privileges as an English prince, but retained his rank of admiral. He had one son (who predeceased him) and four daughters. He was succeeded as Duke of Saxe-Coburg by his nephew, Leopold Charles, Duke of Albany.

Edinburgh Review, The, a quarterly review established in 1802. It had an immediate and striking success, the brilliancy and vigour of its articles being much above the standard of the periodical literature of that time. In politics it was Whig, and did good service to the party. The Review was founded by a knot of young men living in Edinburgh, the more prominent of whom were Brougham, Jeffrey, Sydney Smith, and Francis Horner. It was edited from 1803 to 1829 by Jeffrey, under whom it was very successful. In reply to his criticisms Byron wrote his English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Among the famous contributors to the Review were Lord Macaulay, Lord John Russell, and John Stuart Mill.

Edinburgh University, the latest of the Scottish universities, was founded in 1582 by a charter granted by James VI. The number of professors and other teachers is now over 240. The university is a corporation consisting of a chancellor, rector, principal, professors, registered graduates and alumni, and matriculated students. Its government is administered by the University Court, the Senatus Academicus, and the General Council, as in the other Scottish universities, in all of which new ordinances have been introduced under the Universities (Scotland) Act of 1889. The University Court, which is the supreme governing body of the university,

consists of the rector, who is president, the principal, the Lord Provost of Edinburgh, and eleven assessors. The Senatus superintends the teaching and discipline of the university, and consists of the principal and professors. The General Council consists of the chancellor, who is president, the members of the University Court and Senatus, and the graduates of the university. It takes cognizance of matters generally affecting the well-being of the university. The chancellor is the official head of the university, and it is through him or his deputy, the vice-chancellor, that degrees are conferred. He is elected for life by the General Council. The principal is the resident head of the university and president of the Senatus, and is appointed for life (at Edinburgh by a body called the 'Curators', elsewhere by the Crown). The lord rector is elected for three years by the matriculated students. There are six faculties in the university, viz. arts, science, divinity, law, medicine, and music. Some of the professors are appointed by the Crown, others by special electors, and a considerable number by the curators, who represent the university court and the town council. The number of students in 1919-20 was over 4300. Candidates for degrees in the different faculties must now pass an entrance examination before attendance upon classes. Women are admitted to all courses and degrees, equally with men, except in the faculty of divinity. Those desirous of taking the degree of Master of Arts (M.A.) must attend classes and pass examinations in at least seven subjects, selected from four departments, viz. language and literature, mental philosophy, science, history and law, the course of study extending over three academic years at least. There is a considerable restriction in choice of subjects, since four of them must be (a) Latin or Greek; (b) English or a Modern Language; (c) Logic or Moral Philosophy; (d) Mathematics or Natural Philosophy; and the whole subjects must include both of (a) or both of (c), or two out of the three—mathematics, natural philosophy, and chemistry. Four medical degrees are conferred: Bachelor of Medicine (M.B.), Bachelor of Surgery (Ch.B.), Master of Surgery (Ch.M.), and Doctor of Medicine (M.D.). Before any of these degrees can be obtained the candidate must have been engaged in medical study for at least five years. The degrees in law are Bachelor of the Law (B.L.), Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.), and Doctor of Laws (LL.D.), the last being purely honorary. In divinity the degrees are Bachelor and Doctor of Divinity (B.D. and D.D.), the latter being honorary. In science the degrees are likewise Bachelor and Doctor (B.Sc. and D.Sc.), both conferred in the three departments of pure science, engineering, and public health. There is also a B.Sc. in agriculture. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy (D.Phil.) is conferred for proficiency in mental science, and that of Doctor of Letters (D.Litt.) for proficiency in literary, philological, and linguistic studies. The degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Music (Mus.B. and Mus.D.) are also conferred. There is a joint board of examiners for the four Scottish universities, having the control and supervision of the preliminary examinations. The university has splendid laboratories and museums. The foundation stone of a new science laboratory was laid by King George on 6th July, 1920. The library contains 200,000 volumes. There are bursaries, scholarships, and fellowships, amounting annually to about £12,500. Since 1918 the University of Edinburgh unites with the other Scottish universities in returning three members to Parliament. The constituency consists of the General Council.—Bibliography: J. Kerr, Scottish Education, School and University, from Early Times to 1908; University Calendar; Sir Alex. Grant, The Story of the University of Edinburgh from Early Times to 1908.

Ed´ison, Thomas Alva, an American inventor, born in Ohio in 1847. He was poorly educated, became a newsboy on the Grand Trunk Railway, and afterwards, having obtained some type, issued a small sheet of his own known as the Grand Trunk Herald, printing it in a freight car. He then set himself to learn telegraph work, and in a short time became an expert operator. In 1863, while at Indianopolis, he invented an automatic telegraph repeater. This was the first of a long series of improvements and inventions. He opened an extensive establishment at Newark for the manufacture of electrical, printing, automatic, and other apparatus. In 1876, his health breaking down, he gave up manufacturing and devoted himself to investigation and invention. Amongst his numerous inventions are the quadruplex and sextuplex telegraph, the carbon telephone transmitter, the 'Edison system' of lighting, the electric fire-alarm, the 'Edison electric railway', the phonograph, and the megaphone. His improvements in the cinematograph made it practicable, though he did not originate the idea of it.

Ed´monton, an urban district and parliamentary borough in England, county of Middlesex, 7½ miles north of London, with an extensive trade in timber, carried on by the Lea River navigation. The 'Bell at Edmonton' has become famous by association with the adventures of Cowper's John Gilpin. The borough returns one member to Parliament. Pop. 64,820.

Edmonton, a town of North-Western Canada, on the North Saskatchewan (here navigable). Since 1905 it is the capital of the province of Alberta, and has grown considerably in recent years. It is an important station on the Canadian Pacific, Grand Trunk Pacific, and Canadian

Northern railway systems, and is the distributing centre of an immense area, being also the centre of an excellent farming district. Easily-mined coal is worked here. Pop, 61,000.

Ed´mund, St., King of the East Angles, began to reign in 855, died in 870. He was revered by his subjects for his justice and piety. In 870 his kingdom was invaded, and he himself slain, by the Danes. The Church made him a martyr, and a town (Bury St. Edmunds) grew up round the place where he was buried.

Edmund I, King of England, an able and spirited prince, succeeded his brother Athelstan in 940. He conquered Cumbria, which he bestowed on Malcolm, King of Scotland, on condition of doing homage for it to himself. He was slain at a banquet 26th May, 946.

Edmund II, surnamed Ironside, King of England, the eldest son of Ethelred II, was born in 989. He was chosen king in 1016, Canute having been already elected king by another party. He won several victories over Canute, but was defeated at Assandun in Essex, and forced to surrender the midland and northern counties to Canute. He died after a reign of only seven months.

Edom, in the New Testament Idumæa, in ancient times a country lying to the south of Palestine. The Edomites are said in Genesis to be the descendants of Esau, who was also called Edom (a word signifying 'red'), and who dwelt in Mount Seir, the mountain range now called Jebel Shera, stretching between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Akabah. Edom is frequently mentioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. The Edomites were subdued by King David, and after the separation of the ten tribes remained subject to the Kingdom of Judah until the reign of Jehoram, when they revolted and secured their independence for a time. They were again subdued about half a century later by Amaziah, and again, in the reign of Ahaz, recovered their independence, which they maintained till the time of the invasion of Judea by Nebuchadnezzar. They fell under the rule of the Persians, and afterwards their fortunes were merged in those of Arabia. The chief city in this region was Petra, which now presents remarkable ruins, as well as several rock-cut temples.

Edred, King of England, son of Edward the Elder, succeeded to the throne on the murder of his brother, Edmund I, in May, 946. He quelled a rebellion of the Northumbrian Danes, and died in 955.

1, Fresh-water shrimp (Gammarus pulex). a, Single eye. 2, Head of Cymothoa. b, Clusters of simple eyes.

Edriophthal´mata, one of the great divisions of the Crustacea, including all those genera which have their eyes sessile, or embedded in the head, and not fixed on a peduncle or stalk as in the crabs, lobsters, &c. It is divided into two orders. (1) Amphipoda, laterally flattened, as in the marine sandhopper (Talitrus), and the fresh-water shrimp (Gammarus). (2) Isopoda, flattened from above downwards. Sea-slaters or wood-lice (Ligia and Idothea); fish parasites (Cymothoa); fresh-water wood-lice (Asellus); land wood-lice (Oniscus, Porcellio, Armadillidium, which can roll up).

Edri´si, Abu-Abdallah Mohammed, a famous Arabian geographer, a descendant of the ancient princely family of the Edrisites, born about A.D. 1100, died about 1180. He studied at the Moorish university of Cordova, after which he travelled through various countries. At the request of King Roger II of Sicily he constructed a globe with a map of the earth, which represented all the geographical knowledge of the age. He accompanied this with a descriptive treatise completed about 1154, and still extant. The work was published at Rome in Arabic (1592), and in 1619 a Latin translation of it, under the title of Geographia Nubiensis, appeared in Paris.

Education is the name applied to the systematic instruction given by each succeeding generation to the young of the race to fit them for the work of life. The word itself is derived from the Latin verb educare, which means to rear, to nourish, to bring up, and also to educate. Long before the dawn of civilization men saw that the young had to be prepared for the battle of life; had to learn how to make and how to use the offensive and defensive weapons employed against their enemies; how to form or build shelters to protect themselves against the weather and against their foes; how to make traps or snares for the wild things on which they fed; how, in fact, to use their powers of mind and body in such a way as to secure for themselves the fullest and most satisfactory life possible under the circumstances in which they found themselves.

