TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

There are two "Plate C" illustrations in this book, links to the appropriate plate have been added for clarity.

Some minor changes to the text are noted at [the end of the book].

THE BUTTERFLY GUIDE

THE BUTTERFLY GUIDE

A POCKET MANUAL FOR THE READY IDENTIFICATION OF THE
COMMONER SPECIES FOUND IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA

BY
W. J. HOLLAND, LL.D.

Director of the Carnegie Museum
Author of “The Butterfly Book,” “The Moth Book,” etc.

With 295 Colored Figures
Representing 255 Species and Varieties

Garden City New York
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY
1915

Copyright, 1915, by
Doubleday, Page & Company
All rights reserved, including that of
translation into foreign languages,
including the Scandinavian

To the
BOY SCOUTS OF AMERICA
I dedicate
this Book
The Author

PREFACE

Recent advances in the arts make it possible to illustrate books at much less cost than formerly. An important invention is the process of printing in three colors from half-tone plates. The author of this manual was one of the first to use this process in illustrating a work upon the lepidoptera. When “The Butterfly Book” appeared he received letters from many scientific friends expressing their wonder. Among those who wrote to him was Dr. Samuel Hubbard Scudder, the Nestor among American lepidopterists, who has since passed away. He said: “I am simply astonished at the fidelity to nature displayed by the plates in your book, and at the low price at which the new process permits it to be sold.”

That “The Butterfly Book” met a real need is shown by the fact that more than thirty thousand copies have already found purchasers. It is, however, a biggish book. The publishers, Messrs. Doubleday, Page & Co., have asked me to get up a little pocket manual of the butterflies, similar in form to the “Flower Guide,” which has been most cordially received by the public. I have therefore prepared the following pages, to which in the gracious phrase of our forefathers I now “invite the attention of the gentle reader.”

There are more than six hundred species of butterflies found in North America, north of the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande. Most of these are figured in “The Butterfly Book.” In this manual two hundred and fifty-five species and varieties are depicted in their natural colors. They are mainly the commoner forms, which occur in the more densely inhabited parts of the United States and Canada. I have, however, included numerous forms from the Southern States, and not a few of the more showy species from the Pacific Coast.

In some cases only half of the insect is shown. “Half a loaf is better than no bread.” In some cases only one side of the wings is delineated. Usually this is sufficient for identification. The inhabitants of this earth have never seen but one side of the moon, but they know it when they see it, unless they be like the tipsy pair, one of whom said to the other, who was leaning against a lamp post, “Friend, is that the moon, or a lamp?” and who received the reply: “Don’t ask me, I’m a stranger myself in these parts.” By showing only one half, or one side, of a species I have been able to illustrate many more than I could otherwise have done.

The figures of some of the larger species have been slightly reduced to accommodate them to the page, but as the natural size is always given in the description the student need not be perplexed.

The author hopes that his readers will have as much pleasure in studying the winged fairies of the woods and the fields as he has had in preparing this small pocket guide for their assistance.

INTRODUCTORY

THE PLACE OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

The Animal Kingdom is divided into various subkingdoms. One of these is the subkingdom of the Arthropoda. This word is derived from the Greek nouns ἄρθρον (arthron) meaning joint, and πούς (pous) meaning foot. The Arthropoda are animals the bodies of which are made up of a series of rings or segments jointed together, and the other organs of which are likewise composed of tubular bodies similarly united. All arthropods are invertebrates; that is to say, they do not have backbones and internal skeletons, such as are possessed by fishes, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including man. Vertebrate animals have endoskeletons, “inside skeletons.” In a ham, for instance, the bone is internal to the muscular parts, or meat, and lies near the middle. The muscles of a man clothe his bones. In the arthropods, on the contrary, the hard parts clothe the muscles. Arthropods are therefore said to have exoskeletons, “outside skeletons.” The body, the legs, and other organs of an insect or a crab consist of a series of hollow tubes held together by flexible skin at the points of union, and controlled in their movements by muscles which pull from the inside. The meat of a lobster is inside of the shell, or exoskeleton, as everybody who has eaten a lobster knows. The arrangement is exactly the reverse of that which we find in the vertebrates.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE A

Plate A

The subkingdom of the Arthropoda is divided into six classes, one of which consists of the Insecta (insects). It is estimated that there are three and a half millions of species of insects upon the globe, not to speak of the vast number of species which are now extinct, and known only by their fossil remains.

The Class Insecta is subdivided into many Orders. To attempt even to briefly speak of all these orders would take more space than the publisher has allotted to the author, and it is enough to say that butterflies belong to the order Lepidoptera. The lepidoptera are divided into two Suborders: the Rhopalocera, or Butterflies, and the Heterocera, or Moths. Both are characterized by having scaly wings, hence the name, which is derived from the Greek words λεπὶς (lepis) meaning scale, and πτερὸν (pteron) meaning wing. Lepidoptera are “scale-winged insects.” Any one who has ever handled a butterfly or moth, must have noticed upon his fingers a dust-like substance, rubbed off from the wings of the captured insect. Upon examining this substance under a microscope it is seen to be composed of minute scales (see [Plate A], Fig. a), and upon looking at the wing of a butterfly under a magnifying glass it is seen to be covered with such scales, arranged somewhat as the scales upon the sides of a fish, or as the shingles upon the roof of a house (see [Plate A], Fig. b).

Butterflies are mainly diurnal in their habits, preferring the sunshine. Moths on the other hand are nocturnal, and fly in the dusk, or after dark. Butterflies are therefore often called diurnal lepidoptera, and moths are spoken of as nocturnal lepidoptera. There are, however, a few butterflies which fly at dusk, and there are many moths which are diurnal in their habits. Such moths are generally gay in color, and for the most part inhabit tropical countries, although we have a few such species in the United States. Ordinarily the best way to distinguish between butterflies and moths is by examining their antennæ, or “feelers,” as they are sometimes incorrectly called. In the case of butterflies the antennæ are thread-like, terminating in a small knob-like, or club-like enlargement. It is this fact which has led naturalists to call them Rhopalocera. The word is derived from the Greek nouns ῥώπαλον (rhopalon) meaning a club, and κέρας (keras) a horn. Butterflies are lepidoptera having at the end of their antennæ clubs, which are sometimes short, long, or hooked (see [Plate A], Figs. g, h, i.) The forms assumed by the antennæ of moths are very various. The moths are therefore known as Heterocera, the word being compounded from the Greek adjective ἕτερος ( all sorts) and the noun κέρας (keras) a horn. Moths are lepidoptera having all sorts of antennæ, except such as are club-shaped at their ends. However there is no rule without its exceptions, and there are a few rare moths in tropical lands which have club-shaped antennæ like butterflies, but none of these occur in the region with which this book deals.

THE ANATOMY OF BUTTERFLIES

The body of a butterfly consists of the head, the thorax, and the abdomen (see [Plate A], Fig. c).

The head carries two relatively large eyes, one on either side. The eyes of insects are compound, and if examined under a microscope are seen to have a multitude of minute facets, which serve to gather the light from all directions, so that butterflies can look forward and backward, upward and downward, as well as outward, all at one time. Between the eyes on the upper part of the head arise the antennæ, of which we have already spoken. The precise function of these organs in insects has been the subject of much discussion. Supposed by some to be ears, by others to be the seat of the sense of smell, by others to combine within themselves these two senses, and by still others to represent a sense which is not possessed by vertebrate animals, their use in the life of insects is not yet clearly understood. The weight of evidence seems to be in favor of the view that they are organs of smell, and it is now quite firmly established by experiment that the organs of hearing in insects are represented by certain pores and openings on their legs. In front between the eyes and below the antennæ are two little organs, each composed of three joints, which are known as the labial palpi (see [Plate A], Fig. e). Between these, coiled up like a watch-spring, is the proboscis, with which the butterfly sucks up the nectar from flowers or drinks water from moist places (see [Plate A], Figs. c and d). We have not the space in this little manual to go more deeply into the anatomy of these organs, but enough has been said to enable the beginner to recognize the various parts. The student realizes that the head in general supports the principal organs of sense and the proboscis, or mouth.

The thorax carries the organs of locomotion, which consist of four wings and six feet. The thorax is made up of three segments, or rings, the foremost of which is called the prothorax, the next the mesothorax, and the hindmost the metathorax. The subdivisions of the thorax are not easily distinguishable by examining the body of a butterfly even under a microscope, because the bodies of butterflies are generally heavily clothed with hairs and scales. In order to clearly make out the subdivisions, which we are considering, it is necessary to take a specimen and denude it of its scales and hairs, and even dissect it under a glass. The correctness of the foregoing statements then becomes apparent.

The legs of butterflies are arranged in three pairs, the foremost of which are known as prothoracic, being attached to the prothorax; the second pair are called mesothoracic, springing, as they do, from the middle segment of the thorax; and the last are styled metathoracic legs, rising from the hindmost segment of the chest (see [Plate A], Fig. c). It should be noted here that in the great family of the Nymphalidæ, or “Brush-footed Butterflies,” in both sexes the anterior, or prothoracic pair of legs, are not fully developed, being aborted (see [Plate A], Fig. d) and therefore do not serve for walking; and that in the families of the Erycinidæ, or “Metal-marks,” and the Lycænidæ, or “Blues and Coppers,” the females have six legs adapted to walking, while the males possess only four ambulatory legs, the front pair being in the latter sex aborted in these families, as in the Nymphalidæ. The legs of butterflies, like those of all other insects, consist of five parts (see [Plate A], Fig. f) the first of which, nearest the body, is called the coxa, with which articulates a small ring-like piece, known as the trochanter. To the trochanter is attached the femur, and united with the latter, forming an angle with it, is the tibia. The last division of the leg is the tarsus, or foot, composed of a series of joints, to the last of which is attached a pair of claws, which in butterflies are generally rather minute, though in other orders of insects these claws are sometimes long and powerful, this being especially true of some beetles. The prothoracic legs of the Nymphalidæ and of the males of the Erycinidæ and Lycænidæ have lost the use of the tarsus, only retaining it in feeble form, and the tibia has undergone modification. In many of the Nymphalidæ the tibia is densely clothed with long hairs, giving this part of the leg the appearance of a brush, whence the name “Brush-footed Butterflies” (see [Plate A], Fig. d). The tibiæ are often armed with more or less strongly developed spines.

