Useful Knowledge: Volume 2. Vegetables / Or, a familiar account of the various productions of nature

Frontispiece to Vol. II.

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE:

OR

A FAMILIAR ACCOUNT

OF THE

VARIOUS PRODUCTIONS

OF

Nature,

MINERAL, VEGETABLE, AND ANIMAL,

WHICH ARE CHIEFLY EMPLOYED FOR THE USE OF MAN.

Illustrated with numerous Figures, and intended as a Work
both of Instruction and Reference.

BY THE

Rev. WILLIAM BINGLEY, AM. FLS.

LATE OF PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE, AND AUTHOR OF
ANIMAL BIOGRAPHY.

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. II. VEGETABLES.

FOURTH EDITION.

LONDON: PRINTED FOR BALDWIN, CRADOCK, AND JOY;
HARVEY AND DARTON;
AND C. AND J. RIVINGTON.

1825.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES

OF THE

SECOND VOLUME.

Pl. 2.

Pl. 3.

Pl. 4.

Pl. 5.

Pl. 6.

Pl. 7.

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS.

INTRODUCTION.

1. Vegetables or Plants are natural bodies endowed with organization and life, but destitute of voluntary motion and sense; and Botany is that branch of natural science which treats of their structure and functions, the systematical arrangement and denomination of their several kinds, and their peculiar properties and uses.

2. The principal parts of plants are the root; the herb or plant itself; and the fructification, or flower and fruit.

3. As it is the sole object of this introduction to describe, in a concise manner, the Linnæan arrangement of plants, for the purpose of explaining the classification adopted in the present volume, the parts of fructification only will be mentioned. These are the calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil, seed-vessel, seeds, and receptacle.

4. The CALYX, or flower cup, is the green part which is situated immediately beneath the blossom. In some plants this consists of one, in others of several leaves; and it is frequently tubular, as in the polyanthus, and cowslip.

5. The COROLLA, or blossom, is that coloured part of every flower on which its beauty principally depends. The leaves that compose it are denominated petals. Some flowers, as the convolvolus and campanula, have only a single petal; and others, as the rose and peony, have several petals.

6. In the centre of the flower there are two kinds of organs on which the fructification and re-production of the species more particularly depend. These are the stamens, and the pistil. The STAMENS are slender, thread-like, substances, which surround the pistil. They each consist of a filament or thread, and an anther or summit: the latter contains, when ripe, a fine dust or powder called pollen. This, though, to the naked eye, it appears a fine powder, is so curiously formed, and is so various in different plants, as to be an interesting object for the microscope. Each grain of it is, commonly, a membranous bag, round or angular, rough or smooth, which remains entire till it meets with any moisture; it then bursts and discharges a most subtile vapour.

7. The PISTIL is a prominent part, immediately in the centre of each flower, which adheres to the fruit, and is destined for the reception of the pollen. Some flowers have only one pistil; others have two, three, four, &c. and others more than can be easily counted.

8. At the foot of the pistil is situated the germen. This, when grown to maturity, has the name of pericarp or SEED-VESSEL, and is that part of the fructification which contains the seeds: whether it be a capsule as in the poppy, a nut as the filbert, a drupe as the plum, a berry as the gooseberry, a pome as the apple, a pod as in the pea, or a cone as of the fir-tree.

9. That part of every vegetable, which, at a certain state of maturity, is separated from it, and contains the rudiments of a new plant, is called the SEED.

10. The RECEPTACLE is the base which connects all the parts of fructification together, and on which they are seated. In some plants this is very conspicuous; and in none more so than the artichoke, of which it forms the eatable part, called the bottom.

11. The Linnæan system of classification of plants is founded upon a supposition that the stamens represent the male, and the pistils the female parts of fructification. The whole vegetable creation has been distributed, by Linnæus, into twenty-four classes. These are divided into orders, which are subdivided into genera or tribes; and these genera are further divided into species or individuals.

12. Of the CLASSES the discriminating characters are taken from the number, connexion, length, or situation of the stamens. In each of the first twenty classes there are stamens and pistils in the same flower; in the twenty-first class, the stamens and pistils are in distinct flowers on the same plant; in the twenty-second, in distinct flowers on different plants; in the twenty-third, in the same flower and also in distinct flowers; and in the twenty-fourth class they are not at all discernible. Thus:

Number

CLASSES

One

1.

Monandria.

Two

2.

Diandria.

Three

3.

Triandria.

Four

4.

Tetrandria.

Five

5.

Pentandria.

Number only

Six

6.

Hexandria.

Seven

7.

Heptandria.

Eight

8.

Octandria.

Nine

9.

Enneandria.

Ten

10.

Decandria.

The stamens considered according to their

About twelve

11.

Dodecandria.

and their

Insertion

On the calyx: more than nineteen

12.

Icosandria.

Not on the calyx: more than nineteen

13.

Polyandria.

Proportion unequal

Four: two long and two short

14.

Didynamia.

Six: four long and two short

15.

Tetradynamia.

Connexion by

Filaments united

In one set

16.

Monadelphia.

In two sets

17.

Diadelphia.

In three or more sets

18.

Polyadelphia.

Anthers united

19.

Syngenesia.

Stamens upon the pistil

20.

Gynandria.

Separation of Pistils

On the same plant

21.

Monœcia.

On two plants

22.

Diœcia.

With flowers of both sexes

23.

Polygamia.

Not being discernible

24.

Cryptogamia.

13. The characters of the ORDERS are most commonly taken from the number of the pistils; but sometimes from circumstances relative to the stamens, pistils, or seed. Those of the first thirteen classes are taken from the number of pistils, thus:

The orders of the fourteenth class, Didynamia, are taken from the situation of the seeds; and are

The orders of the fifteenth class, Tetradynamia, are formed from a difference in the shape of the seed-vessel:

In the classes Monadelphia, Diadelphia, Polyadelphia, and Gynandria, the orders are taken from the number of stamens:

In the nineteenth class, Syngenesia, the orders are taken from the structure of the flower:

Polygamia æqualis,—all the florets alike.