While education thus understood would be the story of man on the earth, an account of his more or less satisfactory, but always continuous, efforts to perfect the relations between his desires and his environment, it would have to embrace also an account of the conflict between the demands of communities and the rights of individuals. Education, however, as we

understand it, is more limited in its scope. It is the instrument employed by the State for the training of its citizens.

The Greeks were the first Europeans to treat education as a science. The results they obtained were good, and have to a certain extent determined the course taken by European education ever since. Plato defined the aim of the education of which he gives us an account in the Republic, to be the "development in the body and in the soul of all the perfection which it is possible for them to attain". This was the Greek ideal of what education should aim at; a high ideal indeed; but one that omits an element of immense importance which we find introduced in Milton's definition of the 'end of learning', that is, the aim of education. Milton boldly declares this to be: "To repair the ruin of our first parents by regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge to love Him, as we may the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which being united to the heavenly grace of faith makes up the highest perfection". Perfection is the end sought in both cases, and which seems the nobler it is unnecessary to say. This impression is deepened when he proceeds to declare that as "Our understanding cannot ... arrive so clearly to the knowledge of God and things invisible, as by orderly conning over the visible and inferior creatures, the same method is necessarily to be followed in all discreet teaching".

By Aristotle the order of education was: first, education of the body, the just and proportionate development of its powers. The instrument employed for this purpose was gymnastics; not the gymnastics employed in training professional athletes, but more moderate exercises; for, as the philosopher insists, too strenuous bodily exertion is apt to spoil the child, because body and mind must not be hard worked at the same time. Music, according to him, had various aims: education proper, the training of the affections, and the occupation of leisure. Drawing was taught as a branch of music for the purpose of developing the child's sense of beauty, mathematics were taught to cultivate his intellect, and dialectic (logic and philosophy) to prepare the pupil for a scientific training.

To the idealistic philosopher Plato, the whole life of man, at least the whole of what we may call the active life, was educative. Education was State-controlled, and at the end of the first six years, spent by the child in the seclusion of family life, the State took charge. The aim of the education proposed by Plato was to develop in the child the cardinal virtues—honour to parents, love of fellow-citizens, courage, truthfulness, and self-control. From the seventh to the tenth year the training was mainly in gymnastics; from the tenth to the thirteenth the child learned to read and to write; from the thirteenth to the sixteenth his affections and his sense of the beautiful were cultivated through learning poetry and studying music; from the seventeenth to the twentieth year he applied himself mainly to athletics, so that he might be qualified to take his share in the defence of the State. At twenty men were called upon to choose their occupation; to turn their minds to the study of the sciences; and to shape by practical military and other services to the State that character which it was the aim of education to form. From thirty to thirty-five Plato supposes the citizens of his ideal republic to devote themselves to the study of Dialectics, the method of purely intellectual knowledge, by which reason, using hypothesis, arrives at the first principles of things. From thirty-five to fifty the life of the citizen was to be given up to public service, that is, to the promotion in the position for which he was best fitted of the general well-being.

The training set forth by the Greek philosophers was the training thought necessary to fit a man to be a ruler. As the Greek city states were slave states, and most of the manual work was performed by slaves, that necessary part of the training of the youth of the community is ignored. This fact has had, undoubtedly, an enormous influence on the ideas of education put forward since. The preliminary training demanded by the Greeks included, besides gymnastics, grammar and music. At a later time these were understood to include the seven arts: Grammar, Rhetoric, Dialectic (Trivium), and Arithmetic, Music, Geometry, and Astronomy (Quadrivium). To the Greeks, myths were the instruments of the earliest education, the aim of which was the development of a character in the citizen which would lead him to give his best and most loyal services to the State.

The aim of Greek education was the formation of the philosophic thinker, the man fitted by nature and training to guide and direct the energies of the man of action. Roman education, on the other hand, directed its efforts mainly to the moulding of the man of action himself. The Romans adopted the form rather than the spirit of Greek education. The aim of Roman education was to make a man who could do things; a practical man, a man full of energy, who was ever ready to sacrifice himself in the interests of the State; a man who knew the laws and who regulated his conduct by them; who reverenced his father and his country's gods; and found his chief pleasure in the complete overthrow and utter destruction of his country's foes. He could discourse eloquently and not unphilosophically; and he spared neither himself

nor others in his effort to maintain the freedom of his country, and to bring destruction on the enemies of Rome. Roman education began in the home, and during the earlier years was largely directed by the mother. Later the preparation of the boy for life was taken over by the father; but it is probable that, from very early times many, if not most, Romans boys were sent to school, where, under the magister literarius (elementary teacher), the grammaticus (advanced teacher), and the rhetor (professor), they acquired the knowledge and accomplishments it was needful for them to obtain.

The Roman schools, elementary and secondary, seem to have been conducted in a verandah, and boys and girls seem to have been taught in the same school. The chief Roman writers on education are Cicero, Seneca, and Quintilian. Quintilian tells us that Cato also wrote a treatise on the subject, but that that work had been lost. The oratorical training of which Quintilian was the expositor seems to have been largely out of connection with real life; and, though he claims that the orator must be a widely cultured, wise, and honourable man, seems to have developed a tendency to the bombastic abuse of ornate and stilted speech. The practical effects, too, of the corruption of family education were far from satisfactory. Moral degradation followed, and humanity seems to have been rescued only by the introduction of a new ideal of life, which substituted for the pagan self-reliance, self-control, moderation, and proportion, self-denial, self-forgetfulness, and humility; which made the last, indeed, the chief virtue, and looked on pride and self-confidence as spiritual sins.

The introduction of Christianity was followed by the inroads into the Roman Empire of barbarous tribes from the north and east. Before these attacks the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and with it to a greater or less extent the educational system of the time.

It must be remembered that between three and four hundred years elapsed between the downfall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginnings of the Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne. Classical or pagan culture, as profane learning, was at a discount, and the aim of the monasticism which grew out of the introduction of Christianity was mystic absorption in the contemplation of God.

This interval was followed by the efforts of Charlemagne to revive Roman culture, and to establish schools throughout Western Europe. In this he was aided by Alcuin and other scholars from England, where in the comparative quiet that followed the conquest of Britain there had grown up a system of education. Throughout his dominions three classes of schools were established by Charlemagne, the Palace School, the Bishop's School, and the Monastery School. These were intended to take the place of the splendid system of public schools that had grown up under the Roman Empire. The course of studies established in these mediæval schools, following the practice of Greece and Rome, was divided into two parts: the Trivium, including Grammar, Dialectic, Rhetoric; and the Quadrivium, which embraced Geometry, Arithmetic, Music, and Astronomy. Education in the palace or castle schools had a different aim. It sought to develop the bodily powers, and to awake in the pupils that respect for the weak which was shown in the worship of women, and that love of justice, and belief in its supremacy, which characterized the chivalry of the Middle Ages.

The scholastic education of this time laid special stress on formal logic and metaphysics. Latin was taught, was, indeed, the universal language of the period. Questions about the nature of the unseen and the spiritual occupied much of men's minds; while their time was taken up in discussing the character of universals, the true realities which lay behind the individual manifestations of experience. As a rule, the physical world was ignored, and human intelligence disregarded; but there were notable exceptions, among which the teachings of Bishop Grosseteste (died 1253) and of Roger Bacon (1214 to 1294) take a prominent place.

It was during the period of scholasticism that universities, in imitation of the trade guilds of the time, sprung up in different parts of Europe, particularly in Spain, Italy, France, and England. To the famous schools both in England and on the Continent scholars flocked from all parts, and their instruction presented little difficulty, as Latin, the language in which the instruction was given, was the common language of scholars in Western Europe. The establishment of universities in different countries was a sign rather than a cause or result of that intellectual and spiritual awakening which, after nearly a thousand years of almost complete stagnation, manifested itself among the peoples of Europe.

It is usual to date the Renaissance from 1453, the fall of Constantinople; but it must not be forgotten that owing to the clash between East and West, the struggle between Christianity and Mohammedanism (the Crusades, as these religious wars were called), there had from the end of the eleventh century been a considerable change of outlook among the nations of Western Europe. This was specially the case in Italy, where city states, not unlike those of Greece in their character, had sprung up, and where, as in Greece in the time of Pericles, there had been the great outburst of literary activity which is associated with the names of Boccaccio, Dante, and

Petrarch. In Northern and Western Europe the intelligence stimulated by the new learning was directed towards the improvement of the method of study. All study was linguistic. Latin was the instrument of common intercourse; Greek and Hebrew were sacred as the tongues in which the Scriptures had been conveyed; it was no wonder, therefore, that the humanistic education was almost entirely confined to the study of languages. Sturm (1507 to 1589) drew up a scheme of studies which had long a great influence on the school courses of instruction throughout Europe.

The reaction against authority which marked the Reformation period was specially noted for the reaction against the purely verbal education given to the young, whose education, as we learn from Locke, was calculated to teach them "not to believe, but to dispute", and to fit them "for the university, not for the world". On the Continent Rabelais (1483 to 1533) led this realistic movement, which was continued by Montaigne (1533 to 1592) in France, and under the influence of Bacon by Brinsley and Hoole in England, and Ratke and Comenius on the Continent. Up to this time the chief English writers on the subject of education had been Sir Thomas Elyot in his Governour, Roger Ascham in his Scholemaster, and Richard Mulcaster in his Positions.