The most striking parts of butterflies are their wings, which in proportion to the size of their bodies are usually very large, and which are remarkable for the beauty of the colors and the markings which they display both on the upper and on the under side.

The wings consist of a framework of horny tubes which are in reality double, the inner tube being filled with air, the outer tube with blood. The blood of insects is not, like that of vertebrates, red in color. It is almost colorless, or at most slightly stained with yellow. The circulation of the blood in the outer wall of the wing-tubes takes place most freely during the brief period in which the insect is expanding its wings after emergence from the chrysalis, concerning which we shall have more to say elsewhere. After the wings of the butterfly have become fully expanded, the circulation of the blood in the wings ceases almost entirely. The horny tubes, which compose the framework of the wings of butterflies, support between them a delicate membrane, to which upon both the upper and lower sides are attached the scales. The two fore wings are more or less triangular in outline; the hind wings are also subtriangular, but are generally more or less rounded on the outer margin, and in numerous forms are provided with tails or tail-like prolongations.

Inasmuch as in describing butterflies authors generally devote a good deal of attention to the markings of the wings, it is important for the student to become acquainted with the terms employed in designating the different parts of the wings (see [Plate B], Fig. 10). That part of the wing which is nearest to the thorax, is called the base; the middle third of the wing is known as the median or discal area; the outer third as the external or limbal area. The anterior margin of the wing is called the costal margin; the outer edge is styled the external margin; the inner edge is known as the inner margin. The tip of the front wing is called the apex, which may be rounded, acute, falcate (sickle-shaped), or square (see [Plate B], Figs. 1-4). The angle formed by the outer margin of the front wing with the inner margin is commonly known as the outer angle. The corresponding angle on the hind wing is known as the anal angle, and the point of the hind wing, which corresponds with the tip or apex of the fore wing, is designated as the external angle. The margins of wings may have different styles of outline, and are spoken of as entire, crenulate, scalloped, waved, lobed, or tailed (see [Plate B], Figs. 5-8).

A knowledge of the veins which form the framework of the wings is important, because authors have frequently established genera upon the basis of the wing structure. It is desirable on this account to understand the nomenclature which has been applied to the veins. This nomenclature is somewhat variant, different writers having employed different terms to designate the same vein. In what follows the writer has adopted the designations which are most current, and which are generally accepted by authors. The best understanding of this matter is to be derived from the attentive study of the diagrams given on [Plate B], Figs. 9 and 10. The veins in both the fore and hind wings of butterflies may be divided into simple and compound veins. In the fore wing the simple veins are the costal, the radials, the submedian, and the internal; in the hind wing they are the costal, the subcostal, the radials, the submedian, and the internal. The costal vein in the hind wing is, however, generally provided near the base with a short ascending branch, which is known as the precostal vein. In addition to the simple veins there are in the fore wing two branching veins, one immediately following the costal, known as the subcostal, and the other preceding the submedian, known as the median. The branches of these compound veins are known as nervules. The median vein always has three nervules. The nervules of the subcostal veins branch upwardly and outwardly toward the costal margin and the apex of the fore wing. There are always from four to five subcostal nervules, variously arranged. In the hind wing the subcostal is simple. The median vein in the hind wing has three nervules, as in the fore wing. In both wings between the subcostal and the median veins toward the base is enclosed the cell, which may be either closed or wholly or partially open at its outer extremity. The veinlets which close the cell are known as the discocellular veins, of which there are normally three. From the point of union of these discocellular veins go forth the radials, known respectively as upper and lower, though the upper radial in many genera is emitted from the lower margin of the subcostal vein.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE B

Plate B

Butterflies generally hold their wings erect when they are at rest, with their upper surfaces facing each other, and only the under surfaces displaying their colors to the eye. In the genus Ageronia the insect prefers, like some moths, to settle upon the bark of trees, with the wings spread flat, and the head pointing downward. Many of the Hesperiidæ, or “Skippers,” have the habit when they are at rest of holding the fore wings folded together, while the hind wings are expanded horizontally. Many of the butterflies known as “Hair-streaks,” belonging to the genus Thecla and its allies, have the curious habit, when at rest upon the end of a twig or leaf, of moving their folded wings backward and forward, first on one side and then on the other, thus partially displaying with each movement the splendid blue surfaces of the upper side of the wings.

The abdomen of butterflies consists normally of nine segments (see [Plate A], Fig. c). In most butterflies except the Ithomiids, the end of the abdomen does not extend beyond the anal angle of the hind wings. In the moths, on the other hand, there are multitudes of genera in which the extremity of the abdomen extends far beyond the hind margin of the posterior wings. This is particularly true of the hawk-moths. A minute examination of the abdomen of a butterfly reveals in each segment except the last a little valve-like orifice on either side. These openings are known as spiracles (see [Plate A], Fig. c). Through these the insect breathes. Insects do not breathe through their mouths, like vertebrates, and their lungs, or what correspond to the lungs of the higher animals, are not located in the thorax or chest, but in the abdomen. The last segment of the abdomen carries at its extremity the external organs of generation. The male may be distinguished from the female by the so-called prehensores, or “claspers,” two flattish, scale-like appendages which adhere one on either side to the last segment of the body. These organs are quite peculiar in their structure, and in recent years have received a great deal of study, as it has been found possible by means of them to distinguish closely allied species, especially among the Hesperiidæ. It is, however, not possible within our allotted space to go into a minute discussion of this matter. The abdomen of the female is devoid of these appendages, and in this sex is generally heavier and plumper, especially when the eggs, which fill the ovaries, have not as yet been deposited.

Thus far we have devoted our attention almost exclusively to the consideration of the external organs of the suborder of insects which is under discussion. It may be of interest to devote a few paragraphs to the internal anatomy of butterflies. To do the subject full justice would require a volume; nevertheless some general statements may pave the way for a more studious inquiry on the part of readers.

Butterflies take their nourishment in fluid form, principally from the cups which Flora provides. The organ of ingestion is the proboscis, which communicates with a bulb-like receptacle in the head, known as the pharyngeal sac, controlled by a set of muscles which cause it to alternately expand and contract, very much like the bulb-syringe used by physicians. When the muscles expand a vacuum is created, and the fluid is drawn up from the honeyed chalice of the flower into the receptacle in the head; when they contract, a valve in front closes, a valve behind opens, and the honey in the receptacle is forced backward through the œsophagus into the crop, and thence into the stomach. The stomach lies on the ventral or under side of the body, but above the nervous cord, which lies still more ventrad. The stomach opens posteriorly into the small intestine, which is followed by the colon, the latter in turn being succeeded by the rectum. Connected with the intestines are certain vesicles, which are known as Malpighian vessels, and by some are thought to have the function of the liver in higher animals.

Having thus briefly spoken of the nutritive system we may turn to the circulatory and respiratory systems. The heart of a butterfly, as in all arthropods, lies on the dorsal side of the body. Its location corresponds almost exactly to that occupied in the vertebrate animals by the spinal cord. It is a long tubular organ. It does not possess chambers—ventricles and auricles—such as are discovered in the heart of vertebrates, but it has an enlargement in the mesothoracic region known as the aortal chamber. The movement of the heart is wave-like, analogous to the peristaltic movement in the intestines of the vertebrates. From the heart there go out lateral blood-vessels, which ramify and intermingle with the capillary extremities of the tracheæ, or bronchial tubes, through which air is imported by way of the spiracles, and thus the blood is purified in a manner quite analogous to that in which the blood of the higher vertebrates is purified and freed from waste matter by oxydization. The process is, however, as has already been pointed out, mainly carried on in the abdominal region, and not exclusively in the thorax, as in the case of vertebrates.

The nervous system of butterflies consists of a cord with ganglia, or nerve-knots, one for each segment of the body. As there are thirteen segments in the body of a butterfly, there are normally thirteen such ganglia, or nerve centres. The nervous cord lies in a position exactly opposite to that which is held by the spinal cord in vertebrates. It is situated on the ventral side of the body, and more ventrad than all the other internal organs. The ganglion in the head is the largest of all and forms a rudimentary brain, the greater portion of which consists of two relatively large optic nerves.

The internal organs of reproduction in the female consist of the ovaries, from which the eggs pass by way of the oviduct to the ovipositor, which in butterflies is not so conspicuous or remarkable an organ as is the case in many other insects. Communicating with the oviduct are the spermatothecæ, which are receptacles in which is retained the fertilizing fluid received from the male at the time of coition. As the eggs, one by one, are passed from the ovaries into the oviduct, they are impregnated through absorption of the spermatozoa, which enter their walls, imparting to them vitality. The internal organs of the male are tubular vesicles, or testes, which secrete the seminal fluid, which by means of the intromittent organ is introduced into the spermatothecæ of the female. Union between the sexes among insects generally takes place but once, and is not recurrent. The female, having been impregnated, proceeds at once to lay her eggs upon the tender leaves or the bark of the plants upon which her progeny are to be nourished, and then promptly dies. The life of insects in the winged form is usually very brief. Inasmuch as there are great differences between the sexes in insects alike in size, form, color, and markings, it is well for the collector to carefully preserve specimens which may be captured in copulation. Such specimens should be designated as “Taken in coitu.” The writer in such cases uses the formula “A ♂ in coitu with B ♀,” which is put in minute handwriting upon a label and placed upon the pin bearing the male insect. Upon the pin carrying the female insect there is put the label “B ♀ in coitu with A ♂.” The finding of insects in copula is sometimes the only way in which to definitely settle the question of sexual relationship between forms. So different are some insects that the two sexes have in a number of cases been described by early writers as belonging not merely to different species, but to different genera, and even families.

THE LIFE HISTORY OF BUTTERFLIES

Almost all insects undergo great changes, or metamorphoses, during their existence. Butterflies furnish no exception to this statement. They exist first as eggs; then they appear as caterpillars; the third stage is that of the chrysalis; the final stage is that of the imago, or perfectly developed insect.