Polygamia superflua,—the florets of the centre perfect or united; those of the margin with pistils only, but all producing perfect seeds.

Polygamia frustranea,—the florets of the centre perfect or united; those of the margin, in general, without either stamens or pistils.

Polygamia necessaria,—the florets of the centre with stamens only; those of the margin with pistils only.

The classes Monœcia and Dicœcia take their orders from the number and other peculiarities of the stamens:

In the class Polygamia there are three orders:

Monœcia. Diœcia. Triœcia.

The twenty-fourth class, Cryptogamia, has five orders:

1. Ferns.

2. Mosses.

3. Liverworts.

4. Flags.

5. Mushrooms.

The Linnæan system is professedly artificial. Its sole aim (observes Sir J. E. Smith) is to help any one to learn the name and history of an unknown plant in the most easy and certain manner. This is done by first determining its class and order; after which its genus is to be made out, by comparing the parts of fructification with all the generic characters of that order; and, finally, its species, by examining all the specific definitions of the genus.

CLASS I.—MONANDRIA.

MONOGYNIA.

14. GINGER is the dried root of a somewhat reed-like plant (Amomum zingiber, Pl. 1. Fig. 2.) which grows wild in several parts of Asia; and is much cultivated both in the East and West Indies.

The flowers of the ginger plant issue from stalks distinct from those which support the leaves, and form a kind of ear or spike, of beautiful colours and very fragrant smell.

The cultivation of ginger is nearly similar to that of potatoes. The land is first well cleansed from weeds: it is then dug into trenches similar to those which our gardeners make for celery; and the plants are set in these trenches in March or April. They flower about September; and, in January or February, when the stalks are withered, the roots are in a proper state to be dug up.

These are prepared for use in two ways. When intended for what is called white ginger they are picked, scraped, separately washed, and afterwards dried with great care, by exposure to the sun. For black ginger they are picked, cleansed, immersed in boiling water, and dried. This process is much less laborious and expensive than the last, consequently the price of the article is not so great. By boiling, the ginger loses a portion of its essential oil; and its black colour is owing to this.

The uses of ginger, both in medicine, and as a spice, are numerous and well known. In the West Indies this root is frequently eaten fresh in salads, and with other food: and the roots when dug up young, namely, at the end of three or four months after they have been planted, are preserved in syrup, and exported as a sweet-meat to nearly all parts of the world. The ginger which is brought into this country from the East Indies is much stronger than any we have from Jamaica.

15. CARDAMOMS are the seeds of an East Indian plant[^[1]] (Fig. 4), which has shining reed-like stalks and spear-shaped glossy leaves. They are brought into Europe in their pods, which are small, oblong, triangular, and each divided into three cells.

The roots are thick, fleshy, and knotted. The stalks grow from seven to twelve feet high; and the flowers are of irregular shape, and, in colour, are green, pink, and white.

In those woody parts of India where cardamom plants spontaneously grow, the inhabitants form plantations of them by a very simple process. They clear, from particular spots, the greater number of the trees; and, towards the close of the fourth rainy season afterwards, they look for the first crop of cardamoms (raised from the scattered seeds which have lain dormant in the ground), and they are seldom disappointed.

The cardamom harvest usually commences in October, and lasts till December. Women or children pluck the fruit-stalks from the roots, carry them into the houses, and there spread them upon mats to dry. The pods are then separated from the stalks by stripping them with the fingers: they undergo some further processes of drying; after which they are packed for exportation, in large chests, which are well pitched at the joints and seams, to prevent them from being injured by moisture. It is estimated that about 15,000 pounds weight of these seeds are annually vended at the East India Company's sales.

Cardamoms have a pleasant aromatic smell; and, when chewed, impart to the mouth a warmth and pungency, which, to most persons, are extremely grateful. The Indians use them, in considerable quantity, in their food; and also mix them with betel ([22]), and chew them, under a belief that they tend to facilitate digestion. They are sometimes used with us in medicine, but more frequently for the purpose of concealing the nauseous taste of other medicines.

16. TURMERIC is a thick, fleshy, and solid East Indian root, which is usually seen in pieces from half an inch to two inches and upwards in length; has a yellowish and rugged surface, and is of a shining saffron brown colour within.

The flowers of the turmeric plant (Curcuma longa) are white, and form an ear or spike, which issues immediately from the root. The leaves are spear-shaped, and each eight or nine inches long.

This root, which has an aromatic smell somewhat resembling that of ginger, is much cultivated in the East Indies, where it is in common use as a seasoning for ragouts and other dishes. It constitutes a principal ingredient in curry powder; and, under this form, is used, in great quantities, both in India and Europe. Some years ago it had considerable repute as a medicine for the removal of jaundice, diseases of the liver, and other complaints: but the chief purpose for which it is now esteemed is its imparting a rich yellow dye to silks, linen, or woollen; and for heightening and rendering brighter the red colours dyed with cochineal and vermilion. It is in much request by glovers, for dyeing yellow gloves. Some of the Indian tribes use it in painting their bodies.

17. ARROW ROOT, in the state that we see it, is a kind of starch, manufactured from the root of a plant which is cultivated both in the East and West Indies.

This plant (Maranta arundinacea) is about two feet high, has broad, pointed, and somewhat hairy leaves; small white flowers in clusters, and a nearly globular fruit about the size of a currant.

The arrow-root plant has its name from the Indians using its juice as a remedy for wounds inflicted by poisoned arrows. They likewise consider it efficacious against the stings of those venomous insects with which the countries of nearly all hot climates abound.