The intellectual activity which marked in England the closing decades of the sixteenth and the first part of the seventeenth century saw the issue of Milton's Tractate, one of the most famous books on education ever produced. The Tractate discusses only the kind of education that should be given to gentlemen's sons between the ages of twelve and twenty-one, so that it is strictly limited in its application, as it does not deal with the education of the people, nor with the education of women. The ideal which Milton put before him as the aim of "a complete and generous education" was "to fit a man to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously all the offices both private and public of peace and war". Milton in his Tractate discusses studies, exercise, and diet, showing that he clearly understood that education was concerned with the body as well as the mind and spirit.

Towards the close of the seventeenth century Locke, an English physician and philosopher, published (1693) his Thoughts concerning Education, a book which influenced immensely the character and direction of future educational studies. As he informs his readers in his letter to Edward Clarke, he counsels everyone "after having well examined and distinguished what fancy, custom, or reason advises in the case ... to promote everywhere that way of training up youth ... which is the easiest, shortest, and likeliest to produce virtuous, useful, and able men in their distinct callings". He begins his essay with the statement, "A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description of a happy state in this world", and the suggestions he makes as to the physical, moral, and intellectual training of the young are for the most part sound. He decried a too severe discipline, maintaining that "If the mind be curbed and humbled too much in children, ... they lose all their vigour and industry". On the other hand, he held that if you "Remove hope and fear, there is an end of all discipline"; and he held that, as far as possible, "Childish actions are to be left perfectly free and unrestrained". He applied the science of psychology to the study of child nature, and of the methods to be employed in training it; and so prepared the way for the modern methods of education. "Interest is the secret of Herbart", according to one of his devoted admirers. Locke seems to have anticipated this when he declares that "None of the things they are to learn should ever be made a burden to them, or imposed on them as a task".

Though his attitude towards the universe was utterly opposed to the attitude of Locke, Rousseau drew almost all that was practical in his scheme for the education of the young from the English writer. Rousseau's work, though largely inspired by Locke, was essentially of a revolutionary kind. It held that man is the great corrupter; that "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator; and that man's handling makes everything worse". In effect he said, leave the child as much as possible alone. An attempt constantly to direct him can only result in stupefying him. It is true we receive our education from nature, from men, and from things; but nature must be our guide in determining the use of the other two. As few restraints as possible must be imposed on the child, and the use of books should be prohibited. For the child there should be "no other book but the world", and "no other instruction but facts". The child's education he divides into four stages, infancy, childhood, boyhood, and youth. The first two stages last till the beginning of the thirteenth year, when the boy is supposed to be fit for instruction. From such instruction the teaching of words must disappear, and the teaching of things must take its place. The subjects most suitable for instruction were, Rousseau declared, measuring, drawing, geometry, speaking, and singing. Books, he declares, are useless, are, indeed, altogether harmful. The method he advocates is the method of self-teaching and the use of the senses, which Rousseau held would work to the profit of the intelligence. The child's knowledge should rest

on his own observation, and not on belief in authority, and each child should be taught a manual trade.

At fifteen, according to Rousseau, real education begins; and it is the duty of the teacher to study the subject he has to act upon, in other words, to discover the nature of the pupil, which must in all cases determine the means and the method employed in his education. Two things must be taught. These are the true relations, racial and individual, that exist among men; and how to direct and control the emotions aroused by the environment so that the best results may arise. Here he finds occasion for the use of moral teaching and for instruction in religion. The facts of history must be placed before him; but he must be left to form his own judgment. He is now to be taught religion as a help to the regulation of the passions; but not the religion of any particular sect. His time is to be given up largely to reading and to the acquirement of taste; to the study of history and eloquence; and to attendance at the theatre.

The revolutionary doctrines preached by Rousseau in his Émile and in his other educational works had an immense effect on the Continent, and particularly on the work of one of his most ardent admirers, the Swiss farmer and schoolmaster Pestalozzi, an eccentric, dubbed by his schoolfellows "Harry Oddity of Fools-town". Thinking the education demanded for Émile by Rousseau vastly superior to that which he himself received, he very early became an ardent admirer of the system advocated by the French philosopher, and an eager reformer. Émile and the Contrat Social were condemned by the magistrates of Zurich, and Pestalozzi and some of his fellow-students were imprisoned for the Memorial in which they defended these works. Later Pestalozzi determined to be a farmer. He was married at the age of twenty-three, and started growing madder and vegetables on some poor land near Zurich. On the land he built for himself a house, the Neuhof.

In the winter of 1774 he hit upon the expedient of taking into his house some twenty poor children of the neighbourhood, whom he treated as his own. They worked with him in summer in the fields, and in winter in the house. Improved health for the children, increased intelligence, and a manifest devotion to their benefactor were some of the results speedily displayed, and the experiment drew much attention to itself. Urged on by his love for the children, Pestalozzi took in a larger number, and in a very short time found himself bankrupt. In this period of seeming disaster Pestalozzi turned author. The books which he produced were greedily read on the Continent, and aroused the greatest interest. After some work at Stanz and at Burgdorf, Pestalozzi settled to work in the castle of Yverdun on Lake Neuchâtel, which became in the early years of the nineteenth century a place of pilgrimage for European students and lovers of education. Forced to leave Yverdun in 1815, he continued his work at Clindy till 1824.

Friedrich Froebel spent the years 1807 to 1809 at Yverdun, and so fitted himself to carry on the work Pestalozzi had to some extent made popular. His name, however, is specially associated with the schools for very young children to which he gave the name of Kindergarten, that is, 'gardens of children', places where young children, like young plants, were properly watched and tended. For the children in these schools their employment was to be play, play from which and by which they acquired clear notions regarding themselves and their environment. "Education", he asserted, "should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself and in himself, to peace with nature, and to unity with God." He held that powers were developed by exercise; that failure to use any part of the body or mind led to the shrinkage of the part, and sometimes even to its complete loss. He held that if we wish to develop the body we must exercise the body, and that, similarly, if we wish to develop the intellect or the emotions they must be exercised. He insists that teachers must be careful to interfere as little as possible; must remember at all times that the aim of teaching is "to bring ever more and more out of man rather than to put more and more into him". He based his system on action; agreed with Montaigne that "children's games were their most serious occupations"; and with Locke that "All the plays and diversions of children should be directed towards good and useful habits". Froebel was not the founder of infant schools. These were first established on the Continent and in Britain with the object of helping mothers. In Britain their establishment is associated with the names of the educational enthusiasts James Buchanan and Samuel Wilderspin.

Nearly ten years before Froebel's stay with Pestalozzi at Yverdun, Herbart, next to Kant and Hegel the most influential of German philosophers, visited the inspired educationist at Burgdorf, and found him employing methods based on the principles which he himself had worked out in his psychology. To both it was clear that there is a definite order in which subjects should be taught to the children, and that this order is determined, not merely by the relation of the subjects to each other, but by their power of satisfying the growing wants and capacities of the child. Pestalozzi had arrived intuitively at a method, and had practically applied it, which Herbart had scientifically

worked out as applicable to the whole educational field. Three years later Herbart published pamphlets on Pestalozzi's best-known book, How Gertrude teaches her Children, and on The A.B.C. of Sense-perception, and in these showed what weight he attached to observation as an instrument of education. Two years later he published one of his most notable works on education, The Æsthetic Revelation of the World, and in 1806 General Pedagogy. In 1809 he was appointed professor of philosophy at Königsberg, where he remained till 1833, and where his services to the cause of education, both by his writings and by his establishment of normal schools and experimental schools, cannot be exaggerated. He warns teachers not to educate too much; to be careful not to destroy the individuality of the child, such individuality being that which characterizes individuals of the same class. He lays the greatest stress on the importance to the teacher of child study, maintaining that he will be unable to teach unless he knows the child as he is. For Herbart the aim of education is summed up in morality, "the highest aim of humanity and consequently of education", itself. "I have no conception", he writes, "of education without instruction, just as I do not acknowledge any instruction that does not educate." "Instruction", he says elsewhere, "will form the circle of thought, and education the character; the last is nothing without the first." A great deal, according to Herbart, depends upon the pupil himself, who "grasps rightly what is natural to him", and who must be saved from the tendency to one-sidedness in which following his bent would result, by the cultivation in him of many-sidedness. This cultivation involves the control of the pupil's mental activity, and the instrument for this control is interest, which causes the pupil's complete absorption in its object. For the attainment of this Herbart proposes certain formal steps of instruction. These steps are usually set forth as (1) Preparation, (2) Presentation, (3) Comparison, (4) Generalization, (5) Application.

The nineteenth century was a period of continuously increasing interest in education, and of a generally growing belief in its utility. It was taken up by the Governments of the different countries, and ordered and regulated almost out of existence. Seven years before the death of Pestalozzi the first public grant for education was made by the British Parliament, and from that time up to the present the Government has continued to extend its power over the education of the country. For a long time the Government in Britain was satisfied to subsidize elementary education; but later it insisted on hard-and-fast lines of instruction. So thoroughly were these regulated in most countries that a French Minister of Education could boast he was able to say what work every child in France was engaged in at that particular moment.

In Britain it was only bit by bit, and with very considerable reluctance, that the Government took upon itself the responsibility for the education of the country. In Scotland a national system of general education, constituted in 1560, remained in force until reconstructed by the Education Act of 1872. (See Scotland.) Compulsory education was introduced into England in 1870, together with what was described as payment by results; and, for some time, the aim which the teacher had to keep before him was the production at the annual examination of the largest number of pupils who could satisfy the tests in Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, or, as they were called, the 'three R's', and so earn the Government grant. For between thirty and forty years this unnatural and mechanical system remained in force. From 1864 onwards Commission after Commission sought to reduce English secondary education to order. The most notable of these was The Bryce Commission of Enquiry into Secondary Education, 1894-5, whose recommendations have since been put into force by legislation. One of the results of the increasing interest in education throughout England was the founding, early in the latter half of last century, of great day schools, like the City of London, St. Paul's, and Merchant Taylors, in London and other large cities; and, after the passing of the Education Act of 1902, the establishment everywhere of Council Secondary Schools.