THE EGGS OF BUTTERFLIES

The eggs of butterflies are beautiful objects when examined under a glass. They have various forms. Some are spheres or half spheres, some are conical, cylindrical or spindle-shaped, others are flat and resemble little cheeses, and still others have the form of turbans. There is endless variety of form displayed within certain limits. Their surfaces may be quite smooth or they may be adorned with raised ribs and sculpturings (see [Plate C], Figs. f and g) or marked with little pittings or depressions arranged in geometrical patterns. They vary in color. Some are white, some pale green, or blue-green; others are yellow, orange, red, or purple. They are often spotted and marbled like the eggs of some birds.

The eggs of butterflies are deposited by the female upon the plants which are appropriate to the development of the larvæ. Caterpillars are very rarely promiscuous feeders, and most species are restricted to certain species or genera of plants. Even when they feed upon different plants, observation shows that, having begun to feed upon a certain plant, they prefer this to all others, and do not willingly accept anything else. I have noticed frequently that larvæ which may for instance feed in nature upon the wild plum or the lilac, having begun to feed upon the one will steadily refuse the other if offered to them. On several occasions I have lost broods of caterpillars by attempting to change their diet, though knowing well that the species is found feeding in nature upon the plants which I have offered to them. Almost every plant has a butterfly or moth which is partial to it, and one of the most wonderful things in nature is the way in which the female butterfly, without having received a botanical education, is able to select the plant which will best meet the needs of her progeny, which she never lives to see.

The eggs are deposited sometimes singly, sometimes in small clusters, sometimes in a mass. Fertile eggs, soon after they have been laid, undergo a change in color, and it is then possible with a magnifying glass to see through the thin shell the form of the caterpillar which is being developed within.

When the development is completed the caterpillar emerges either from an opening at the side or at the top of the egg. Many species have eggs provided with a sort of lid, a portion of the shell being separated from the remainder by a thin section, which finally breaks under the pressure of the enlarging embryo within, this portion flying off, the rest adhering to the twig or leaf upon which it has been placed. Many larvæ have the habit, as soon as they have emerged from the egg, of making their first meal upon the shell from which they have just escaped.

CATERPILLARS

The second stage in which the insects we are studying exist is known as the larval stage. When it is reached the insect is spoken of as a larva, or caterpillar (see [Plate C], Fig. h). Caterpillars have long, worm-like bodies, which are often thickest about the middle, tapering before and behind, and more or less flattened on the under side. Sometimes caterpillars are oval or slug-shaped. Very frequently their bodies are adorned with hairs, spines, and tubercles of various forms. The body of the larva, like the body of the butterfly, consists normally of thirteen rings or segments, of which the three foremost, just behind the head, correspond to the prothorax, the mesothorax, and the metathorax of the perfect insect, while the remaining nine correspond to the abdomen of the imago. These three anterior segments bear legs, which correspond to the legs of the winged form in their location, and are known as the true legs of the larva. Besides these the caterpillar has about the middle of the body and at its posterior end paired pro-legs, as they are called, which are its principal organs of locomotion in this stage, but which do not reappear in the butterfly. The mouth parts of caterpillars are profoundly different from those of the butterfly. The imago lives, as we have seen, upon fluid nourishment, and therefore is provided with a sucking organ, the proboscis. The caterpillar, on the other hand, is armed with a pair of cutting mandibles, with which it shears off tiny strips of the leaves upon which it feeds. It holds the edge of the leaf in place with the three pairs of true legs, while it supports its body upon the pro-legs during the act of eating.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE C

Plate C

When the caterpillar emerges from the egg the head is in many cases seen to be very large in proportion to the rest of the body. This relative disparity soon disappears, however, as growth takes place. As the larva increases in size, it soon reaches a point at which the skin in which it made its appearance in the world becomes too small and tight for further comfort and use. Thereupon it proceeds to moult, or shed, this now uncomfortable garment. The skin splits along the back and the caterpillar crawls out of it. Before moulting the caterpillar always takes the precaution to attach this outer skin by strands of silk to the leaf or branch upon which the moult is to take place. Having escaped from the cast-off garment, the caterpillar sometimes turns around and eats it before resuming its vegetable diet. The process of moulting takes place four or five times before the larva changes into a chrysalis.

Caterpillars differ entirely from butterflies in that they are able to produce silk. Silk is a viscous fluid secreted by elongated sacs located in the dorsal region. These sacs communicate with a minute tube-like organ, known as the spinneret, which is located on the under side of the head of the caterpillar, just back of the mandibles. The fluid silk, as it is ejected through the spinneret, immediately hardens on contact with the air and is deposited in the form of very fine threads or filaments which the caterpillar uses for various purposes, sometimes as lines with which to guide itself from place to place and enable it to retrace its steps to its favorite resting-place, sometimes to tie together the leaves in which it forms its nest, or to weave a sort of shelter in which it conceals itself, and finally to make the little buttons and the girdles by which, as we shall see later, the chrysalis is held in place. Many moths weave from silk compact structures known as cocoons, in which the chrysalis is lodged. Butterflies do not weave true cocoons.

The time spent by the insect in the egg is generally short. The time passed in the larval state may be short or long. When butterflies hibernate, or pass the winter, as caterpillars, the time spent in this state is long, and especially in the case of those species which inhabit arctic regions. There are some butterflies which occur north of the Arctic Circle, and we have ascertained that these, because the summers are so short in the far north, pass two summers and the intervening winter in the larval condition, and another winter in the pupal stage, before they emerge and take wing. On the other hand, under more temperate conditions butterflies of certain species may produce two or even three broods in a summer, and in subtropical or tropical lands there may be even more broods produced.

While it is true that almost all the larvæ of lepidoptera subsist upon vegetable food, there are nevertheless exceptions, one of which is that of the Harvester, Feniseca tarquinius (see [Plate LXXXVIII], Fig. 1), the slug-like larva of which feeds upon scale-insects, or mealy bugs, sharing the habit with certain allied species which occur in Africa and Asia, as the writer has had occasion to point out a number of years ago in certain of his writings.

THE PUPA, OR CHRYSALIS

The third stage in the life of lepidoptera is known as the pupal stage. The caterpillar, having undergone successive moults and reached maturity, is transformed into a pupa, or chrysalis (see [Plate C], Figs. d and e). From having been an active, worm-like creature, greedily feeding upon its appropriate food, it reverts to a form which is stationary, as was the egg, and ceases to have the power of locomotion. An examination of the structure of all chrysalids shows that they contain an immature butterfly. The segments of the chrysalids enclose the corresponding segments of the body of the butterfly, and in sheathing plates of chitinous matter are enfolded the wings and all the other organs which are necessary to the life of the butterfly when it shall have emerged and taken wing. The act of transformation from the caterpillar stage to the pupal stage is very wonderful. The caterpillar makes provision for the great change by weaving a little button of silk and, in the case of many of those larvæ, the chrysalids of which are not pendant, by also weaving a little girdle of silk, which it passes around its back, and which holds it in place very much as an Indian baby is held by the strap which passes over the shoulders of the squaw (see [Plate C], Fig. e). Having made these preliminary arrangements the caterpillar becomes very quiet, its hind pro-legs being securely hooked and tangled into the silken button to which it is attached. After a while, when the proper moment has arrived, the skin of the caterpillar splits, just as in the moults which preceded, and by a series of wriggling or vibratory motions the chrysalis succeeds in working off the skin of the caterpillar until it has all been shed except where near the end of the abdomen the skin is caught between the edges of two of the horny rings which form the abdomen. Then the insect with the cremaster, as it is called, a little spikelet at the very tip of the chrysalis, which is armed with small hooks, proceeds to feel about until these hooks become entangled in the silk of the button which has been provided on the under surface of the twig, the stone, or the fence rail, where the transformation is occurring. As soon as the chrysalis is securely hooked into the button of silk it lets go of the little section of the skin by which it has been supported and rapidly assumes the shape in which it will remain until the time of its emergence as a butterfly. These changes are illustrated on [Plate C], Figs. a-d, which are reproduced from “The Butterfly Book” after the drawings of the late Prof. C. V. Riley. The chrysalids of all the Nymphalidæ are pendant; those of the other families, except the Hesperiidæ, are provided with girdles, as is shown on [Plate C], in the figures which represent the chrysalis of Papilio philenor. The chrysalids of the Hesperiidæ, like the chrysalids of moths, are either formed in loosely woven coverings of leaves tacked together with silken threads, or lie free under leaves and rubbish upon the ground, thus resembling the chrysalids of moths.

Chrysalids are for the most part rather obscure in coloring, though some are quite brilliantly marked with metallic spots as in the case of the common Milkweed Butterfly, Anosia plexippus, the chrysalis of which is pearly green in color, ornamented with bright golden spots.

The forms assumed by chrysalids are very various, especially among the Nymphalidæ, and they are often ornamented with curious projections and tubercles, imparting to them very odd outlines.

Some butterflies remain in the chrysalis stage for only a few days or weeks; others pass the winter in this state, and this is true of many of the species which are found in the colder parts of North America. In temperate regions some butterflies have as many as three broods: the spring brood, which comes forth from chrysalids which have over-wintered, an early summer brood, and a fall brood. In tropical countries many species retain the form of the chrysalis during the dry season, and emerge upon the wing at the beginning of the rainy season, when vegetation is refreshed and new and tender growths take place in the forests.