The starch or powder of arrow-root is obtained by the following process. The roots, when a year old, are dug up, washed, and beaten to a milky pulp, in deep wooden mortars. This pulp is afterwards well washed in clean water, and the fibrous parts, that are found amongst it, are carefully separated and thrown away. It is next passed through a sieve, or coarse cloth, and suffered to stand for some time to settle. The water that remains is subsequently drawn off, and the white mass at the bottom is again washed. After this the water is entirely cleared away, and the pulp, when dried in the sun, is an extremely pure kind of starch; which requires only to be reduced to powder to attain the state in which we import it.

There is no European vegetable, if we except the salep or orchis root ([219]), which yields so large a proportion of nutritive mucilage as this. Consequently, as an article of diet for children, and persons recovering from illness, it has of late years been found extremely valuable. Care, however, should be taken to obtain it genuine, as the high price for which it is sold is frequently the cause of its being adulterated. It is even said that the article usually sold in London under the name of arrow-root, consists chiefly of starch made from potatoes.

CLASS II.—DIANDRIA.

MONOGYNIA.

18. The OLIVE (Olea Europea) is a low evergreen tree, which, in its general form and appearance, somewhat resembles a willow. It is cultivated in several parts of the continent, and has spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small white flowers, that arise at the junction of the leaves and branches (Fig. 1.)

The fruit of this tree has the name of olives. These are usually about the size of a damson plum, and each contains a hard, rough stone. When first gathered they have an acrid, bitter, and unpleasant taste; and it is not until they have been steeped, for several days, in a ley of wood ashes, and then pickled in salt and water, that they are in the state to be introduced at table after dinner, in desserts. Lucca olives, being smaller than any others, have the weakest taste. The larger ones are imported from Spain, and are the strongest; but those most esteemed are the olives of Provence, which are of middle size. If olives be eaten by persons of delicate habits, especially after a solid or heavy dinner, they are considered injurious, on account of the great quantity of oil they contain.

It is to this fruit that we are indebted for the salad or olive oil, which is so much in use throughout every part of Europe. The preparation of it is as follows:—The olives, when sufficiently ripe, are carefully picked, by hand, off the trees, and those that are bad are taken out and thrown aside. After having been left a little while to wither, they are first bruised, and then more completely crushed, by an upright millstone rolling upon an horizontal plane. The paste thus formed is submitted to the operation of the press. The finest oil flows first: when no more is found to flow, the pulp is moistened with boiling water, and the mass is again pressed. This done, the remaining oil is drawn from the surface of the water, but it contains some impurities from which it cannot, without difficulty, be cleared. What remains of the pulp is squeezed into lumps or balls, and dried for fuel. If the olives be indiscriminately gathered and heaped together, sound and unsound, without selection, the oil is always bad. The wild trees yield a very small kind of fruit, which furnishes, though in less quantity, a peculiarly excellent oil.

The olive tree has ever been considered the symbol of peace; and the ancient poets have asserted that Minerva well merited the honour of giving her name to the city of Athens for having planted it in Attica. As a wood, this tree is in considerable request by cabinet makers, from its being beautifully veined, and taking an excellent polish. In some parts of Spain, ornamental boxes are made of the roots of the olive tree.

Olive oil is employed in various branches of culinary and domestic economy. When united with soda, it is manufactured into soap. It is likewise used in medicine; is adopted as a softening ingredient in almost all kinds of ointments and plasters, and is supposed to be efficacious as a remedy against the poison of the viper. Persons copiously anointed with oil are said to have escaped the infection of the plague and yellow fever.

TRIGYNIA.

19. THE COMMON JASMINE (Jasminum officinale) is a well known shrub, with white, salver-shaped flowers, and opposite, winged leaves, the leaflets somewhat pointed; and is a native of Malabar and other parts of the East.

As an ornamental shrub, jasmine has long been cultivated in Europe. It is chiefly trained against walls and trellis-work, and is interesting, not only from the elegance of its foliage, but also from the number of beautiful white flowers with which it is adorned throughout the summer and autumn. These exhale a sweet and penetrating odour, particularly after rain, and in the night.

The Italians, by a very simple operation, prepare from the flowers of jasmine a grateful perfume. They soak cotton-wool in some kind of scentless vegetable oil, and then place, in glass vessels, alternate layers of this and of the flowers. After having been left in this state some days, the flowers are found to have given the whole of their fragrance to the oil in the cotton: they are then separated, and the oil is pressed out and removed into small glass bottles for use.

20. BLACK PEPPER is the dried berry of a climbing or trailing plant (Piper nigrum, Fig. 3) which grows in the East Indies, and in most of the islands of the Indian Sea.

Its stem has numerous joints, and throws out roots at every joint. The leaves, which are somewhat egg-shaped, and pointed, are of a brownish colour, and have each seven very strong nerves. The flowers are small and white.

In the cultivation of pepper it is customary to mark out the grounds into regular squares of about six feet each, which is the usual distance allowed for the plants. And, as these have not sufficient strength to support themselves in an upright growth, they are generally placed near a thorny kind of shrub, among the branches of which they creep like ivy. When they have run to a considerable height, the twigs, on which the berries hang, bend down, and the fruit appears in long slender clusters, of from twenty to fifty grains, somewhat resembling, but much more compact than, bunches of currants. The berries are green when young, but change to a bright red colour when ripe. As soon as they begin to redden, they are in a fit state to be gathered. When gathered, they are spread upon mats in the sun, where they are suffered to remain till they become dry, black, and shrivelled, as we see them. In this state they have the denomination of black pepper.

White pepper is nothing more than the best and soundest of the berries, gathered when they are fully ripe, and stripped of their external coat or skin. To effect this they are steeped, for about a week, in salt water, by the end of which time the skins burst. They are then dried in the sun, rubbed between the hands, and winnowed. Thus cleared from their skins they are rendered smaller and more smooth than black pepper.