Of the immense number of works on education issued during the last half of the nineteenth century, perhaps the best known are those of Herbert Spencer and of Professor Bain. The former seeks to explain education from the Darwinian standpoint, and the latter to determine from psychology the intellectual value of the various subjects taught in school, and the average age at which they should be taught to children. Of practical English educators during the nineteenth century, the most outstanding names are undoubtedly those of Arnold of Rugby, Thring of Uppingham, and Abbott of the City of London School.

In recent times the advances made in the theoretical and practical studies of the sciences of anthropology, physiology, and psychology have exercised an enormous influence on educational theories and practices. Careful observations of young children by scientific observers like Darwin, Dearborn, and Preyer have added greatly to our knowledge of child-nature; and helped to suggest new methods of studying it and developing it. The result has been the promulgation within the present century of a number of educational methods, some of which, in

contrast to the older practices, must seem almost revolutionary. Among these must be remembered the 'Heuristic Method' of teaching science put forward by Professor H. E. Armstrong. The object of the method is to put the student as completely as may be in the position of an original investigator; and it has been classed by writers on education as being, like so many other modern methods, a 'play method'. Froebel in his kindergarten was one of the first to introduce successfully the play method in education, and the 'gifts' by which the plan was carried through were of his own devising; but such cannot be said of Dr. Montessori, whose method of education engrosses so much attention at the present time. The Montessori apparatus was originally devised by Dr. Seguin for the instruction of mental defectives. Dr. Montessori used the apparatus first for the training of young children; but the cardinal feature of the Montessori system is the determined effort to make the child entirely responsible for his own education, and to interfere as little as possible with his development. The apparatus is so contrived that it can only be used in one way if the problem is to be solved; so the child is forced to attend to the differences in size and shape and carefully to compare the different pieces. In addition, the Montessori system attempts to cultivate the social virtues; teaches the children to live and to work and play with others, and so to learn to be well-mannered. The teacher in this system retires into the background, and the children are left to go their own way, to choose their own tasks, and to be their own critics. Great attention is also given to the physical development of the children.

Experimental education has been attempted both in Germany, where the need for it was first put forward by Kant, and in England; but it is in the United States of America that the chief advances in this direction have been made. There the Binet attempt to measure the intelligence of the child, to fix in fact a metric scale of intelligence, has been elaborated, and the Binet-Simon system of tests devised, and later modified by L. M. Terman. There, too, schools have been established which have tried the working out of what may be described as the non-interference with the pupil principle. Among these may be mentioned the 'George Junior Republic' and the Gary Schools. The latter, we are told by their founder, were "not instituted to turn out good workers for the steel company, but for the educational value of the work they involved". To this must be added the 'Dalton Laboratory Plan', tried lately as an experiment by Miss Helen Parkhurst in a public secondary day school in Dalton. By this plan, the time-table is abolished, the child undertakes to get up a certain amount of work each month in each particular subject, and is left free to distribute his time as he chooses, so that he can devote more time to those subjects in which he is backward. The school is divided into departments (laboratories) each under a specialist who gives the help needed, but leaves the pupil to himself as much as possible.—Bibliography: Bartley, The Schools for the People; Norwood and Hope, Higher Education of Boys in England; Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers; Browning, An Introduction to the History of Education Theories; Sleight, Educational Values and Methods; Nunn, Education: Its Data and First Principles; Wilton, What do we mean by Education? The New Teaching, edited by Adams; Kerr, Scottish Education; Morrison, Education Authorities' Handbook; Dewey, Schools of To-morrow; Rusk, Introduction to Experimental Education; Montessori, The Montessori Method and The Advanced Montessori Method.

Education Act, the name given to several Acts dealing with education in Great Britain. Among the principal Education Acts are: (1) that of 1870, which introduced compulsory education; (2) that of 1891, which reduced, or in some cases abolished, school fees; (3) that of 1902, which authorized the levying of an education rate; and (4) that of 1918, which raised the age for leaving school, and made education compulsory up to the age of eighteen by means of continuation schools. Pupils must attend these schools for 320 hours each year.

Edward, known as the Elder, King of England, son of Alfred the Great, born about 870, died in 925. He succeeded his father in 901, and his reign was distinguished by successes over the Danes. He fortified many inland towns, acquired dominion over Northumbria and East Anglia, and subdued several of the Welsh tribes.

Edward, surnamed the Martyr, King of England, succeeded his father, Edgar, at the age of fifteen, in 975. His reign of four years was chiefly distinguished by ecclesiastical disputes. He was treacherously slain in 979 by a servant of his stepmother, at her residence, Corfe Castle. The pity caused by his innocence and misfortune induced the people to regard him as a martyr.

Edward, King of England, surnamed the Confessor, was the son of Ethelred II, and was born at Islip, in Oxfordshire, about 1004. On the death of his maternal brother, Hardicanute the Dane, in 1041, he was called to the throne, and thus renewed the Saxon line. Edward was a weak and superstitious, but well-intentioned prince, who acquired the love of his subjects by his monkish sanctity and care in the administration of justice. His queen was the daughter of Godwin, Earl of Kent. He died in 1066, and was succeeded by Harold, the son of Godwin.

Edward caused a body of laws to be compiled from those of Ethelbert, Ina, and Alfred, to which the nation was long fondly attached. He was canonized by Pope Alexander III in 1161.

Edward, Prince of Wales, surnamed the Black Prince, born 15th June, 1330, the eldest son of Edward III and Philippa of Hainault. In 1346 he commanded part of the forces at the battle of Crécy, and earned the praise of his warlike father. It was on this occasion that he adopted the motto Ich dien (I serve), used by all succeeding Princes of Wales. In 1355 he commanded the army which invaded France from Gascony, and distinguished himself the following year at the great battle of Poitiers. By the Peace of Brétigny the provinces of Poictou, Saintonge, Périgord, and Limousin were annexed to Guienne and formed into a sovereignty for the prince under the title of the Principality of Aquitaine. A campaign in Castile, on behalf of Pedro the Cruel, and the heavy taxes laid on Aquitaine to meet the expenses, caused a rebellion, and ultimately involved him in a war with the French king. His own health did not allow him to take the field, and having seen his generals defeated he withdrew into England, and after lingering some time died (1376), leaving an only son, afterwards Richard II.

Edward I (of the Norman line), King of England, son of Henry III, was born at Winchester in 1239, died 7th July, 1307. The contests between his father and the barons called him early into active life, and he finally quelled all resistance to the royal authority by the decisive defeat of Leicester at the battle of Evesham, in 1265. He then proceeded to Palestine, where he showed signal proofs of valour, although no conquest of any importance was achieved. His father's death in 1272 gave him the crown. On his return home he showed great vigour as well as a degree of severity in his administration. He commenced a war with Llewellyn, Prince of Wales, which ended in the annexation of that Principality to the English Crown in 1283. Edward's ambition was to gain possession of Scotland, but the death of Margaret, the Maid of Norway, who was to have been married to Edward's son, for a time frustrated the king's designs. But on 26th Dec., 1292, John Baliol was induced to do homage for his crown to Edward at Newcastle. Baliol was forced by the indignation of the Scottish people into war with England. Edward entered Scotland in 1296, devastated it with fire and sword, and placed the administration of the country in the hands of officers of his own. Next summer a new rising took place under William Wallace. Wallace's successes recalled Edward to Scotland with an army of 100,000 men. Wallace was at length betrayed into his hands and executed as a traitor. All Edward's efforts, however, to reduce the country to obedience were unavailing, and with the flight of Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick, to Scotland, the banner of Scottish independence was again unfurled. Edward assembled another army and marched against Bruce, but only lived to reach Burgh-on-Sands, a village near Carlisle, where he died. Edward I was wise in council and vigorous in action. During his reign great progress was made in the establishment of law and order throughout the land.

Edward II, King of England, born at Carnarvon Castle in 1284, and the first English Prince of Wales, succeeded his father, Edward I, in 1307. He was of an agreeable figure and mild disposition, but indolent and fond of pleasure. After marching as far as Cumnock, in Ayrshire, with the army collected by his father, he returned, dismissed his troops, and abandoned himself entirely to amusements. His weakness for a clever but dissolute young Gascon, Piers Gaveston, on whom he heaped honours without limit, roused the nobles to rebellion. Gaveston was captured in Scarborough Castle, and executed as a public enemy on 19th June, 1312. Two years after this, Edward assembled an immense army to check the progress of Robert Bruce, but was completely defeated at Bannockburn. In 1322 he made another expedition against Scotland, but without achieving anything important. The king's fondness for another favourite, Hugh le Despenser, had made a number of malcontents, and Queen Isabella, making a visit to France, entered into a correspondence with the exiles there, and formed an association of all hostile to the king. Aided by a force from the Count of Hainault, she landed in Suffolk in 1326. Her army was completely successful. The Despensers, father and son, were captured and executed, and the king was taken prisoner and confined in Kenilworth, and ultimately in Berkeley Castle, where he was murdered 21st Sept., 1327.