THE IMAGO, OR WINGED INSECT

We have already spoken at length of the form and structure of butterflies in the preceding paragraphs, which were devoted to the anatomy of butterflies. It remains for us at this point to call attention to the manner in which the butterfly undergoes transformation from the chrysalis. This change is quite as interesting as that which takes place when the caterpillar is transformed into the pupa; and should any of my readers possess chrysalids I would advise them to watch carefully and observe the curious events which follow one another rapidly when the imago comes forth from the cerements of the chrysalis. The coverings which ensheathe the head, the legs, and the antennæ split, the head protrudes, the fore legs are disentangled and are thrown forth, followed almost at once by the other legs, and the insect proceeds to crawl out from the pupal skin, emerging with the wings as miniature objects, the body trailing after as a long worm-like mass. Having liberated itself from the sheathings of the chrysalis, the insect immediately assumes a stationary position, head upward, body hanging downward. Then by the action of the heart the fluids which fill the body begin to be rapidly sent into circulation, more particularly into the wings, which expand second after second, minute after minute, the fluids in the body being transferred through the circulatory system of the wings until the latter, hanging downward, have assumed their full form. The insect then begins gently to move its wings, to fan them, still remaining in the position which it first took. After a while the wings become perfectly dry, and the long worm-like body has shrunk up and has assumed the form which it will retain through the subsequent life of the insect. Madame Butterfly then begins to change her position. She carefully crawls a few steps to try her powers of locomotion. She suddenly expands her wings, and, presto! if you alarm her, she is off, fluttering about the cage in which you may have her, or darting forth into the room and through the open window, hieing herself forth in quest of food, which awaits her in the honeyed cups of the wild flowers.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE D

Plate D

COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES

In collecting butterflies the first thing is to get a net of some kind with which to catch the insects without tearing their delicate wings, and thus robbing them of their beauty (see [Plate D], Figs. 1 and 2). When I was a boy I made my own nets. I took a stick of tough wood about four feet long, which was to serve as the handle. About seven or eight inches from the upper end I wrapped it with copper wire; fishing line will do as well. Then I split the stick down to the band I had made around it. I then with my knife trimmed the two split portions on their inner sides, so that they might be more flexible. I then fashioned out of a piece of good green hickory (the white outer wood must be used) a bow or hoop about twelve inches wide at its widest part, and fitting this between the split ends of the stick put in a wedge at the bottom of the cleft to keep the split ends well apart and tied it neatly and securely in place. Upon the frame made in this way I put a covering of green mosquito netting in the form of a long bag. Many a fine insect I captured with this simple device, which called only for a good jack-knife, a little ingenuity, ordinary skill in whittling, and a supply of stout string. The cheapest and simplest way to make the frame for a net is to take a long piece of brass, aluminium, or galvanized iron wire about an eighth of an inch in diameter and bend it into a circle, leaving two short shanks at the end. Then fit the shanks into the top of the ferrule of a fishing-rod plugged in the middle with a thin piece of cork or with clay, and pour in melted solder. [Plate D], Fig. 3 shows how the “trick” is done.

There are many devices for making frames for folding nets, and there are a number of dealers in the United States who supply such nets at moderate prices. The material for the bag of the net ought to be of light stuff, and I prefer to use tarletan, preferably green in color, or bobbinet. The latter is more durable though somewhat heavier than tarletan. The bag of the net ought to be about three times as long as the diameter of the ring upon which it is placed. It is well, after the net has been sewed upon the ring, to cover it with a band of stout dark-colored muslin, as otherwise the edge of the bag surrounding the ring is apt to become speedily worn and torn.

The collector having provided himself with a net for capturing insects must also provide himself with one or more collecting jars. It is well to have several of these of a size convenient for carrying in the pockets. For large specimens a larger jar is required; for small specimens a smaller receptacle is better. The larger jar should have the mouth about two and one half or three inches in diameter. Wide-mouthed glass phials an inch and a half in diameter serve best for the smaller receptacles. The stopper of the larger jar should be of ground glass, of the smaller jar of good cork. Jelly tumblers or glasses with tin tops make good collecting jars. In preparing the jar for use place a few lumps of cyanide of potash about the size of a filbert at the bottom; then put in a little clean sawdust to keep the pieces of cyanide from rattling about; over the lumps of cyanide paste a sheet of strong white paper perforated with a multitude of holes. In doing this the writer has resorted to a simple method, which is explained in the diagram on [Plate D], Fig. 4. A piece of paper is placed under the jar and a circle the size of the inside of the jar is traced upon it. Then a disk is cut out about three quarters of an inch greater in diameter than the original circle. The paper is punctured over the entire surface included within the inner line, and then with scissors little gashes are made from the outer circumference inward, so as to permit of folding the edge of the disk inwardly. A little gum tragacanth, or paste, is then applied to these upturned edges, the disk is then inserted into the jar and pasted securely over the cyanide by means of the upturned flaps. A jar thus charged will last for a long time if kept stoppered when not in use. Cyanide has a tendency to liquefy in the presence of moisture, and it is well therefore to take care to keep the jar closed when not in use. It must, however, be borne in mind that the fumes of hydrocyanic acid (prussic acid), which are active in producing the death of the insect, will not be given off in sufficient volume unless there is a small amount of moisture in the jar, and in very dry climates the writer has sometimes found it necessary to moisten the bottom of the jar with a drop or two of water. Jars also may be charged with lumps of carbonate of ammonia, but as this substance bleaches the wings of insects, especially those which are green in color, its use is not strongly recommended. Figure 5 on [Plate D] shows a jar prepared for use.

When a butterfly has been caught in the net it is apt to flutter about and struggle violently, thus injuring its wings. It is well therefore as soon as the insect has been captured to take hold of it at the point where the wings join the body, while it is still in the net, and by gently pinching the thorax to disable the insect. The fingers are applied from the outside, as shown in the illustration (see [Plate D], Fig. 1). Then the collector, unstoppering his jar, inserts it into the net and allows the butterfly to drop into the jar. Butterflies belonging to the family of the Hesperiidæ, or “skippers,” are best captured in the net by holding up the end of the bag. The insects will then fly upward and settle near the top of the bag. The collector puts the open jar with his right hand into the ring of the net and holding the bag with the left hand brings the jar under the butterfly, and then claps his left hand over the mouth of the jar, thus securing the insect in the jar, where after a couple of seconds it will be stunned by the fumes and fall to the bottom. Death is speedy, but not instantaneous, and the insect should be allowed to remain a little while in the jar. Having been asphyxiated by the fumes of the jar, the insect may then be removed and either mounted upon a pin and transferred to a collecting box, which will presently be described, or put into an envelope. It is well not to accumulate too many insects in the collecting jar, as those which are caught later will injure in their struggles those which have been caught first. I make it a rule to rapidly transfer the insects from the collecting jars to the collecting boxes which I carry with me. The preservation of specimens in perfect freshness, without torn or ragged wings, is of the utmost importance, and it is better to take fewer specimens, preserving them in immaculate condition, than to accumulate a quantity of ragged and battered examples. The old adage, “Practice makes perfect,” applies in the use of the net and the poisoning jar. There will necessarily be some failures on the part of the young collector at the outset, but if he is neat and quick of finger he will soon acquire the art of taking and preserving perfect specimens.

The field box should be made of tin and should have a sheet of cork securely fastened at the bottom. In one corner of the box, tied in gauze and securely fixed in place, there should be a few lumps of cyanide. Into this box the specimens should be pinned as they are taken from the collecting jar, and the lid of this box should be kept tightly closed most of the time, being opened only when the transfer of the pinned specimens to the interior of the box is ready to be made. Inasmuch as pinning insects on the field is not always satisfactorily accomplished, the writer prefers not to pin them, but to carry with him a supply of small pay-roll envelopes, into which the insects are put, and these envelopes are then put into a box which has some cyanide secured in it, as has already been described. The writer also carries with him a little phial of chloroform in his vest pocket, and he sometimes uses this to stun insects or puts a few drops into the collecting box and then closes it. The objection to the use of chloroform is that it induces spasms of the thoracic muscles, and butterflies killed by the use of chloroform are not nearly so easily mounted as specimens which have been killed with cyanide. Beetles, wasps, and other hard-bodied insects should not be put into the same collecting jars as those which are used for butterflies, as they are very apt to injure the latter, tearing and spoiling the wings. If the collector is engaged in taking other insects besides butterflies and moths, he should have special jars in which to put the beetles and other hard-bodied and spiny things.

If the collector does not wish immediately to mount his specimens, but to preserve them for mounting at a future time, they may be left in the envelopes of which I have spoken, or may be “papered.” The simplest way of putting up butterflies in papers is to take an oblong piece of any kind of moderately good paper and fold it as indicated in the diagram (see [Plate E], Fig. b), first folding on the line a-b, then on a-d and c-b; then on the lines b-f and e-a, as marked in the diagram. The result is the enclosure of the insect as shown in [Plate E], Fig. c. A hundred or more of such envelopes may be put into an ordinary cigar box. Such boxes, filled with butterflies, in order to prevent mould and the ravages of pests, should have some chloroform or carbon bisulphide put into them and afterward a spoonful or two of naphthaline crystals. Then they should be closed and sealed up by pasting strips of paper over the edges. Butterflies thus collected on journeys may be safely carried for long distances without injury, or even transmitted through the mails provided the boxes are strong enough to resist crushing. When on journeys the writer of these paragraphs always papers his specimens, bringing them home to be later carefully mounted at his leisure. It is of the utmost importance to note on each envelope the place and the date of capture, so that these may later be placed upon the little labels or tickets which are put upon the pins after the insects have been expanded and mounted for display.

MOUNTING BUTTERFLIES

The writer cannot do better in dealing with this subject than to transfer from “The Butterfly Book” the substance of the directions there given in relation to this matter.

When the collector has time enough at his disposal he should at once mount his specimens as they are intended to be displayed. The insect should first of all be pinned. For this purpose “insect pins” should be used. These are made either of soft steel or of pin metal. The first are to be preferred, except in very damp climates, where they sometimes rust if they have not been properly enamelled with shellac. The pin should be thrust perpendicularly through the thorax, midway between the wings, and at a considerable elevation upon the pin. It should then be placed upon the setting board or setting block. Setting boards or setting blocks are pieces of wood having a groove on the upper surface of sufficient depth to accommodate the body of the insect and to permit the wings to be brought to the level of the upper surface of the board (see [Plate D], Figs. 6 and 7; and [Plate E], Figs. d, e, f). They should also be provided either with a cleft or a hole which will permit the pin to be thrust down below the body of the insect for a considerable distance. As a rule the wings of all specimens should be mounted at a uniform elevation of about seven eighths of an inch above the point of the pin. This is known as the “continental method” of mounting, and is infinitely preferable to the old-fashioned “English method,” in which the insect was pinned low down upon the pin, so that its wings touched the surface of the box.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE E

Plate E

Setting blocks are most advantageously employed in mounting small species, especially the Hesperiidæ, the wings of which are apt to be refractory. When the insect has been pinned upon the setting board or setting block, the next step is to set the wings in the position which they are to maintain when the specimen is thoroughly dry. This is accomplished by means of what are known as “setting needles.” Setting needles may be easily made by simply sticking ordinary needles into wooden matches from which the tips have been removed; steel insect pins will serve as well. In drawing the wings into position, care should be taken to plant the setting needle or pin behind the strong nervure on the costal margin of the wing; otherwise the wings are liable to be torn and disfigured. The rule in setting lepidoptera is to draw the anterior wing forward in such a manner that the hind margin of this wing is at right angles to the axis of the body, the axis of the body being a line drawn through the head to the extremity of the abdomen. The hind wing should then be moved forward, its anterior margin lying under the opposing margin of the front wing. When the wings have thus been adjusted into the position which they are to occupy, slips of tracing-muslin or of paper should be drawn over them and securely pinned, the setting needles being removed.