As the acridity of pepper lies principally in the skin, this kind becomes, of course, much less pungent than the other; but it has one recommendation, that it can be made only of the best and soundest grains, taken at their most perfect state of maturity.

Pepper is an article of considerable traffic betwixt this country and the East Indies. That which is imported from Malabar is considered better than any other. The quantity of pepper vended at the East India Company's sales has, in some years, exceeded six millions of pounds' weight, of which seven or eight hundred thousand pounds have been retained for home consumption.

Both black and white pepper are in daily use, not only as a spice, but also in cookery. When coarsely ground, pepper is eaten with peas, cabbages, cucumbers, and other flatulent and cold vegetables; and occasionally also with fish. It is sometimes employed in medicine as a stimulant.

A singular imposition respecting pepper is occasionally practised in retail shops in London: artificial pepper-corns, both black and white, are mixed and sold with real pepper. The detection of this fraudulent mixture, however, is easy. If a handful of the suspected pepper be thrown into water, the artificial corns will fall to powder, or be partially dissolved, while the true pepper-corns will remain whole. The fraudulent grains are said to be made of peas-meal.

21. LONG PEPPER is the fruit of a slender climbing shrub (Piper longum) which grows in the East Indies.

It is of cylindrical shape, about an inch and half in length, and a quarter of an inch in thickness; and is formed by the union of a great number of small rounded grains. The shrub that produces it has dark green and heart-shaped leaves, each with seven strong nerves.

A considerable quantity of long pepper is annually imported in this country from Bengal and other parts of the East, for use, both in domestic economy and in medicine.

The inhabitants of India drink water in which long pepper has been infused, and esteem it a valuable remedy for some disorders of the stomach. They also distil an ardent spirit from it; and they pickle this fruit in vinegar, for use at table.

The fruit that is collected for exportation is gathered before it is quite ripe.

22. BETEL is the leaf of a climbing East Indian plant (Piper betel) which belongs to the same tribe as pepper; and, in shape and appearance, is not much unlike that of ivy, but is more tender, and full of juice.

There is an almost incredible consumption of betel over the whole continent of India. The inhabitants chew it almost incessantly, and in such quantity that their lips become quite red, and their teeth black, a colour greatly preferred by them to the whiteness which Europeans so much affect. They carry it, in little white boxes, about their persons, and present it to each other, by way of compliment and civility, in the same manner as the Europeans do snuff. This is done by women as well as by men: and it would be considered an offence if those to whom it was offered should refuse to accept of, and chew it. The leaves are sometimes used alone, but much more commonly covered with a kind of lime made of sea shells, and wrapped round slices of the areca nut ([245]).

CLASS III.—TRIANDRIA.

MONOGYNIA.

23. SAFFRON is the orange-coloured pistil, or centre part, of a purple species of crocus (Crocus sativus) which flowers in the autumn, and is chiefly distinguished by having the three extremities of the pistil so long as to hang out of the flower (Fig. 6.)

In Cambridgeshire there is a town called Saffron Walden, that has its name from the quantity of saffron which is annually produced in its neighbourhood.

The roots of the saffron crocuses are planted at the distance of about five inches from each other, and two inches deep in the ground. As soon as the flowers appear, they are gathered by hand every morning, just before they open; and, as they continue to open in succession for several weeks, the saffron harvest of course continues so long. When the flowers are gathered, they are spread on a table: the upper part of the pistil only is picked out, and the rest of the flower is thrown away. As soon as a sufficient quantity of the pistils have been collected, they are dried in a kind of portable kiln; over this a hair cloth is stretched, and upon it a few sheets of white paper. The saffron is scattered upon these to the thickness of two or three inches, and is then covered with several sheets of paper, over which is laid a coarse blanket five or six times doubled, or a canvas bag filled with straw. As soon as the fire has heated the kiln, a board, on which a weight is put, is placed upon the blanket to press the saffron into a cake. By the end of the first hour, a strong fire being employed, the cake is formed. This is then turned, and, for another hour, is subjected to an equal degree of heat. It is then turned a second time, and a more gentle heat is employed, till the cake becomes dry, during which time it is turned every half hour.

A field of saffron will continue in perfection for three or four years, yielding progressively, during this period, more numerous and larger flowers, as well as an increase of the bulbous roots; after which the offsets may be advantageously transplanted to other situations.

The saffron which is grown in England is considered superior to any that is imported from other countries. The best saffron may be known by the breadth of the blades. It ought not to be of too deep a red or orange colour, and should be fresh and tough, and have a strong but pleasant aromatic odour. Saffron should not be kept more than twelve months.

Saffron was much used by the ancients as a perfume, but, in this respect, their taste was very different from ours. Not only were the halls, theatres, and courts, through which they wished to diffuse an agreeable smell, strewed with this substance, but it was used by them for a scent, in vinous extracts. From saffron, with the addition of wax, the Greeks, as well as the Romans, prepared scented salves. In our own country it was formerly much used in medicine; having been esteemed an excellent remedy in hysterical and other complaints. When taken in small doses, it tends to exhilarate the spirits; but it ought to be used with great moderation. It is sometimes used by bakers, to colour and flavour different kinds of cakes and biscuits. With water or spirits it gives out a beautiful yellow colour; but this is not useful as a dye, as, on exposure to the air, it soon fades; and no means have hitherto been discovered by which it can be fixed and rendered permanent.

24. ORRIS ROOT is the root of a white flowered kind of iris, called Florentine Iris (Iris Florentina), which is a native of Italy, and is distinguished by having two flowers on each stalk, the petals bearded, and the leaves sword-shaped.