Edward III, King of England, son of Edward II by Isabella of France, was born in 1312, died 21st June, 1377. On his father's deposition in 1327 he was proclaimed king under a council of regency, while his mother's lover, Mortimer, really possessed the principal power in the State. The pride and oppression of Mortimer led to a general confederacy against him, and to his seizure and execution (10th Oct., 1330). Edward now turned his attention to Scotland, and, having levied a well-appointed army, defeated the regent, Douglas, at Halidon Hill, in July, 1333. This victory produced the restoration of Edward Baliol, who was, however, again expelled, and again restored, until the ambition of the English king was diverted by the prospect of succeeding to the throne of France. Collecting an army and accompanied by the Black Prince, he crossed

over to France. The memorable battle of Crécy followed, 25th Aug., 1346, which was succeeded by the siege of Calais. In the meantime David II, having recovered the throne of Scotland, invaded England with a large army, but was defeated and taken prisoner by a much inferior force under Lord Percy. In 1348 a truce was concluded with France; but on the death of King Philip, in 1350, Edward again invaded France, plundering and devastating. Recalled home by a Scottish inroad, he retaliated by carrying fire and sword from Berwick to Edinburgh. In the meantime the Black Prince had penetrated from Guienne to the heart of France, fought the famous battle of Poitiers, and taken King John prisoner. A truce was then made, at the expiration of which (1359) Edward again crossed over to France and laid waste the provinces of Picardy and Champagne, but at length consented to a peace. This confirmed him in the possession of several provinces and districts of France which were entrusted to the Prince of Wales (the Black Prince), but gradually all the English possessions in France, with the exception of Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Calais, were lost.

Edward IV, King of England, was born in 1442, died in April, 1483. His father, Richard, Duke of York, was grandson of Edmund, Earl of Cambridge and Duke of York, fourth son of Edward III, while the rival line of Lancaster descended from John of Gaunt, the third son. The York line had intermarried with the female descendants of Lionel, the second son, which gave it the preferable right to the Crown. Edward, on the defeat and death of his father at the battle of Wakefield, assumed his title, and, having entered London after his splendid victory over the troops of Henry VI and Queen Margaret at Mortimer's Cross, in Feb. 1461, was declared king by acclamation. The victory of Towton, soon after his accession, confirmed his title, and three years after this, on 4th May, 1464, the battle of Hexham completely overthrew the party of Henry VI. The king now made an imprudent marriage with Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey, at the very time when he had dispatched the Earl of Warwick to negotiate a marriage for him with the sister of the French king. He thus alienated powerful friends, and Warwick, passing over to the Lancastrian cause, gathered a large army, and compelled Edward to fly (in Sept. 1470). Henry's title was once more recognized by Parliament. But in 1471 Edward, at the head of a small force given him by the Duke of Burgundy, landed at Ravenspur in Yorkshire, and his army, being quickly increased by partisans, marched swiftly on London and took the unfortunate Henry prisoner. Warwick now advanced with an army to Barnet, where a battle was fought, 4th April, 1471, which ended in the death of Warwick and a decisive victory for Edward. Shortly afterwards Edward also met and defeated a Lancastrian army, headed by Queen Margaret and her son Edward, at Tewkesbury. The prince was murdered, and the queen was thrown into the Tower, where Henry VI soon after died. Edward was preparing for an expedition against France when he died.

Edward V, King of England, the eldest son of Edward IV, was in his thirteenth year when he succeeded his father in 1483. His uncle, the Duke of Gloucester, soon made himself king as Richard III, and caused the young king and his brother to be sent to the Tower, where he had them smothered by ruffians.

Edward VI, King of England, son of Henry VIII by Jane Seymour, was born in 1537, died in July, 1553. At his father's death he was only nine years of age. His education was entrusted to men of the first character for learning, under whose training he made great progress, and grew up with a rooted zeal for the doctrines of the Reformation. His reign was, on the whole, tumultuous and unsettled. In Oct., 1551, the Protector Somerset, who had hitherto governed the kingdom with energy and ability, was deposed by the intrigues of Dudley, Duke of Northumberland, who became all-powerful. He induced the dying Edward to set aside the succession of his sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, and settle the crown upon Lady Jane Grey, to whom he had married his son Lord Guildford Dudley. Edward VI restored many of the grammar schools suppressed by Henry VIII, and these schools are still known as King Edward's schools.

Edward VII, King of Great Britain and Ireland and Emperor of India, eldest son of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, was born at Buckingham Palace on 9th Nov., 1841, died 6th May, 1910. In Dec., 1841, he was created Prince of Wales. He was educated under private tutors and at Edinburgh, Oxford, and Cambridge; visited Canada and the United States in 1860; and underwent military training at the Curragh camp in 1861. Promoted to the rank of general in 1862, he visited Palestine and the East, and next year took his seat in the House of Lords. On 10th March, 1863, he was married in St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle, to Princess Alexandra, eldest daughter of Christian IX of Denmark, and from this time onwards he discharged many public ceremonial functions. Attacked by typhoid fever in the winter of 1871, his life was for a time despaired of, but he recovered early in 1872, his recovery being made the occasion of a thanksgiving service in St. Paul's Cathedral. During 1875 and 1876 he visited India. He was a member of the Poor Law Commission of 1893. He promoted the establishment of the Imperial Institute as a

memorial of Queen Victoria's jubilee (1887), and he commemorated her diamond jubilee (1897) by founding the Prince of Wales's (now King's) Hospital Fund for the better financial support of the London hospitals. On the death of Queen Victoria on 22nd Jan., 1901, he succeeded to the throne, and was crowned on 9th Aug., 1902. King Edward did much to promote friendly relations with foreign powers, especially with France and the United States. It was through his personal influence that the Entente Cordiale with France was brought about. To him and Queen Alexandra were born: Albert Victor Christian Edward, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, born 1864, died 1892; George Frederick Ernest Albert, who succeeded his father as George V, born 1865, married 1893, to Princess Victoria Mary of Teck; Princess Louise, now Princess Royal, born 1867, married 1889, to the Duke of Fife, who died 29th Jan., 1912; Princess Victoria, born 1868; and Princess Maud, born 1869, married 1896, to Prince Charles of Denmark, now King of Norway as Haakon VII.—Bibliography: Life of the King, by 'One of His Majesty's Servants'; Holt-White, The People's King; E. Legge, King Edward in his true Colours; J. P. Brodhurst, The Life and Times of Edward VII; W. H. Wilkins, Edward the Peacemaker.

Edward, Thomas, a Scottish naturalist, born 1814, died 1886. The son of poor parents, he was apprenticed to a shoemaker and worked at his trade till nearly the end of his life, but succeeded in acquiring much knowledge of natural history and some fame as a naturalist. An interesting biography of Edward (Life of a Scottish Naturalist), written by Samuel Smiles, appeared in 1876, and a pension of £50 a year was shortly afterwards conferred on him by Queen Victoria.

Edwards, Amelia Blandford, English novelist and Egyptologist, born in London in 1831, died in 1892. She gave early evidence of great literary ability by her contributions to periodicals, and attracted attention by her novel My Brother's Wife (1855). Among her best-known novels are: Hand and Glove (1859), Barbara's History (1864), Half a Million of Money (1865), Debenham's Vow (1870), and Lord Brackenbury (1880). Miss Edwards wrote also ballads and books of travel, and in 1882 founded the Egypt Exploration Fund and devoted herself to Egyptology, leaving funds to found a chair of Egyptology in University College, London.

Edwards, Bryan, English writer, born in Wiltshire in 1743, died in 1800. He inherited a large fortune from an uncle in Jamaica, where he long resided. His History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies appeared in 1793.

Edwards, John Passmore, British philanthropist and journalist, born at Blackwater, Cornwall, in March, 1823, died on 22nd April, 1911. Trained as a journalist, he became representative of the paper The Sentinel, and was opposed to the Corn Laws. In 1862 he bought The Building News, and in 1876 the London Echo, of which he was director for twenty years. Although somewhat unpopular on account of his opposition to the Boer War, he is remembered as a public benefactor, having founded numerous Passmore Edwards institutions, public libraries, and settlements, and contributed largely to hospitals. He was a delegate to the peace congresses at Brussels, Paris, and Frankfort (1848-50), and twice refused a knighthood.

Edwards, Jonathan, American theologian and metaphysician, born 5th Oct., 1703, died 22nd March, 1758. He entered Yale College in 1716, and studied till 1722, when he received a licence as preacher. In 1723 he was elected a tutor in Yale College, but resigned in 1726 to be ordained as minister at Northampton (Mass.). After more than twenty-three years of zealous service here, he was dismissed by the congregation owing to the severity with which he sought to exercise church discipline. He then went as a missionary among the Indians at Stockbridge, in Massachusetts. Here he composed his famous work on the Freedom of the Will, which appeared in 1754. In 1757 he was chosen president of the college at Princeton, New Jersey, but died shortly afterwards.

Edwy, King of England, son of Edmund I, succeeded his uncle Edred in 955. Taking part with the secular clergy against the monks, he incurred the confirmed enmity of the latter. The Papal party, headed by Dunstan, was strong enough to excite a rebellion, by which Edwy was driven from the throne to make way for his brother Edgar. He died in 959, being probably not more than eighteen or nineteen years old.

Eecloo (āk-lō´), a town, Belgium, province of East Flanders, 11 miles north-west of Ghent, the seat of textile manufactures. Pop. 13,536.