In pinning down the strips which are to hold the wings in place, be careful to pin around the wing, but never if possible through it. When the wings have been adjusted in the position in which they are to remain, the antennæ should be attended to and drawn forward on the same plane as the wings, and secured in place. This may ordinarily be done by setting pins in such a position as to hold them where they are to stay. Then the body, if it has a tendency to sag down at the end of the abdomen, should be raised. This may also be accomplished by means of pins thrust beneath on either side. [Plate E], Fig. e, shows clearly what is intended. When the insect has been set, the board should be put aside in a place where it will not be molested or attacked by pests, and the specimens upon it allowed to dry. A box with shelves in it is often used for this purpose. This box should have a door at the front covered with wire gauze, and the back should also be open, covered with gauze, so as to allow a free circulation of air. A few balls of naphthaline placed in it will tend to keep away mites and other pests. The time which the specimen should remain on the board varies with its size and the condition of the atmosphere. Most butterflies and moths in dry weather will be sufficiently dried to permit of their removal from the setting boards in a week; but large, stout-bodied moths may require as much as two weeks, or even more time, before they are dry enough to be taken off the boards. The process of drying may be hastened by placing the boards in an oven, but the temperature of the oven must be quite low. If too much heat is applied great injury is sure to result. Only a careful and expert operator should resort to the use of the oven, a temperature above 120 F. being sure to work mischief.

When butterflies or moths have been put up in papers or mounted on pins without having their wings expanded and set, it becomes necessary before setting them to relax them. This may be accomplished in several ways. If the specimens have been pinned it is best to place them on pieces of sheet-cork on a tray of sand which has been thoroughly moistened and treated with a good dose of carbolic acid. Over all a bell glass is put. A tight tin box will serve the same purpose, but a broad sheet of bibulous paper should always be put over the box, under the lid before closing it, and in such a way as to leave the edges of the paper projecting around the edges of the lid. This is done to absorb the moisture which might settle by condensation upon the lid and drop upon the specimens. In a bell glass the moisture generally trickles down the sides. Earthenware crocks with closely fitting lids are even better than tin boxes, but they must have paper put over them before closing, in the same way as is done when tin boxes are used. When specimens have been preserved in papers or envelopes these should be opened a little and laid upon damp, carbolized sand under a bell glass or in a closed receptacle of some kind. Papered specimens may also be placed in their envelopes between clean towels, which have been moistened in water to which a little carbolic acid has been added. The towels should be wrung out quite dry before using them. Pieces of dampened blotting paper are even better than towels. The method of placing between towels should never be used in the case of very small and delicate species and those which are blue or green in color. Great care must be exercised not to allow the insects to become soaked or unduly wet. This ruins them. They should, however, be damp enough to allow the wings and other organs to be freely moved. When the insects have been relaxed they may be pinned and expanded on setting boards like freshly caught specimens. It is well in setting the wings of relaxed specimens, after having thrust the pin through the body, to take a small forceps and seizing the wings just where they join the body gently move them so as to open them and make their movement easy before pinning them upon the setting board. The skilful manipulator in this way quickly ascertains whether they have been sufficiently relaxed to admit of their being readily set. If discovered to be too stiff and liable to break they must be still further relaxed. Dried specimens which have been relaxed and then mounted generally require only a short time to dry again, and need rarely be kept more than twenty-four hours upon the setting boards.

The process of setting insects upon setting blocks is exactly the same as when setting boards are used, with the simple difference that instead of pinning strips of paper or tracing-muslin over the wings, the wings are held in place by threads or very narrow tapes, which are wound around the block (see [Plate D], Figs 6 and 7). When the wings are not covered with a very deep and velvety covering of scales the threads or tapes may be used alone; but when the wings are thus clothed it becomes necessary to put bits of paper or cardboard over the wings before wrapping with the threads. Unless this is done the marks of the threads will be left upon the wings. Some little skill, which is easily acquired by practice, is necessary in order to employ setting blocks to advantage, but in the case of small species and species which have refractory wings they are much to be preferred to the boards.

The work of mounting small insects which have been relaxed must be done quite quickly and in a cool room or in a moist atmosphere. In a very dry and hot atmosphere the minuter things dry so quickly that difficulties are at once encountered.

One of the best ways in which to secure perfect specimens is to breed them from the caterpillar, or even from the egg. A stylish and very good cage for breeding is shown on [Plate E], Fig. 2. As good a cage as this is not necessary, and the collector will succeed with one or more clean store-boxes covered with a lid consisting of a frame over which gauze or muslin has been stretched. The food-plant on which the caterpillar feeds is kept fresh in bottles or jars. It is important, after the plants have been put into the jar of water, to stuff around the stems cotton or soft paper, so that the caterpillars may not crawl down and, falling into the water, drown themselves. The bottom of the box may be filled to the depth of four or five inches with loam and covered with dead forest leaves. The loam should not be allowed to dry out thoroughly, but should be kept somewhat moist, not wet. A little sprinkling of water from time to time will suffice when done with care. The caterpillars feed upon the food-plant, and finally undergo transformation in the cage into the pupa, and eventually emerge as the butterfly or moth. The breeding of lepidoptera in this way is a fascinating occupation for those who have leisure to attend to it. For more minute instructions in reference to this matter the reader is referred to “The Butterfly Book.” The caterpillars and chrysalids themselves may be preserved in little phials, in alcohol or in a solution of formaldehyde. The latter, however, is not to be recommended, because, although it preserves colors better than alcohol, and does not tend to shrivel up the bodies, it makes them stiff and difficult to handle and examine. The best way of preserving caterpillars is to inflate them. Directions for doing this are contained in “The Butterfly Book.”

THE PRESERVATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF COLLECTIONS

In order to preserve collections of lepidoptera in beautiful condition, light, moisture, and insect pests must be excluded. Light bleaches many species, especially those which are red, brown, or green in color. Moisture produces mold and mildew. Insect pests such as mites, Anthrenus, and Dermestes, the two latter being species of beetles, devour specimens. The receptacles containing collections should therefore be furnished with covers excluding the light, kept in a dry place, and be so tight that insect pests will not enter. However, as an additional precaution, it is well to place in every box or drawer moth balls or lumps of camphor, secured so that they cannot roll about. These tend to deter predaceous insects from entering the receptacles. If by any chance they have entered, neither the naphthaline nor the camphor in some cases will prevent their ravages. In the great collections which are under the care of the writer it is a rule from time to time to go over all the cases and put into every receptacle a small quantity of carbon bisulphide. The fumes of carbon bisulphide kill all grubs and matured insects which may have hidden themselves in the cases, and it is believed that it also tends to destroy the life in eggs which may have been laid in the boxes. Great care should be used, however, in employing carbon bisulphide, as the fumes mingled with the oxygen of the atmosphere form an explosive compound. The work should never be done where there is danger of ignition from an open fire or light. Boxes for the preservation of insect collections are made by many firms, and prices for such receptacles vary according to their size and the materials employed in their construction. All receptacles, however, should be lined at the bottom with cork or some other soft material into which the pins sustaining the insects can be put. We employ in the Carnegie Museum a composition cork covered with white paper, which is made in sheets of varying sizes, according to requirement, by the Armstrong Cork Manufacturing Company of Pittsburgh, Pa., the largest cork-manufacturing establishment in the world. This is the most satisfactory material which is made.

Large collections are advantageously preserved in cabinets, the drawers of which are covered with glass through which the insects may be inspected without handling them. Here again, for the details of the construction of boxes, trays, and cabinets, the reader is referred to “The Butterfly Book,” which may be found in every public library, and is in the hands of multitudes of individuals.

In arranging specimens the scientific order should be followed. The species belonging to a given genus should be placed together. The little labels attached to the pins should give both the generic and the specific name, the locality where the specimen was taken, and the sex, if known. For the purpose of designating the sex naturalists employ what are known as “sex marks,” the male being indicated by the sign of Mars, ♂, while the female is indicated by the sign of Venus, ♀. The inscription Papilio philenor, ♀, means that the specimen is a male, and the inscription Papilio philenor, ♀, means that it is a female of the same species.

The classification of the genera and species should be subordinated further to the classification into families. There are five families of butterflies represented in the United States and Canada. They are the following:

• 1. The Nymphalidæ, or “Brush-footed Butterflies.”
• 2. The Erycinidæ, or “Metal-marks.”
• 3. The Lycænidæ, or “Blues,” “Coppers,” and “Hair-streaks.”
• 4. The Papilionidæ, or the “Swallowtails” and their allies.
• 5. The Hesperiidæ, or the “Skippers.”

In every well-arranged collection of butterflies certain drawers or boxes should be set apart for the reception of the insects belonging to these families, and they should be placed under their proper genera, according to their species. Nothing is more beautiful or interesting to those who have a love of nature than a collection of butterflies thus classified and displayed.

In recent years an ingenious friend of mine has devised a system of mounting butterflies under glass in cases made of a shell of plaster of paris, which he backs with cardboard and seals around the edges with gummed paper. Latterly he has taken to mounting them between pieces of glass which he secures in the same way. Specimens thus preserved keep well, may be handled readily without fear of injury to them, and in the glass cases both sides of their wings may be examined. A collection of butterflies mounted in this way may be stored in shallow trays and placed in scientific order. The process of mounting in this fashion is, however, somewhat laborious and expensive, and is not generally adopted by scientific men, who wish to be free to examine their specimens under the magnifying glass, occasionally touching the wings with benzine to disclose the facts of neuration, and to minutely investigate the feet and other parts of the body, which, when sealed up in the way I have described, are not easily accessible.