In a dried state this root is well known on account of its grateful odour, which somewhat approaches that of the violet. It is consequently much used in the manufacture of hair-powder, and other articles for which an agreeable scent is required. It is sometimes employed in medicine as a pectoral or expectorant, and sometimes in dropsies. In a recent state the root is extremely acrid; and, when chewed, it excites in the mouth a pungent taste, which continues for several hours; but this acrimony is almost wholly dissipated by drying.

Orris-root is chiefly imported from Leghorn.

25. The YELLOW WATER-FLAG, or COMMON IRIS (Iris pseudacorus) is a very conspicuous plant in most of our marshes. It has sword-shaped leaves, and, about the middle of July, bears large and beautiful yellow flowers.

The roots of this plant possess qualities which render them capable of being applied to many useful purposes. Their astringency is such that it is supposed they might be employed with great advantage in the tanning of leather. In the island of Jura, one of the Hebrides, they are used for dyeing a black colour; and the inhabitants of some parts of Scotland adopt them instead of galls in the making of ink. For this purpose they are cut into thin slices, and boiled, or infused in water, till the liquid is deeply tinged with blue. This is poured clear off, and the blade of a knife, or some other piece of iron, is put into it, and rubbed hard with a rough white pebble, by which process, after a little while, the liquor becomes perfectly black.

A slice of the fresh root, if held between the teeth, will, it is said, almost instantly remove the sensibility, and thus alleviate the pain, of tooth-ache. The leaves of this plant are considered poisonous to all cattle except sheep.

26. The PAPYRUS is a sedge-like plant (Cyperus papyrus), which grows in watery places in Egypt, Syria, Sicily, and Madagascar.

It has a three-sided stem, many feet in height, which is terminated by a bushy head, consisting of a large and compound clustre of flowers.

From this plant the ancients made their paper; and the process of manufacturing it is described by Pliny, the Roman naturalist, to have been very simple. The inner rind of the stem was merely cut into strips, and laid in parallel and transverse rows; and these, on being heavily pressed with weights, adhered together. The substance thus formed, though of rude texture, was capable of being written upon; and there are many manuscripts still extant on paper of this description. The ancients also sometimes employed the sword-shaped leaves of this plant for writing upon. With the former a kind of ink was used; but on the latter the letters were formed by a metallic, pointed instrument, called by the Romans a stylus.

But the papyrus plant was not merely useful for writing upon. The inhabitants of the countries where it is found manufacture it, even to this day, into sail-cloth, mattresses, ropes, and sometimes even into wearing apparel. When the stems are compactly woven together, and plastered, externally, with a kind of resinous substance, so as to prevent the admission of water, they are made into boats. These, though they resemble great baskets in appearance, are of considerable use to the inhabitants. The "ark of bulrushes daubed with slime and pitch," in which the infant Moses was placed, is supposed, by the best commentators, to have been a boat made of this plant.

The floral thyrsus which was used to adorn the temples and statues of the gods, was a representation of the tuft of the papyrus.

DIGYNIA.

27. SUGAR is the concrete or crystallized juice of the sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum, Fig. 5), a plant, much cultivated both in the East and West Indies, which has a jointed stem eight or nine feet high, long and flat leaves of greenish yellow colour, and flowers in bunches.

The cultivation of the sugar-cane is pursued to great extent in the islands of the West Indies, where, about three centuries ago, it was first introduced from China, or some other parts of the East, and where it flourishes with great luxuriance, particularly in moist and rich ground.

The season for planting it commences about the beginning of August. This operation is performed by laying the canes in rows, in trenches formed for the purpose. Roots issue from each joint; and, in the course of nine or ten months, the stems which rise from these respective roots, and constitute the sugar crop, attain their perfect state. The saccharine juice is contained in a spongy pith with which the interior of the plant is filled.

When cut down, the leaves are thrown aside as of no use in the manufacture of sugar, and the stems or canes are divided into pieces, each about a yard in length. These are tied together in bundles, and conveyed to the sugar-mill; where they are bruised betwixt three upright wooden rollers covered with iron. The juice, which flows from them, is conducted, by canals, into a large vessel formed for receiving it. The quantity of juice prepared by some of these mills is upwards of ten thousand gallons in a day.

The next operation is called clarifying. For this purpose the juice is conducted, along a wooden gutter lined with lead, to a place called the boiling house, where it is received into copper pans, or caldrons, each placed over a separate fire. A certain proportion of powdered lime is now added to it, for the purpose of taking up any acid which the juice may happen to contain. The heat is then increased until the liquor is nearly in a boiling state. By this process the greatest part of the impurities that were contained in the juice rise to the surface in a scum. The purified liquor is then carefully drawn off, either by a syphon or a cock, leaving the scum at the bottom of the pan.

From these pans it is conveyed, by another gutter, or channel, to the grand copper, or evaporating boiler, where the scum, which rises to the surface, is skimmed off as the liquor boils. After undergoing a similar process in smaller boilers, with a farther mixture of lime, until it has attained a certain degree of thickness, it is transferred into a large shallow wooden vessel, where, as it cools, it granulates or runs into an imperfect crystallization, by which it is in some degree separated from the molasses or treacle, an impure part of the juice, which is incapable of being crystallized, and which, in large casks, is exported, for various useful purposes, to the different countries of Europe.

From the cooler the sugar is removed to the curing-house. This is a large, airy building, furnished with a capacious cistern, for the reception of the molasses. Over the cistern is an open frame of strong joist-work; upon which are placed several empty hogsheads, each open at the head, and having a few holes at the bottom, closed by stalks of the plantain tree thrust through them. The mass of saccharine matter is now put into these hogsheads; the molasses are separated from the sugar, by draining, into the cistern, through the spongy stalks of the plantain; and the remainder, thus entirely crystallized, has the name of muscovado or raw sugar.