Eel, the popular name of fishes belonging to the teleostean sub-order Apodes. The common eel (Anguilla vulgaris) is the type of a special family (Anguillidæ) and has a very wide distribution in the fresh waters of the globe. It is snake-shaped, devoid of ventral fins, and the minute scales are embedded in the slimy skin. When five or six years old it migrates to the deep sea for spawning, after which it probably dies. Curious flattened larvæ (Leptocephalus) hatch out from the floating eggs, and undergo a metamorphosis to become young eels or elvers, which when a year old ascend rivers in vast numbers as 'eel fare'. Eels are esteemed as an article of food, and even elvers are compressed into a sort of cake. In England river eels are caught in great numbers by means of eel-bucks

or eelpots, traps consisting of a kind of basket with a funnel-shaped entrance composed of willow rods converging towards a point, so that the eels can easily force their way in but cannot return. A stocking or tube of coarse cloth hanging from an aperture of a box down into the interior is also used. In England a kind of trident called an eel-spear is used also for taking them. A fisherman wades to the shallows, and, as he strikes his spear in the mud in every direction around him, the eels reposing on the bottom are caught between the prongs. They are also taken by hooks and lines and in other ways. See Conger-eel; Muræna. Electric eels belong to another group. See Electrical Fishes.

Effen´di, a Turkish title which signifies lord or master. It is particularly applied to the civil, as aga is to the military officers of the Sultan. Thus the Sultan's first physician is called Hakim effendi, and the priest in the seraglio Imam effendi.

Efferves´cence, the rapid escape of a gas from a liquid, producing a turbulent motion in it, and causing it to boil up. It, is produced by the actual formation of a gas in the liquid, as in fermentation, or by the liberation of a gas which has been forced into it, as in aerated beverages.

Efficiency, in mechanics and engineering, the ratio of the useful energy given out by a machine to the energy supplied to it. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it may assume various forms, and, within limits, can be changed from any one of these forms to any other. A machine or engine is an apparatus for converting energy in some given form into energy in another assigned form. In practice it is found impossible to convert the whole of the given energy into the form wanted, there being always a residue which is not of the right kind, and is, therefore, counted as useless. The smaller the residue, the more efficient is the machine. In the machines of elementary mechanics, such as the lever or the screw, the energy supplied is work done by the power or effort, and the energy wanted is work done on the load. If E is the effort, and W the load, then if there were no friction we would have E = Wr, where r is the velocity ratio, or ratio of the velocities of the points of application of load and effort. The relation found by experiment, however, is usually of the type E = Wr + C, where C is a constant. The efficiency is the fraction Wr/E or 1 - C/E, so that it increases with the load. In heat engines, energy in the form of heat is converted into mechanical energy. Heat is taken in at the source, part of it is changed into mechanical energy, and the remainder is rejected to the condenser. According to the second law of thermodynamics, the efficiency of such an engine has a definite upper limit which it cannot exceed, this being the ratio of the difference of the temperatures of the source and the condenser to the temperature of the source, these temperatures being measured on the absolute scale, that is, from -273° C. reckoned as the zero. The efficiency of a steam-engine is usually compared with that of an ideal engine working between the same temperatures, and going through a definite periodic set of operations called the Rankine cycle. If the thermal efficiency of an actual engine is 27 per cent, and that of an ideal engine working on the Rankine cycle is 30 per cent, obviously the important figure is the ratio of 27 to 30, or 90 per cent.

The performance of a steam-engine depends, not only on its thermal efficiency, but also on its boiler efficiency and its mechanical efficiency. The boiler efficiency is the percentage of the heat obtainable from the fuel consumed which is actually used in the engine; in a good boiler it may be 75 per cent. The mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the work given out at the crank-shaft to the work done on the piston; in other words, it is the ratio of brake horse-power to indicated horse-power. It may perhaps be 80 per cent. To arrive at the over-all efficiency, the various partial or component efficiencies must be multiplied together. In comparing one type of engine with another, what is important is obviously this over-all efficiency, or ratio of energy output to the theoretical energy value of the fuel employed. Thus, to take the case of marine engines, the Diesel oil-engine is inferior to the turbine and to the reciprocator in point both of thermal and of mechanical efficiency.

But when the efficiency of the boilers is taken into account, the Diesel comes out very decidedly ahead of the others. Taking coal at 10,000 British thermal units per pound, and Diesel oil at 18,000 British thermal units per pound, Mr. T. R. Wollaston has given the following figures for the number of British thermal units consumed per brake horse-power hour: steam-engine 19,000; steam turbine 21,000; gas-engine 15,000; Diesel engine 9000. Electrical plant in general reaches a high standard of efficiency. Some figures are: transmission lines 85 to 95 per cent; motors and generators at full load 70 to 80 per cent from 1 to 5 h.p., 80 to 90 per cent from 5 to 50 h.p., and 95 per cent for large sizes. Electrical transformers are the most efficient of all machines. Their efficiency ranges from about 90 per cent in small sizes, up to perhaps 98.5 per cent for large machines at full load. See Energy; Internal-combustion Engines; Steam-engines; Thermodynamics.

Efflores´cence, the property which certain hydrated salts have of losing water when exposed to air. Thus washing-soda, Na₂CO₃, 10H₂O, if left in air becomes opaque, loses its crystalline appearance, and finally falls to a powder by loss of water. The term is also applied in botany to the process of flowering.

Effluents, a general term applying to liquids, on being discharged, after undergoing some form of treatment. The term is more particularly applied to the purified liquid discharged into rivers and streams from sewage-works, the crude sewage having been freed of the grosser solids, and rendered clear and innocuous to animal and vegetable life.

Effodien´tia, the name proposed for a new order of mammals to include pangolins and aard-varks. See Edentata.

Égalité, Philippe. See Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph.

Egbert, considered the first king of all England, was of the royal family of Wessex. He succeeded Brihtric in 802 as King of Wessex. He reduced the other kingdoms and rendered them dependent on him in 829, thus becoming their overlord. He died in 839.

Egede, Hans (ā´ge-dā), the apostle of Greenland, born in 1686 in Norway, died in 1758. In 1721 Egede set sail for Greenland with the intention of converting the natives to Christianity, and for fifteen years performed the most arduous duties as missionary, winning by his persevering kindness the confidence of the natives. In 1736 he returned to Copenhagen, where he was made a bishop and director of the Greenland Missions.

Eger (ā´gėr), a town of Bohemia, Czecho-Slovakia, on a rocky eminence above the Eger, 91 miles west of Prague; once an important fortress, though now quite dismantled. It has manufactures of woollens, cottons, leather, and soap. Wallenstein was assassinated there (1634). Pop. 26,620.

Ege´ria, a nymph who received divine honours among the Romans. Numa is said to have received from her the laws which he gave to the Romans.

Egersund (ā´gėr-su¨nd), a seaport on the south-west coast of Norway, some distance south of Stavanger, and connected with it by railway, has a large pottery-work, fishing and shipping trade. Pop. 3500.

Egerton, Francis. See Bridgewater, Duke of.

A, White or albumen. B, Vitelline membrane. C, Chalaza. D, White yolk. E, Germinal disc. F, Shell. G, Air space. H, Shell membrane. K, Yellow yolk.

Egg, (1) in the narrower sense, the female reproductive or germ-cell, which after impregnation or fertilization by a male germ-cell (spermatozoon or sperm) develops into an embryo. (See Ovum.) (2) The term is applied, more broadly, to a more complicated reproductive body that consists of an ovum together with supplementary parts. The egg of a bird, for example, includes the fertilized and developing ovum (yolk), nutritive white (albumen), and protective double egg membrane covered by a porous calcareous shell. The eggs of animals lower than the birds have usually only three parts, viz. the germinal spot or dot, the germinal vesicle, and the vitellus or yolk; the first being contained in the vesicle, and that again in the yolk. The common domestic fowl, the turkey, the pea-hen, and the common duck produce the eggs which are commonest in the market. The eggs of the green plover (Vanellus cristatus) are esteemed as a delicacy. The hard roes of fishes are the ovaries, containing innumerable eggs (over nine millions in the cod). The salted hard roes of the sturgeon are known as caviare. A hen's egg of good size weighs about 1000 grams, of which the white constitutes 600, the yolk 300, and the shell 100. When the white of an egg is warmed it coagulates to a firm opaque

mass. Eggs form an important article in British commerce; the number imported in 1919 amounted to the value of £8,613,000, mainly from Russia, Denmark, Austria, France, and Italy.

Egg, an island of Scotland. See Eigg.

Egga, a town of N. Nigeria, on the right bank of the Niger, about 70 miles above the junction of the Binue. Pop. 10,000.

Eggar, or Egger, a name given to moths of the family Lasiocampidæ. Lasiocampa trifolii, a well-known British moth, is called the grass-egger, and the L. quercus the oak-egger, from the food of their caterpillars.

Egg-bird, or Sooty Tern (Sterna fuliginosa), a bird of considerable commercial importance in the West Indies, as its eggs, in common with those of two other species of tern, form an object of profitable adventure to the crews of numerous small vessels.

Eggleston, Edward, American novelist and miscellaneous writer, born in 1837, died in 1902. He entered the ministry of the Methodist Church, was engaged in pastoral work for some years, afterwards as pastor of an independent church founded by himself. He wrote and edited much, among his books being: The Hoosier Schoolmaster (1871), which first appeared in Hearth and Home; The End of the World: A Love Story; Roxy, a highly popular novel (1878); The Hoosier Schoolboy; The Graysons; Household History of the United States; The Faith Doctor. His novels are marked by abundance of incident, skilful handling of dialect, and realistic portraiture.