Having thus briefly outlined the principal facts as to the nature of butterflies in general, and the best methods of collecting and preserving them, we now pass on to the description of the commoner species which are found on the continent of North America, north of Mexico and the Straits of Florida.

Class Insecta (Insects)
Order Lepidoptera (Scale-winged Insects)
Suborder Rhopalocera (Butterflies)
Family Nymphalidæ (The Brush-footed Butterflies)

The Nymphalidæ may be distinguished from all other butterflies by the fact that in both sexes the foremost, or prothoracic, pair of legs is greatly dwarfed, useless for walking, and therefore carried folded up against the breast. This is the largest of all the families of butterflies and has been subdivided into many subfamilies. Some of the genera are composed of small species, but most of them are made up of large or medium-sized forms. To this family belong many of the most gorgeously colored butterflies of the tropics, among them the brilliant blue Morphos of equatorial America.

The caterpillars, when they emerge from the egg, have heads much greater in diameter than the rest of their bodies. In the earlier stages the bodies taper from before backward, and are adorned with little wart-like protuberances, which bear hairs. In later stages these little protuberances in many genera are replaced by branching spines and fleshy projections, which impart to the caterpillars a forbidding appearance. The mature caterpillar generally has a cylindrical body, but in the subfamilies, Satyrinæ and Morphinæ, the larvæ are thicker at the middle, tapering forward and backward.

The chrysalids, which are generally marked by metallic spots, always hang suspended by the tail, except in the case of a few arctic species, which are found under a frail covering composed of strands of silk woven about the roots of tufts of grass, under which the larva takes shelter at the time of pupation.

In the region with which this booklet deals all the butterflies belonging to the Nymphalidæ fall naturally into one or the other of the following subfamilies: (1) the Euplœinæ, or Euplœids; (2) the Ithomiinæ, the Ithomiids; (3) the Heliconiinæ, the Heliconians; (4) the Nymphalinæ, the Nymphs; (5) the Satyrinæ, the Satyrs; (6) the Libytheinæ, the Snout-butterflies.

KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES OF THE NYMPHALIDÆ OF TEMPERATE
NORTH AMERICA

Subfamily EUPLŒINÆ
(The Euplœids).

Large or medium-sized butterflies; fore wings somewhat produced at apex; hind wings rounded, never with tails; fore legs greatly atrophied in the males, somewhat less so in the females; hind wings of the males marked with one or more sexual brands which in the American species are located on or near the first median nervule; some of the oriental species are white, many are dark brown or black in color, shot with purple and violet; all of the American species are of some shade of reddish brown or fulvous, with the apex of the fore wings and the outer borders of both fore and hind wings margined widely with darker color, and the veins and nervules also darker, standing out in bold relief upon the lighter ground-color; the apex of the primary and the outer border of the secondary wings are more or less spotted with light color, often with white.

The adult caterpillars are cylindrical in form, adorned with long fleshy filaments, and with their bodies of some light shade of yellow or green banded with darker colors. The American species feeds upon the plants belonging to the family of the Asclepiadaceæ, or Milkweeds.

The chrysalis is smooth, pale in color, often ornamented with metallic spots, usually golden.

This subfamily, which is represented in the tropics of the Old World by many genera and species, is only represented in the United States by one genus, Anosia.

Genus ANOSIA Hübner

Butterfly, large or medium-sized; fore wings triangular, produced; hind wings rounded, the inner margins clasping the abdomen when at rest; apex, outer margins, and veins, dark; male with sex-mark on first median nervule of hind wing. Egg ovate conical, ribbed perpendicularly and horizontally. Larva cylindrical, with long, dark, fleshy filaments before and behind; body usually pale in color, ringed with dark bands. Chrysalis pendant, stout, cylindrical, abdomen rapidly tapering, and ending in long cremaster; pale, with metallic spots.

PL. I

A large genus, many species being found in the tropics of both hemispheres, but only two in the United States. The insects are “protected,” being distasteful to other animals, thus escaping attack.

(1) Anosia plexippus (Linnæus), The Monarch, [Plate I], ♂; [Plate C], Fig. g, egg; Figs. a-c, larva pupating; Fig. d, chrysalis.

Upper side of wings reddish brown, apex, margins, and veins black, under side paler; a double row of whitish spots on outer borders, apex crossed by two bands of light spots. Expanse of wings 3.25 to 4.25 inches. Egg pale green. Caterpillar feeds on milkweeds, and is found in Pennsylvania from June onward. Chrysalis pale green spotted with gold.

PL. II

Breeds continuously. As summer comes the butterflies move north, laying eggs. The insect spreads until it reaches its northern limit in the Dominion of Canada. In fall it returns. Swarms of the retreating butterflies gather on the northern shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario and in southern New Jersey. Recently the Monarch has become domiciled in many parts of the Old World.

(2) Anosia berenice (Cramer), The Queen, [Plate II], ♀.

Smaller than the Monarch; the ground-color of the wings livid brown. The markings, as shown by the Plate, are somewhat different from those of the preceding species. Expanse 2.5 to 3 inches.

This butterfly does not occur in the North, but ranges through New Mexico, Texas, Arizona, and southward.

Subfamily ITHOMIINÆ
(The Ithomiids).

Butterflies of moderate size, though a few species are quite large. Fore wings at least twice as long as wide; hind wings small and rounded, without tails. Abdomen produced beyond the margin of the hind wing. Wings more or less transparent. Antennæ long and very slender, with a slender club at end, naked. Fore legs greatly atrophied, especially in the males. Larvæ and chrysalids resembling those of the Euplœinæ, the chrysalids being short, cylindrical, and marked with metallic spots. The family, with the exception of the Australian genus, Hamadryas, is confined to the New World, in the tropics of which there are swarms of genera and species. Like the Euplœinæ they are “protected.” But two genera are reported from our territory.

Genus CERATINIA Fabricius

Distinguished from other allied genera by the strongly lobed costal margin of the hind wings in the male.

There are fifty species of this genus known from the American tropics, but only one occurs within the limits of the United States, and only in the extreme southwestern portion of our territory.

(1) Ceratinia lycaste (Fabricius), [Plate III], Fig. 2, ♀ (Lycaste Butterfly).

This insect, which may easily be identified by the figure we give, is reported from southern California. The plate shows the variety, named negreta, which has a spot at the end of the cell of the hind wing instead of a black bar, as is the case in specimens from Panama. Expanse 2.1 to 2.25 inches. Wright does not include this species in his list of butterflies of the west coast.

Genus DIRCENNA Doubleday

PL. III

Medium-sized butterflies, with quite transparent wings. Abdomen not as long as in the preceding genus. Hind wing of male strongly bowed forward at middle, the costal vein tending to coalesce with the subcostal. Only one species occurs in our region. There are many species in the American tropics.

(1) Dircenna klugi (Hübner), [Plate III], Fig. 1, ♂ (Klug’s Dircenna).

The wings are pale brown, narrowly margined with darker brown; the fore wings have a pale yellowish diagonal bar at the end of the cell, followed by two bands of similar spots, curving from the costa to the inner margin. Expanse 2.5 to 2.75 inches.

Habitat: Southern California and Mexico according to Reakirt. The citation of California by this authority may refer to Lower California. In recent years no specimens have been taken in Upper California. It may be that with the changes which have taken place in the development of the country the insect has become extinct about Los Angeles and San Diego, where Reakirt collected.

Subfamily HELICONIINÆ
(The Heliconians).

Moderately large butterflies. Fore wings twice as long as wide. Antennæ nearly as long as the body; club tapering, but stouter than in the Ithomiids, clothed with scales above. Fore legs feeble in both sexes. Color black, sometimes shot with blue, and variously marked with white, yellow, orange, or crimson spots. Eggs cylindrical, twice as high as wide, tapering and truncate above, ribbed. Caterpillar, when mature, with six branching spines on each segment. Chrysalis angulated, covered with curious projections, making it look like a shrivelled leaf, dark in color.

These insects, which are strongly “protected,” abound in the forests of tropical America. There are many species, but only one occurs in our region.

Genus HELICONIUS Latreille

PL. IV

(1) Heliconius charithonius (Linnæus). [Plate IV], ♀ (The Zebra).

The figure suffices for identification. The caterpillar feeds upon the foliage of different species of Passion-flower. Common in the hot parts of the Gulf States, thence ranging all over the American tropics. Expanse 2.5 to 3.5 inches.

Subfamily NYMPHALINÆ
(The Nymphs).

The butterflies belonging to this subfamily are usually medium-sized or large, although some are very small. Antennæ usually as long as, or longer than, the abdomen, more or less heavily clothed with scales. Palpi stout, densely clothed with hairs and scales. Thorax stout or very robust. Fore wings relatively broad, except in certain forms which mimic the Heliconiinæ, produced at apex, more or less excavated on outer margin; discoidal cell generally less than half the length of wing, and in most genera closed; costal vein terminating behind the middle of the front margin of the wing; the two inner subcostal nervules given off before, the outer subcostals beyond, the end of the cell. Hind wings rounded, or angulated, with the outer border either rounded, scalloped, or tailed, the inner border always forming a channel for the reception of the abdomen; discoidal cell often open, or closed by an almost imperceptible veinlet. Eggs conoid, barrel-shaped, or globular, variously ornamented. Larva when hatched with minute wart-like eminences, each bearing a hair, the hairs in later stages being replaced in many forms by branching spines. Chrysalis suspended, variously ornamented, often having on the dorsal surface raised eminences, and the head bifurcate.

There are about thirty genera, containing somewhat less than two hundred species, which belong to this subfamily in the United States.

Genus COLÆNIS Doubleday

PL. V

The butterflies of this genus mimic the Heliconians in form; their fore wings are long and narrow. The cell in the hind wing is open. There are a number of species, two of which are found in the hot parts of the Gulf States. The larvæ resemble those of the genera, Dione and Euptoieta, and, like them, feed on the Passifloraceæ.