The article denominated clayed sugar undergoes a process somewhat different. For the preparation of this, the sugar, when taken from the coolers, is put into conical vessels of earthen-ware, each having, at its bottom, a hole, about half an inch in diameter, which, at the commencement of the process, is stopped with a plug. This plug, after the sugar has become perfectly cool, is removed, and the molasses drain through the hole. When these have ceased to run, the surface of the sugar, in the vessel, is covered with fine clay, to a certain thickness, and water is poured upon the clay. This, oozing through it, pervades the whole mass of sugar, re-dissolves the molasses still remaining in it, with some parts of the sugar itself, carries these off through the hole at the bottom, and renders the sugar, that is left, much purer than that which is made the other way.

The further refining of sugar, or forming it into the white conical loaves which are so much used in this country, is the business of the European sugar-bakers. This is done by dissolving the raw sugar in water, boiling the solution in lime water; and then clarifying it with bullock's blood, or the white of eggs, and straining it through woollen bags. After due evaporation it is suffered to cool to a certain degree. It is then poured into conical moulds of unglazed earthen-ware, the summits of which are perforated. Here it concretes into a hard white mass, leaving that part of the syrup, which will not crystallize, to run off through the hole in the point of the cone. The broad end of the cone is then covered with moist clay, the water from which penetrates into the sugar, and displaces and carries off the impurities which, otherwise, would be retained in and discolour it. It is then carefully dried, and receives the name of loaf, or lump sugar.

Sugar-candy is formed by boiling down a solution of sugar till it becomes thick; and then removing it into a very hot room, to crystallize upon sticks or strings, placed across small tubs, or other vessels. It is denominated brown or white sugar-candy, according to the quality of the sugar of which it is made.

Barley sugar is sugar boiled in barley water, but now more frequently in common water, till it is brittle. It is then rolled on a stone anointed with oil of sweet almonds, and formed into twisted sticks. To give it a colour, a small quantity of saffron is sometimes mixed with it.

When sugar was first introduced into this country, it was employed only as a medicine; but it has now become an essential article both of luxury and use. It is the basis of syrups; and is used in cooking, and in confections, preserves, sweetmeats, and liqueurs of every description. Sugar is also sometimes employed in medicine.

The juice of the sugar-cane is so palatable, and at the same time so nutritive, that, during the sugar harvest, every creature which partakes freely of it, whether man or animal, appears to derive health and vigour from its use. The meagre and sickly negroes exhibit, at this season, a surprising alteration; they now become fat and healthy. The labouring horses, oxen, and mules, being allowed, almost without restraint, to eat of the refuse plants, and of the scummings from the boiling-house, improve now infinitely more than they do at any other season of the year.

Rum is a spirituous liquor distilled from molasses, scummings of the hot cane juice from the boiling house, or raw cane liquor from canes expressed for that purpose, lees (or, as it is called in Jamaica, dunder), and water. The dunder answers the purpose of yeast for the fermentation.

Sugar-canes, as large and juicy as those of the West Indies, are cultivated in several parts of Spain, but particularly in the country betwixt Malaga and Gibraltar. They were originally introduced, by the Moors, several centuries ago; and the sugar made from them is of excellent quality. There are sugar mills, in more than twelve different places, on the coast of Grenada, all of which are fully employed: in one village there are four, which cost at least 5,000l. sterling each.

28. OATS are the seeds or grain of an annual plant (Avena sativa, Fig. 14), too well known, and too much cultivated throughout every part of Europe, to need any description.

The country from which they were originally imported is not known.

The principal use of oats in this country is for the feeding of horses. In the northern parts of England, and in Scotland, they are applied also to the nutriment of man. When simply freed from their husks they are called groats or grits; and, in this state, are much used in broths, and other kinds of nutriment for sick and infirm persons. More frequently, however, they are ground into oatmeal, which is made into cakes, biscuits, &c. The husks, infused in water, and allowed to remain till the water becomes somewhat acid, are boiled to a jelly called sowins. A grateful and nutritive kind of jelly, which has the name of flummery, is also made of oatmeal, boiled with water, and flavoured with a little orange-flower water, and sugar.

Oats will thrive in almost any soil, but they are chiefly productive on land that has been newly broken up. They are usually sown in February or March, and the harvest commences about August. Several kinds or varieties are cultivated in different parts of England, such as white oats, black oats, brown or red oats, Tartarian or reed oats, Friezeland oats, Poland oats, and some others, but, of these, the first are considered the most valuable.

29. WHEAT is a well known kind of corn (Triticum hybernum, Fig. 13) which is cultivated in most of the civilized countries of the world, and is supposed to have been originally introduced into Europe, from some part of Asia.

No grain is so valuable to the inhabitants of nearly all climates as this; and, by a wonderful ordination of Providence, it is rendered capable of sustaining, without injury, almost the two extremes of heat and cold. Not only does it ripen in Egypt and Barbary, but it ripens equally well in Scotland, Denmark, and Sweden.

It constitutes the chief food of the British nation; and its abundance or scarcity regulates, in a great degree, the welfare and prosperity of the inhabitants. The whole annual consumption of grain, in this island, amounts to nearly 25,000,000 quarters; and in London alone, to more than 1,162,100 quarters. Of this by far the greatest proportion is wheat.

For the cultivation of this important grain the best lands are rich clays and heavy loam; and, although light soils will produce wheat of excellent quality, yet the crops on the other soils are by far the most abundant. The best season for committing the seed to the ground is September, and the earlier in the month the better. Some farmers consider it necessary to steep the seed in brine or other pickle before it is used, to prevent it from being devoured by vermin, and render the corn less liable to disease than it would be without this process. In a good season the wheat harvest commences in August, and is finished in the course of the ensuing month. This species of corn is usually cut with instruments called reaping-hooks, but in some parts it is mown with scythes.

The different kinds or varieties of wheat that are cultivated in this country are too numerous to be particularized.