Egg-plant, or Brinjal (Solānum melongĕna), nat. ord. Solanaceæ, an herbaceous plant, from 1 foot to 18 inches high, with large white or purplish flowers. The fruit is about the size of a goose's egg, and generally yellow, white, or violet, and when boiled or stewed is used as an article of food. It is cultivated in India, the United States, &c., and in European hothouses. There are several other species of egg-plants, as S. indicum and S. sodomeum.

Egham, an urban district of England, county of Surrey, on the Thames opposite Staines, about 21 miles from London, with the Royal Holloway College for women, and the Holloway Sanatorium. Near it is Runnymede, where King John signed Magna Charta.

Egil Skallagrim, an Icelandic bard or poet of the tenth century, who distinguished himself by his warlike exploits in predatory invasions of Scotland and Northumberland. Having fallen into the hands of a hostile Norwegian prince, he procured his freedom by the composition and recitation of a poem called Egil's Ransom, which is still extant.

Eginhard, or Einhard, friend and biographer of Charles the Great (Charlemagne), born in Maingau (East Franconia) about 770, died in 840. He was educated in the monastery at Fulda, and his capacity attracted the attention of Charles, who made him superintendent of public buildings, and of whom he became the constant companion. He also enjoyed the favour of his son Louis the Pious. His later years were passed at Mühlheim-on-the-Main, where he founded a monastery. His Vita Caroli Magni is a work of great value, and his letters are also important.

Eg´lantine, one of the names of the sweetbrier (Rosa rubiginosa), a kind of wild rose. The name has sometimes been erroneously used for other species of the rose and for the honeysuckle.

Eg´mont, Lamoral, Count, Prince of Gavre, was born in 1522, of an illustrious family of Holland. He adopted a military career, accompanied Charles V in his African expeditions, and distinguished himself under Philip II in the battles of St. Quentin (1557) and Gravelines (1558). Philip having gone to Spain, Egmont soon became involved in the political and religious disputes which arose between the Netherlands and their Spanish rulers. He tried to adjust the difficulties between both parties, and in 1565 went to Spain to arrange matters with Philip. He was well received, sent back with honour, but quite deceived as to the king's real intentions. In 1567 the Duke of Alva was sent with an army to the Netherlands to reduce the insurgents. One of his first measures was to seize Count Egmont and Count Horn. After a trial before a tribunal instituted by Alva himself they were executed at Brussels 5th June, 1568. A well-known drama of Goethe's is founded on the story of Egmont.

E´goism, as a philosophical doctrine, the view that the elements of all knowledge and the reality of the things known are dependent on the personal existence of the knower. This theory is also called Subjective Idealism or Solipsism. It maintains that his individual ego is the only being that a man can logically assert to exist. As an ethical theory (practical egoism) it is the opposite of altruism. It maintains that the governing principle of conduct for the individual is his own good on the whole, and that self-interest is the basis of morality. Egoism is to be distinguished from egotism, which denotes the practice of putting forward or dwelling upon oneself, of thinking, talking, or writing about oneself.

Egremont, a town of England, in Cumberland, in the valley of the Ehen, 3 miles from the sea, giving name to a parliamentary division. It has ruins of an ancient (twelfth century) castle associated with a legend that served Wordsworth as the subject of a poem. Iron-ore and limestone are worked. Pop. 6300.

Eg´ret, a name given to those species of white herons which have the feathers of the lower part of the back elongated and their webs disunited, reaching to the tail or beyond it at certain seasons of the year. Their forms are more graceful than those of common herons. The American egret (Ardĕa egretta) is about 37 inches long to the end of the tail; plumage soft and blended; head not crested; wings moderate; the tail short, of twelve weak feathers. The European egret (A. alba) is about 40 inches long, of a pure white plumage; the bill is black or dark brown, yellow at the base and about the nostrils, and the legs are almost black. The little egret (A. garzetta) is about 22 inches long from bill to end of tail, the plumage is white. The term egret is used in the feather trade for a bunch of the loose plumes, valued as an ornament.

Egypt (from Gr. Aiguptos) is, as Herodotus has said, "the gift of the Nile". This great river, about 4000 miles in length, rises as the White Nile, three degrees south of the equator, drawing its waters from the Central African lakes. To the south of Khartoum, and 1350 miles from the sea, it is joined by the Blue Nile, which rises in the mountains of Abyssinia, and about 140 miles farther on it is fed by the Atbara, its last tributary. On the tableland of Nubian sandstone between Khartoum and Elephantine the river forms two great loops, and is intercepted by shallows or cataracts, of which there are six in all. The 'first cataract'—the last on the journey northward—is at Assouan, where a ridge of intercepting granite crops up. At Edfu, about 68 miles farther north, the limestone formation is entered, and the Nile then flows uninterrupted between flanking hills that here and there attain the height of 1000 feet. Egypt proper extends from Assouan to the Mediterranean. At a distance of about 100 miles from the sea the Nile divides into the branches forming the Delta. To the south of Cairo it sends out the Bahr Yusuf, a branch about 200 miles long, which flows into the fertile Fayum. The narrow valley, the average breadth of which is 10 miles, is 'the land of Egypt'. Its cultivable area is not so large as Belgium, being under 10,000 sq. miles in extent. Rain falls to the north of Cairo, but in Upper Egypt there are showers only once in every three or four years. The fertility of the country is due to the Nile. Each year the great river rises in flood when the equatorial lakes are suddenly swollen by heavy tropical rains and the snow melts in the Abyssinian mountains. The mean summer heat is 83° F. in the Delta and 122° F. in the valley. It is a dry heat, not so oppressive as that of India, and malaria is practically unknown. The most trying part of the year is during the period of 'Low Nile'. Before the surplus waters were stored in the Assouan Dam, the river shrank so low that its flow seemed uncertain. For about two months the hot and blistering 'hanseen' (or 'sand-wind') keeps blowing. A new season is ushered in by the cool north wind—the Etesian wind of the Greeks—which clears the accumulated dust from vegetation. It is lauded in ancient texts by priestly poets and Pharaohs. About the same time the conspicuous star Sirius makes its appearance. It was anciently regarded as a form of the Mother Goddess. On the 'Night of the Drop', in June, a fertilizing tear was supposed to fall from this star, and thereafter the 'new Nile' was born. For about four days (before the Assouan Dam was constructed) the rising river flowed green, the slimy matter on the marshes of Upper Egypt being pushed forward by the 'new water'. This was the 'Green Nile'. Then the Nile turned blood-red with Abyssinian clay. This was the 'Red Nile'. As soon as the fertilizing 'new water' touched the parched sands, Egypt awoke to new life. Countless

insects appeared, new grass and flowers sprang up, and trees and shrubs broke into brilliant blossoms that filled the air with sweet perfume. Bursting over its banks, the steadily rising river flooded the valley generously and refreshingly. According to the Coptic Calendar, the inundation season lasted from June till September, the seed-time from October till January, and the harvest began in February.

Translation: In the three hundred and sixty-third year of Rā-Heru-Khuti, who liveth for ever and for ever, His Majesty was in TA-KENS, and his soldiers were with him; (the enemy) did not conspire (auu) against their lord, and the land (is called) UAUATET unto this day. And Rā set out on an expedition in his boat, and his followers were with him, and he arrived at UTHES-HERU, (which lay to) the west of this nome, and to the east of the canal PAKHENNU, which is called ( ... to this day). And Heru-Behutet was in the boat of Rā, and he said unto his father Rā-Heru-Khuti (i.e. Rā-Harmachis), "I see that the enemies are conspiring against their lord; let thy fiery serpent gain the mastery ... over them."—Reproduced by permission from Vol. XXXII of Books on Egypt and Chaldæa, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge.

Early Religion and Civilization.—In its earliest phases the religion of ancient Egypt reflected the natural phenomena of the Nile Valley in their relation to the needs, experiences, and achievements of mankind. The flood was an annual 'miracle of mercy', and the early people tried to account for it. They concluded it was a gift of the gods. It ensured the food-supply; it brought health and relief from the oppressive heat endured when the sand-wind prevailed and the river was low. The new water was 'the water of life'; it fertilized the parched soil and caused barley and millet (which grew wild in the Delta) to spring up, trees to yield fruit, and curative herbs to appear on the river banks. In the prehistoric period the Nile was identified with Osiris, who, according to the traditions of the Delta people, once reigned as their king, and introduced the agricultural mode of life which made it possible for large and growing communities to dwell in the narrow valley. In the Pyramid Texts (c. 2700 B.C.) Osiris is the controller of the Nile, the principle of life in the Nile, and the Nile itself. In one of his phases the god is the 'Green One'—the Green Nile. A Pyramid Text reads: "Horus comes! He beholds his father in thee, Green One, in thy name of Water of Greenness". The soul-substance (literally 'the seed') of Osiris was the vital principle in the green or new water. Osiris was the serpent-soul in the water, and the serpent (leviathan) of the ocean which 'encircled the netherworld'. The god is addressed in a Pyramid Text: "Thou art great, thou art green in thy name of Great Green" (Mediterranean Sea). Osiris was slain by Set, and his life-blood was the Red Nile, which entered the soil and vegetation. Osiris was not regarded as the Green One because vegetation is green; the ancient Egyptians appear to have attributed the greenness of vegetation to the Green Nile, the soul-substance of Osiris. The sap of shrubs and trees was 'Blood'—the blood of the god. Osiris continued to live after death. On earth he was in barley, fruit, &c., and in the fertilized soil. He was in the other world Judge and King of the Dead. In his underworld Paradise the souls of the dead grew corn and cultivated fruit-trees—the 'food of life'. The Osirian cult had origin in the Delta of Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt a solar cult exalted Horus, the falcon god, as chief deity. Their heaven was beyond the sky 'to the east'. In the Pyramid Texts there is clear evidence that the solar cult believed the souls of the dead went eastward, while the Osirian cult believed they went westward. Osiris was called 'First of the Westerners'. The 'Easterners' of the south (Upper Egypt) conquered the 'Westerners' of the north (Lower Egypt), and Egypt was united into a single kingdom by the traditional King Mena, with whom begins the dynastic history of Egypt. This conquest appears to have been due to the introduction of copper weapons.