(1) Colænis julia (Fabricius) (Julia). [Plate V], ♂.

The figure on the plate obviates the necessity for a description. The insect occurs sparingly in Florida and in Texas, especially about Brownsville. It is very common in Mexico, and thence southward. Expanse 3 to 3.5 inches.

(2) Colænis delila (Fabricius), Delila.

Imagine all the dark markings shown in the figure of Colænis julia on [Plate V] effaced, and replaced by the lighter ground-color, only all of the wing a shade paler and yellower, and the fore wings a trifle more pointed at the tip, and you have a mental picture of this species, which has the same range as the one shown. Expanse 2.75 to 3.3 inches.

Genus DIONE Hübner

PL. VI

This genus has the fore wings elongated, but less so than in Colænis. The cell in the hind wing is open. The palpi are much more robust and heavily clothed with hairs than in Colænis, thus resembling those of the genus Argynnis. Like Argynnis the under side of the wings of all species of Dione is spotted with silver.

There are a half dozen species of Dione in the New World, all but one of which occur outside of our limits. They are gloriously beautiful insects.

(1) Dione vanillæ (Linnæus) (The Gulf Fritillary). [Plate VI], ♂.

This lovely insect ranges from southern Virginia southward and westward to southern California, and thence further south, wherever the sun shines and Passion-flowers bloom. The figure on the plate does not show the magnificent markings of the under side of the wings, but catch one, and you will see that you have a beauty in your possession. Expanse 2.75 to 3.25 inches.

Genus EUPTOIETA Doubleday

PL. VII

There are two species of this genus found in the United States. The butterfly has the cell of the fore wing closed by a feeble veinlet and the cell of the hind wing open. The antennæ and palpi resemble those of the genus Argynnis. The under sides of the wings are not spotted with silvery marks.

(1) Euptoieta claudia (Cramer), The Variegated Fritillary. [Plate VII], Fig. 1, ♂; Fig. 2, under side.

The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of Passion-flowers and violets. It is reddish yellow in color, with black spines on the segments, white spots on the back, and dark brown bands running the long way on the sides. The chrysalis is pearly white mottled with black spots and streaks. The insect ranges from southern New England south and west, and is reported from as far north as Alberta. It goes as far as Argentina in the south. Expanse ♂, 1.75 to 2.25 inches; ♀, 2.25 to 2.75 inches.

(2) Euptoieta hegesia (Cramer), The Mexican Fritillary.

Very much like the preceding species, only the wings, especially the hind wings, have very few dark markings, except about the borders, and the insect is smaller. Expanse ♂, 1.6 to 2.25; ♀, 2.25 to 2.5 inches.

Found in Texas, Arizona, and southward.

Genus ARGYNNIS Fabricius

PL. VIII

Butterflies of medium or large size, generally of some shade of reddish fulvous, conspicuously marked on the upper side with dark spots and waved lines, which are less conspicuously repeated on the under side, and in many species in part replaced by silvery spots. In some species the males and the females are dimorphic, that is, very different in appearance from each other. The palpi are strongly developed and clothed heavily with hairs. The antennæ have a short, well-defined, flattened, somewhat spoon-shaped club. The cells of both fore and hind wings are closed. Eggs cone-shaped, flattened, and depressed at the top, rounded at the base, ribbed both ways, mostly near the base. Caterpillars dark in color, spiny, with the spines on the first segment the longest; feeding on violets at night, and hiding during the day. Chrysalis angular, adorned with more or less prominent projections, head bifid.

This large genus has many species. It occurs in both hemispheres. Its metropolis is North America, and we can speak of only a few of the commoner and more conspicuous forms.

(1) Argynnis idalia (Drury), The Regal Fritillary. [Plate VIII], ♂.

The figure given will help the student to recognize this insect. The caterpillar, when fully grown, is about 1.75 inches in length, black, banded and striped with ochreous and orange-red, and ornamented with fleshy spines, of which the two rows on the back are white tipped with black, those on the sides black tinged with orange where they spring from the body. The chrysalis is brown mottled with yellow.

Ranges from Maine to Nebraska, and southward among the Appalachian highlands into West Virginia. Expanse 2.75 to 4 inches.

PL. IX

PL. X

(2) Argynnis diana (Cramer), [Plate IX], ♂; [Plate X], ♀ (Diana).

This lovely insect is dimorphic, the male having the outer borders of the wings orange-fulvous, while the female has the wings bordered with blue spots. Expanse 3.75 to 4.5 inches.

It belongs to the southern Appalachian region, and ranges from West Virginia and the Carolinas to northern Georgia, thence westward to the Ozarks, being found sparingly in southern Ohio and Indiana, and commonly in parts of Kentucky.

PL. XI

(3) Argynnis leto Edwards, [Plate XI], ♀ (Leto).

The male of this species is in some respects not unlike the two following species, but with the wings darker at their bases; the female, on the other hand, is quite different, the dark spots on the inner half of the wings running together and giving this part of the wings a dark brown or black appearance, while the outer borders are pale yellow. Expanse 2.5 to 3.25 inches.

This beautiful form occurs on the western side of the Rocky Mountains, in California and Oregon.

PL. XII

(4) Argynnis cybele (Fabricius), [Plate XII], ♀, under side (The Great Spangled Fritillary).

The male is bright reddish-fulvous on the upper side of the wings, with the characteristic dark markings of the genus; on the under side the wings are heavily silvered. There always is a pale yellowish submarginal band shown on the under side of the hind wings which does not appear in the next species, and by the presence or absence of which they may be discriminated from each other. The caterpillars hibernate as soon as hatched, and pass the winter in this state, feeding up and maturing in the following spring when the violets begin to grow. Expanse 3 to 4 inches.

This species ranges from Maine to Nebraska and southward to Georgia and Arkansas. It is our commonest species in the Middle States.

PL. XIII

(5) Argynnis aphrodite (Fabricius). [Plate XIII], ♀, under side (Aphrodite).

Closely resembling the preceding species, but smaller. The under side of the hind wings has the submarginal band narrower than in A. cybele and often wholly wanting, as shown in the figure. The fore wings on the under side are redder at the base than in A. cybele. Expanse 3 to 3.5 inches.

The range is the same as that of the preceding species.

The two species A. cybele and A. aphrodite usually are found flying at the same time and in the same places, and when on the wing it is often very difficult to distinguish them from each other. In fact they seem to intergrade into each other, and in a long series of specimens such close resemblances often occur that it is puzzling to decide which is which. The deeper red of the fore wing of A. cybele is the best diacritical character. The paler outer margin of the hind wing of A. aphrodite, which is typically shown in [Plate XII], sometimes occurs also in A. cybele, and I have specimens of the latter which very closely approximate the former in this regard. In selecting specimens for illustration I have chosen the two extreme forms in which the pale wing of A. aphrodite is seen to contrast on the under side with the darker wing of A. cybele shown on [Plate XIII].

It may be remarked in passing that the genus Argynnis is very difficult, and the writer has been in the habit of comparing it to the genus Salix, the willows, among flowers. Botanists know how the willows seem to run together, and how hard it is to discriminate the species. The same thing is true of this great genus of butterflies with which we are now dealing. It is particularly true of the species which occur in the region of the Rocky Mountains, of which the writer has probably the largest collection in existence, including all of the types of the late William H. Edwards. The test of breeding has not been fully applied as yet to all of these forms, and it is doubtful whether some of them are more than varieties or local races. There is here a field of inquiry which should tempt some young, ardent, and careful student. The day for more thorough work is at hand, and I hope some reader of these pages may be converted to the task. Entomological study should become more intensive, as well as extensive. The fathers of the science have paved the way and laid foundations; it remains for the rising generation to complete the work which the fathers have begun.

PL. XIV

(6) Argynnis atlantis Edwards. [Plate XIV], ♂ (The Mountain Silverspot).

Smaller than A. aphrodite, with narrower wings, darker at the base on both the upper and lower sides. The submarginal band below is pale yellow, narrow, distinct, and always present. Expanse 2.25 to 2.5 inches.

Ranges from Quebec to Alberta and southward, but is confined to the Appalachian mountain ranges in southern Pennsylvania and West Virginia.

The specimen figured on the Plate is the type of the male contained in the collection of the late William H. Edwards. Although taken long ago, it retains all its original freshness and beauty.

There used to be near Cresson on the summit of the Allegheny Mountains a field surrounded by woodland in which violets grew. When the clover was in bloom myriads of Fritillaries, belonging to the species aphrodite, cybele, and atlantis, congregated there. What captures we made! Many a collection on both sides of the Atlantic contains specimens taken in that field, but no possessor of these specimens can have the happy memories of the days passed in that field by their captor.

PL. XV

(7) Argynnis callippe Boisduval. [Plate XV], ♀, under side (Callippe).

Wings on the upper side obscured with dark brown on which the pale buff spots, margined with black, stand out conspicuously. On the under side the wings are pale buff, with a greenish cast, the spots well silvered. Expanse 2.3 to 3 inches.

Abundant in southern California, according to W. G. Wright, preferring plains, and being confined mainly to the little hot valleys which traverse them. According to the same author the life of the insect as an imago is very brief, “the shortest of any Argynnid that I know of, being only a few days in length.”

PL. XVI

Many of the western species do not have the spots on the under side silvered, but are none the less beautiful for that. One of these species, without silvery spots, the spots being creamy white, without metallic lustre, is the beautiful insect figured on [Plate XVI], A. rhodope, the under side of the female type of which we show. There are nearly a dozen species of Argynnis belonging to the same group with A. rhodope, but the latter is the most beautiful of all of them.

(8) Argynnis rhodope Edwards. [Plate XVI], ♀ under side (Type) (Rhodope).

The wings of the two sexes are quite alike on the under side. On the upper side, which we do not figure, the wings are bright fulvous, dark at the base, marked with heavy, black, confluent spots. Expanse 2.2 to 2.4 inches.

Found in Washington and British Columbia.

Genus BRENTHIS Hübner
(The Little Fritillaries).