Wheat is liable to injury, not only from the attack of insects, but from several kinds of disease, the principal of which are blight, mildew, and smut. In the former the fibres and leaves of the plants are contracted and enfeebled, and the grain is ultimately deprived of sufficient nourishment: by mildew the straw and ear are affected: and by smut the grains, instead of containing their proper substance, become filled with a black or dark brown powder.

Wheat flour consists of four distinct principles, gluten, starch, albumen, and a sweet kind of mucilage. And it is a remarkable circumstance, that the gluten, if not similar, has a very near alliance to animal substances.

To enumerate the various ways in which preparations from wheat serve for nutriment would be unnecessary, as they are known to every one.

Starch is a substance frequently prepared from wheat, and is obtained by the following process. The wheat is put into tubs of water, and exposed, for some days, to the heat of the sun, in order to bring on a proper degree of fermentation, the water being changed twice a day. Having now become sufficiently soft, it is poured into large canvass bags, which are worked or beaten, on a board over an empty vessel, to extract the farinaceous particles. Fresh water is put to it, and after being considerably agitated, it is allowed to subside. As the sediment increases, the water is gradually drained off, and, at length, the starch is formed into small pieces, and dried for use.

During the late war, when the intercourse betwixt France and the West Indian islands was entirely cut off, several attempts were made in that country to obtain sugar from starch. The process was a long and intricate one; and the success with which it was attended was not such as to render it either practically or permanently useful.

Bran is the husk of wheat, separated in grinding. Infusions of bran are, not unfrequently, employed both externally and internally in medicine. They are also sometimes used to cleanse the hands instead of soap. And, in times of scarcity, bran has been advantageously employed in the making of household bread.

Wheat straw, when chopped or cut small, forms a wholesome provender for horses and oxen, especially when mixed with green food. It is also used as litter for horses, and is employed as thatch for cottages, houses, and barns. When cut into certain lengths, bleached by means of sulphur, and split, it is plaited, and formed into hats and bonnets.

A nutritive substance called Semolina is formed from wheat flour, granulated by a particular process. A patent was granted in the year 1780 to Mr. Jacob Levy, for a method of making it. Previously to this, semolina had been imported from Poland, under the name of Cracow groats. It constitutes a light and wholesome food for invalids, being considered, in this respect, preferable to sago; it may also be made into excellent puddings.

Macaroni is a preparation from the finest wheat flour, mixed with eggs, or other glutinous substance. It is chiefly imported from Italy, Sicily, and Germany. Its name implies cut paste, and it is eaten in various ways; on the continent with milk, and with us in soups and puddings, or served up in a dish with grated cheese, milk, and other ingredients.

Vermicelli is made by a mixture of flour, cheese, the yolks of eggs, sugar and saffron. This, being reduced to a proper consistency, is formed into long slender pieces or threads, like worms, by being forced, with a piston, through a number of little holes, in the end of a pipe made for the purpose. Vermicelli was first brought from Italy, and it is chiefly used in soups and other culinary preparations.

30. BARLEY is a well known kind of corn (Hordeum distichon, Fig. 15.) which grows wild in the island of Sicily, and some other parts of the south of Europe.

Next to wheat, this is, in Europe, the most valuable of all the species of grain, especially for growth on light and sharp soils. The seed-time for barley usually commences about the end of March or the beginning of April, and sometimes lasts until the first week in June; and, for the produce, four quarters per acre are considered a fair average crop, and eight quarters a very extraordinary one.

Few instances of fecundity in corn are more remarkable than what has been related of two grains of SIX-ROWED BARLEY (Hordeum hexastichon) which were planted in a garden: they produced 113 stalks, nearly all of which yielded ears; and these contained, in the whole, more than 2,500 grains.

The principal use to which barley is applied in this country is for the making of malt, from which beer and ale are brewed. For this purpose it is first steeped in water for three or four days. It is then taken out, and suffered to lie, until it begins to sprout or germinate. As soon as the germination has approached a certain state its further progress is prevented by drying the barley in a kiln, heated with coke, charcoal, or straw. The grain has now become mellow and sweet; and, after having been crushed in a kind of mill contrived for the purpose, its saccharine qualities are easily extracted by the boiling water, in brewing. The liquor that is thus produced has the name of wort; and this, after having undergone the process of fermentation, and having received a bitter flavour by a mixture of hops, becomes ale or beer. Hence has originated the general appellation of malt liquor. What remains of the malt after brewing is called grains. These, in London, are employed for the feeding of horses, cows, and swine.

Besides the use of barley in brewing, there is in some countries, especially in Scotland and Germany, a great consumption of this grain, for broths, soups, and other food. For this purpose it is freed from its husks and formed into round granules, about the size of small shot, and of a pearly whiteness, which thence have the name of pearl-barley. All except the heart or best part of the grain is thus taken away. The barley, in this state, when boiled, forms a nutritive food; and a decoction of it, properly flavoured with acid, is said to be one of the best beverages that can be adopted in acute diseases. The making of pearl barley is a German invention. In Scotland the lower classes make it by means of hand-mills; and many persons are satisfied with merely ridding the grain of its husks by stamping it in mortars.

Barley-meal is occasionally made into bread by the poor; and it is likewise used for the fattening of poultry and swine. From barley-straw a yellowish coloured paper has been manufactured; the making of which was, some years ago, attempted in this country upon a large scale, but without success.

31. RYE (Secale cereale, Fig. 16.) is a kind of grain supposed to have been first introduced into the northern parts of Europe from the island of Crete.

As bread corn, sometimes alone, but more commonly mixed with wheat, rye was formerly in great request, particularly in the northern counties of England. This mixture, which is denominated blend-corn, or maslin, is at present partially used, in certain districts, not only from motives of economy, but also because the rye is supposed to render the bread more moist and palatable than it would otherwise be. In some part of the country, rye is much used by ginger-bread bakers, for the dark colour of its flour is not perceptible, when mixed with treacle. This species of grain is frequently used for the distillation of spirits.