The idea that the Horites were invaders from Arabia or Mesopotamia has been abandoned. Copper was anciently found in the wadis of Upper Egypt and on the shores of the Red Sea. After boat-building and navigation were well advanced copper was mined in Sinai. According to Egyptian evidence, Edfu was the centre of the early copper industry and of the Horus cult. As Egyptian copper is naturally hard, it required no amalgam. Egypt, therefore, never had a Bronze Age, nor had it a Neolithic Age. The copper artifacts were imitations of Palæolithic forms of the Solutrian type. After the conquest there occurred fusions of religious cults. Local pantheons reflected local politics. But although the sun-cult of Heliopolis exalted Ra

From a wall-painting in the tombs of Beni-Hassan.

Arts and Crafts.—Art developed in ancient Egypt under religious patronage. The earliest use made of Nubian gold was in manufacturing imitation luck-shells worn by the pre-dynastic peoples. Gold thus acquired a religious significance; at an early period it was associated with the sun-deity—the mother-goddess in her solar aspect was called 'Golden Hathor'. The hieroglyph for gold (nub) is a collar of beads. Exquisite gold ornaments in symbolic shapes were produced during the early dynasties. No finer gold ornaments have ever been produced anywhere than those of the twelfth dynasty (c. 2000 B.C.). These include chased gold pectoral ornaments and coronets and crowns inlaid with stones. When copper was first introduced it was used like gold. After implements were made of copper, vases of alabaster, diorite, &c., were worked with increasing skill and taste. The hardest stone was hewn and dressed for building purposes. No people have ever shown greater skill than the Egyptians in their stonework. The sculptors set themselves, when constructing temples, to imitate in stone the lashed palm-sticks, reeds, and papyrus stems used in the earliest shrines to stiffen the mud walls. Massive temple pillars were decorated with lotus petals, rose petals, &c. The early artists, who carved ivory, began to work in stone after copper implements were invented, and produced low reliefs in temples and tomb-chapels. Statuary in limestone, wood, and copper in the early dynastic period was vigorous and realistic. The sculptors were using the hardest material by the time of the Pyramid Age (c. 2700 B.C.). A great tomb-statue of Pharaoh-Khafra, in diorite, preserved in the Cairo Museum, is one of the triumphs of Egyptian sculpture. The Empire-period sculpture reached a high level of excellence. It was to provide 'soul-bodies' for dead Pharaohs that these great works of art were produced. A great advance in the manufacture of pottery was achieved during the Pyramid Age, when the potter's wheel was invented. To Egypt the ancient world owed this notable contrivance. It was introduced in time into Babylonia, Iran, India, China, Crete, Greece, and Western Europe. Shipbuilding is another Egyptian industry which promoted progress. Cretan and Phœnician vessels were of Egyptian design. In all histories of shipping and navigation the ancient Egyptians are credited with being the pioneers of maritime enterprise. The custom of mummification arose in Egypt, and promoted the study of anatomy. Surgery had its origin in mummification, as astronomy had in astrology, and chemistry had in alchemy. Connected with each temple were architects, artists and sculptors, metal-workers and dyers. Ships were constructed to obtain wood for temples and to import pearls, precious stones, herbs, incense-bearing shrubs and trees, &c., for religious purposes. In the history of early civilization the Egyptian priests play a prominent part as patrons of the arts and crafts.

From a limestone statue in the Cairo Museum.

History.—In the hot, dry sands of Upper Egypt, which preserve the dead from decay, have been found the bodies of large numbers of pre-dynastic Egyptians. They were of the type known as the 'Mediterranean race'. The

contents of their stomachs have yielded husks of barley and millet and fragments of mammalian and fish bones. Circumcision was practised, and some men shaved. These people used malachite as an eyelid paint. When they discovered that copper could be extracted from malachite, it was used at first like gold, as has been stated. The production of copper implements and weapons was followed by the conquest of Lower Egypt by the copper-using Upper Egyptians. After the latter moved north, they found that the bodies of their dead decayed, and the practice of mummification was introduced. Before 3000 B.C. the broad-headed, long-bearded Armenoid type began to filter into Lower Egypt. The blending of Armenoids and Arabians in Syria produced 'the hybrid race of Semites'. In Egypt the ethnic fusion was most marked at the commercial capital, Memphis, and especially during the time of the pyramid builders (c. 2900-2750 B.C.). The spread of 'copper culture', and the importation into Egypt of timber from Lebanon, apparently brought the ancient races into close contact. Withal, shipbuilding and the art of navigation had advanced by leaps and bounds. Before the Pyramid Age there were sea-traders on the Mediterranean, and the Egyptians imported copper from Sinai across the Red Sea. The legendary Pharaoh who united Upper and Lower Egypt was Mena or Menes. From his time (c. 3400 B.C.) till the close of the sixth dynasty (c. 2475 B.C.) the capital was Memphis. This period is known as that of the 'Old Kingdom'. Among its outstanding monarchs were Khufu, Khafra, and Menkure of the fourth dynasty, the builders of the largest pyramids. Herodotus refers to them as Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos. The 'Middle Kingdom' begins with the rise of Thebes in Upper Egypt as the centre of political power. During this period the nobility became so influential that the Pharaohs had to recognize their rights and privileges. In the period of the famous twelfth dynasty (c. 2000-1788 B.C.) the Theban monarchs established a uniform control of Egypt. The later kings of this dynasty were unable, however, to withstand the inroads of Asiatics, and the Middle Kingdom came to an end with the Hyksos invasion. Of the Hyksos, the so-called 'Shepherd Kings', little is known. They were civilized Asiatics, and during their overlordship of Egypt, which embraced the thirteenth till the seventeenth dynasties (c. 1800-1575 B.C.), the horse and chariot were introduced into Egypt. A Theban royal house rose into prominence during the latter part of their sway, and the Hyksos were finally expelled by Pharaoh Aahmes, who founded the eighteenth dynasty. The Empire period was then inaugurated. Egypt's greatest emperor, Thothmes III (1515-1461 B.C.), extended his conquests to the borders of Asia Minor, and received tribute from the Hittites, and even from Cyprus and Crete. During the reign of Akhenaton, the Hittites and their allies, the Amorites, seized the Egyptian sphere of influence in Syria and Northern Palestine.

In the nineteenth dynasty (1350-1205 B.C.) much of the lost territory was recovered. Rameses II (1325-1258 B.C.) fought his Waterloo at Kadesh, but found it necessary about 1300 B.C. to conclude a treaty of peace with the Hittites, the Assyrian Power at the time becoming very powerful and aggressive. Rameses III of the twentieth dynasty was the last great Pharaoh of the Empire period. He successfully resisted the threatened invasions of naval and military peoples from Greece and Anatolia in 1200 B.C. It is believed that the Trojan War (1194-1184 B.C.) was waged by the same confederacy which had attempted to invade the Delta region. No fewer than nine Pharaohs named Rameses ruled in Egypt after Rameses III. Most of these were priest-kings. A Libyan dynasty held sway for about two centuries (950-750 B.C.). One of its Pharaoh-Sheshhonks

was the 'Shishak' who was an ally of Solomon; after the death of that monarch he invaded Palestine. The Ethiopians of Nubia (Sudan) subsequently overran Egypt. One of its Pharaohs, Shabaka, was the ally of King Hosea of Israel against Assyria; he was defeated at Raphia by Sargon in 720 B.C. The last Ethiopian Pharaoh, Taharka, was in 662 B.C. overcome by the invading army of the Assyrian Emperor, Ashur-banipal. The northern royal family of Sais then came into power, and the twenty-sixth dynasty, which lasted for about 130 years (662-525 B.C.), was inaugurated by Psamtik I. Pharaoh-Necho, referred to in the Bible, was the second ruler. It was during Necho's reign that his Phœnician mariners circumnavigated Africa. Egyptian culture was at the time spreading far and wide along sea and land routes. Trade was flourishing. The greatest world-power at the time, however, was Persia, and in 525 B.C. Egypt was conquered by Cambyses and became a Persian province, with short interruptions of weak native dynasties (the twenty-eighth to thirtieth), until in 332 B.C. Alexander the Great seized it and founded Alexandria. The Ptolemaic dynasty afterwards held sway for about three centuries. During this period learning and the arts flourished. Alexandria was not only a commercial town, but a centre of culture and the capital of Egypt. Osiris was worshipped there in the form of Serapis. During the latter part of the dynasty the native Egyptians were using Greek and Græcized names, and the whole country was more or less Hellenized. The fifteenth Ptolemy was the younger brother of the famous Cleopatra, the seventh of her name. He vanished, and was succeeded by Cleopatra's son, Cæsarion—Ptolemy XVI—whose father was Julius Cæsar. Both Cleopatra and her son perished when Egypt became a Roman province in 30 B.C. A daughter of Cleopatra and Antony became the wife of Juba, King of Morocco.

From a relief on the wall of the temple at Der-el-Bahari. The face is of Mediterranean type. She represents the royal line which soon afterwards fused with a foreign strain, so that the facial type changed.

From the mummy