Small or medium-sized butterflies, closely resembling those of the genus Argynnis. The chief difference is that in Brenthis only the first subcostal nervule branches off before the end of the cell, while in Argynnis the first and second are thus given off; palpi not so stout as in Argynnis; the basal spur of the median vein of the fore wing, found in Argynnis, is wanting in Brenthis. Eggs subconical, twice as wide as high, truncated, vertically ribbed. Caterpillars like those of Argynnis, but smaller, and often lighter in color, feeding on violets. Chrysalis pendant, about 0.6 inch long; two rows of conical tubercles on back.

Sixteen species are found in North America, all of which but two are subarctic or occur on high mountains.

PL. XVII

(1) Brenthis myrina (Cramer), [Plate XVII], Fig. 1, ♂, upper side; Fig. 2, ♂, under side (The Silver-bordered Fritillary).

Well depicted in the figures we give. Expanse 1.40-1.70 inch. Eggs pale greenish yellow. Caterpillar, when fully grown, about 0.87 inch long, dark olive-brown, marked with lighter green, and covered with spiny, fleshy tubercles. Chrysalis yellowish brown marked with darker brown spots, some having a pearly lustre.

Ranges from Nova Scotia to Alaska and southward as far as the mountains of the Carolinas.

(2) Brenthis montinus Scudder, [Plate XVII], Fig. 3, ♀, under side (The White Mountain Fritillary).

Upper side fulvous, the wings at base darker than in B. myrina, the black markings heavier. Hind wings below much darker than in B. myrina, the silvery spots being quite differently arranged, the most conspicuous being a bar at the end and a round spot at the base of the cell of the hind wing. Expanse, ♂, 1.50 inch; ♀, 1.75 inch.

PL. XVIII

A small species living on the summit of Mt. Washington, New Hampshire, where a little colony has survived the glacial epoch, when the northeastern parts of the United States were covered with glaciers, as Greenland is to-day.

(3) Brenthis bellona (Fabricius), [Plate XVIII], ♂ (The Meadow Fritillary).

The only species of the genus, except B. myrina, found in the densely settled portions of the continent. Easily distinguished from myrina by the absence on the under side of the wings of the silvery spots, which make the Silver-bordered Fritillary so attractive. It is generally found upon the wing in the late summer and the fall of the year. In Pennsylvania it may be found when the asters are in bloom.

Common throughout Canada and the northern United States as far west as the Rocky Mountains and as far south as the Carolinas. Expanse 1.65-1.80 inch.

Genus MELITÆA
(The Checker-spots).

Generally small or medium-sized butterflies. Palpi not swollen; the third joint finely pointed; clothed with long hairs. Antennæ about half as long as the costal margin of fore wing, ending with a short, heavy, spoon-shaped knob. The cell in the fore wing is closed, in the hind wing open. The spots and markings are differently arranged from those in Argynnis and Brenthis; the wings are never silvered on the under side. Eggs subconical, flattened on top, fluted on the sides. Caterpillars gregarious when young, then separating; cylindrical, covered with short spines set with diverging hairs; feeding upon the Scrophulariaceæ, Castileja, and allied plants. Chrysalis rounded at the head, with sharply pointed tubercles on back, white or pale gray, adorned with dark markings and orange spots on back.

There are many species in the north temperate zone. Most of the more than thirty species in North America are confined to the western part of the continent, only two being found east of the Mississippi.

PL. XIX

(1) Melitæa phaëton (Drury), [Plate XIX], ♂ (The Baltimore).

Easily recognized by the figure. One of the larger species, the male having a width of 1.75-2.00, the female of 2.00-2.60 inches. Eggs brownish yellow when laid, changing to crimson, and later to black; deposited in clusters on balmony ( Chelone glabra). Hatching in early fall, the little caterpillars spin a web or tent of silk, where they pass the winter. When spring comes, they scatter, fall to feeding, and after the fifth moult turn into chrysalids, from which the butterflies soon emerge.

Found locally in colonies in swampy places, where balmony grows, from Quebec to west of Lake Superior and south to the Carolina mountains.

(2) Melitæa chalcedon Doubleday and Hewitson, [Plate XX], Fig. 1, ♂ (Chalcedon).

A common species in northern California, ranging eastward as far as Colorado and Wyoming. One of the larger species, expanding 1.75-2.5 inches. The caterpillar feeds on Mimulus and Castileja. The butterfly is variable, the females in particular differing in the size of the light spots on their wings.

PL. XX

(3) Melitæa macglashani Rivers, [Plate XX], Fig. 2, ♀ (Macglashan’s Checker-spot).

One of the largest species in the genus, exceeding in size the two foregoing, having a width of from 1.85-3.00 inches; closely resembling M. chalcedon, but the outer marginal red spots always bigger and the yellow spots paler and larger than in that species. Occurs in Utah, Nevada, and California.

PL. XXI

(4) Melitæa harrisi Scudder, [Plate XXI], Fig. 1, ♀, under side (Harris’ Checker-spot).

Fulvous on upper side; base of wings and outer margins black, black margins widest at apex. Five fulvous spots in cell of fore wing, two below it; two white spots on apex. Under side of wings well shown in the figure we give. Expanse 1.5-1.75 inch. Eggs lemon-yellow, conoid, flattened at top, ribbed. Adult caterpillar reddish, with a black stripe on middle of back, nine rows of black, branching spines on body. On each segment a black band in front of the spines, and two black-bands behind them. Food-plants Aster and Diplopappus. Chrysalis pale gray or white, blotched with dark brown.

Ranges from Nova Scotia to Lake Superior.

(5) Melitæa perse Edwards, [Plate XX], Fig. 3, ♂. Type (The Arizona Checker-spot).

One of the very small species of the genus. The specimen we figure is the type, that is to say, the specimen upon which Edwards founded his description of the species. Expanse ♂, 1.00 inch; ♀, 1.10 inch.

Habitat Arizona and northern Mexico.

(6) Melitæa dymas Edwards, [Plate XX], Fig. 4, ♀. Type (The Least Checker-spot).

Even smaller than the preceding, having an expanse of only 0.85 to 1.00 inch. It is much paler on the upper side than M. perse, and the markings are different.

Ranges from southwestern Texas and Arizona to Mexico.

Genus PHYCIODES Doubleday
(The Crescent-spots).

Usually quite small butterflies, the species found in our region being some shade of fulvous or reddish, above with dark markings, which are less distinctly reproduced on the paler under side of the wings. Of the spots on the under side the most characteristic is the crescent between the ends of the second and third median nervules. This, when present, is pearly white or silvery in color. Structurally these insects differ most markedly from the preceding genus in the enlarged second and the fine very sharp third joint of the palpi. Eggs higher than wide, slightly ribbed on top, pitted below, giving them a thimble-like appearance. Caterpillars cylindrical, with rows of short tubercles, much shorter than the spines in Melitæa, dark in color, marked with paler longitudinal stripes. Chrysalis with head slightly bifid, generally pale in color, blotched with brown.

Numerous species occur in Central and South America, but only about a dozen in the United States and Canada, most of them in the Southwestern States.

(1) Phyciodes nycteis Doubleday and Hewitson, [Plate XXI], Fig. 2, ♂ (Nycteis).

Easily mistaken on the wing for Melitæa harrisi, which it closely resembles on the upper side, and with which it is often found flying, but an examination of the under side at once reveals the difference. The redder fore wings, paler hind wings, and the crescent on the lower outer border of these are marks which cannot be mistaken. Expanse ♂, 1.25-1.65 inch; ♀, 1.65-2.00 inches.

Ranges from Maine to the Carolinas and westward to the Rocky Mountains.

PL. XXII

(2) Phyciodes tharos (Drury), [Plate XXII], Fig. 1, ♂. Variety marcia Edwards, [Plate XXII], Fig. 2, ♂ (The Pearl Crescent).

A very common little butterfly, which everybody must have noticed in late spring or early summer flitting about lawns and gardens, and in fall abounding upon clumps of asters. It may easily be recognized from the figures given. Expanse from 1.25-1.65 inch. The variety marcia comes from larvæ which have hibernated during the winter, and is lighter and brighter in color, especially beneath, than butterflies of the later summer and fall broods.

Eggs laid on asters and related plants; greenish yellow. Matured caterpillar dark brown, dotted on the back with yellow; adorned with short, bristly, black spines, yellow at base. Chrysalis pale gray, blotched with spots of brown.

Ranges from southern Labrador to Florida and westward to the Pacific Coast.

(3) Phyciodes batesi (Reakirt), [Plate XXII], Fig. 3, ♂, upper side; Fig. 4, under side, ♀ (Bates’ Crescent-spot).

Above closely resembling P. tharos, but with the dark markings much heavier; below hind wings quite uniformly pale yellowish fulvous, with a row of very pale marginal crescents; ends of veins tipped with brown. Expanse 1.25-1.65 inch.

Ranges from New England to Virginia and westward to the Mississippi.

PL. XXIII

(4) Phyciodes pratensis (Behr), [Plate XXIII], Fig. 1, ♂ (The Meadow Crescent).

Closely resembling the preceding, but fore wings not as curved on the costal margin, and relatively longer and narrower; the pale markings more whitish, not so red, and more clearly defined. On the under side, especially in the female, the markings are heavier than in P. batesi. Expanse 1.15-1.40 inch.

Ranges from Oregon to southern California, Arizona, and northern Mexico.

(5) Phyciodes camillus Edwards, [Plate XXIII], Fig. 2, ♂, under side (The Camillus Crescent).

Resembling P. pratensis, but the pale spots on fore wings paler, and on hind wings brighter fulvous. Below the dark markings not nearly so pronounced as in P. pratensis. Expanse 1.3-1.6 inch.

Ranges from British Columbia to Colorado and Kansas and south into Texas.

(6) Phyciodes picta Edwards, [Plate XXIII], Fig. 3, ♀, under side (The Painted Crescent).

Below fore wings red on median area, with base, costa, apex, and outer margin pale yellow. The dark spots on this wing stand out prominently. Hind wings nearly uniformly bright yellow. Expanse 0.8-1.25 inch.

Ranges from Nebraska as far as Mexico. The larvæ feed on asters.