It has been remarked, in some districts of France, that rye, from bad seasons, or from other causes, has proved noxious and even poisonous. The grains of the corn, thus degenerated, are black on the outside and tolerably white within; and, when dry, are harder and closer than good grain. Bread that is made of rye which contains even a great quantity of this bad corn, is not distinguishable by the taste, from other rye bread; and it seldom produces its ill effects till some time after it has been eaten, it is then said to occasion gangrenes in the legs and other parts of the body, and dangerous fevers. The poorer people, however, are those chiefly who are subject to these diseases, as many of them have little other substantial food to subsist upon than bread made of this species of corn.

In several parts of England rye is sown either by itself, or mixed with tares to be cut whilst green, for the feeding of sheep, cows, and horses. Rye straw is used by brick-makers, and collar-manufacturers; and is considered an excellent material for the thatching of cottages and barns.

32. GRASSES.—By grasses we are to understand such plants as have a round, jointed, and hollow stem, surrounded at each joint with a single leaf, long, narrow, and pointed; and the flowers of which are a kind of chaffy husk. According to this definition, wheat, barley, oats, and rye, properly belong to the grasses, although they are known by the peculiar appellation of corn or grain.[^[2]]

To the grasses it is that the face of nature is indebted for a great portion of its cheerful appearance, and its beauty. They constitute the general herbage of every country, covering to an immense extent the whole surface of the ground. They are very various in their kinds, the British species alone being nearly a hundred and twenty in number. To many species of animals their leaves afford an indispensable article of sustenance; and their seed supply food to birds.

33. SWEET-SCENTED VERNAL GRASS (Anthoxanthum odoratum, Fig. 17).[^[3]]—This species is usually considered (though it perhaps ought not exclusively to be so) as that to which the hay fields are indebted for their well-known and delightful fragrance. When partially dried it is very odorous; and, if chewed, in a recent state, its stalks are highly aromatic, tasting not unlike those of fresh lavender. The root has an odour somewhat resembling that of musk. A distilled water, which serves as a vehicle for some perfumes, is occasionally prepared from the leaves and flowers of the vernal grass. The dried flowers are employed in some parts of the Continent for imparting an agreeable flavour to snuff and tobacco.

The vernal grass is not very productive, and by some farmers it is considered not palatable for cattle. Others, however, esteem it an useful addition in their meadows; and, from its being generally found in great abundance on such pastures as sheep are fond of, and afford excellent mutton, it is at least thought to be a good grass for them.

34. COTTON GRASS (Eriophorum angustifolium, Fig. 18).—The seeds of this grass are encompassed with long cottony or wool-like hairs; and so abundant are the plants in many tracts of marshy land, particularly in the northern parts of England, that the ground appears almost as if covered with snow.

Poor people sometimes stuff their pillows with the down of the cotton grass; but there is a prevailing opinion that it is not wholesome to sleep on. This down is probably too brittle to be manufactured by itself into thread, yet, in combination either with wool or cotton, it may be spun into a strong and uniform yarn, from which gloves, stockings, and cloth, in small quantity, have been made. Its brittleness has been much corrected by a simple chemical process. Wicks for candles have sometimes been made of it.

35. BULL-RUSH (Scirpus lacustris, Fig. 19).—Of the stems of this plant the rush bottoms of chairs are made. Being of soft and pliant texture, totally destitute of roughness, the bull-rush is also sometimes used for the stuffing of pack saddles, making of mats, and thatching of cottages.

36. MEADOW FOX-TAIL GRASS (Alopecurus pratensis, Fig. 20) is a very common but valuable kind, which grows freely in moist and fertile pastures and meadows. It possesses, in a superior degree to any other grass, the three great requisites of quantity, quality, and early growth. The best hay which is brought to London is said to be from meadows where this grass abounds; and, in many parts adjacent to the metropolis, it is extremely abundant.

37. TIMOTHY GRASS, or MEADOW CATS-TAIL (Phleum pratense, Fig. 21), is a grass much cultivated in several parts of North America, and particularly in wet, loamy grounds, where, though coarse and hard, it is found extremely productive and useful. Such has been the celebrity of Timothy grass, that a gentleman (William Strickland, Esq.) was requested by the Board of Agriculture to make inquiries concerning it; and, from his remarks, it appears that this grass is the chief support of cattle wherever the meadows of it abound. He saw extraordinary crops of Timothy grass growing, as thickly as it could stand upon the ground, three or four feet high, and, in some instances, as coarse as wheat straw. It is cut before it arrives at maturity; and horses are said to prefer the hay that is made of it to every other kind, and to thrive peculiarly well upon it.

Though a native and very common grass in our own country, it is doubtful whether our climate be sufficiently warm to bring it to the same perfection in which it is found in America. It has, however, been cultivated in England with considerable success; and, when used for green food, for which it is particularly calculated, it may be cut two or three times in one season; but, when intended for hay, it should be cut at least a week before it flowers.

38. FIORIN, or ORCHESTON LONG GRASS (Agrostis stolonifera, Fig. 22), is known as a troublesome weed in moist meadows and pastures, and also in cold and stiff arable land, by name of Black Squitch or Bent-grass. It grows with such luxuriance, lying upon the ground, and taking root at the different joints, that the stems are sometimes several feet in length; and, when cultivated as a crop, it has been known to produce, at two cuttings, betwixt seven and eight tons per acre. This grass was first brought into notice as a grass for hay, by a small tract of meadow ground, in which it was cultivated several years ago, at a village called Orcheston, in Wiltshire. Horses, sheep, and cattle are said to be extremely partial to it, and to prefer the hay which is made from it to any other. To be in perfection, it requires a moist climate, or a wet soil; and it will grow on cold clays, that are unfitted for other grasses.

In Ireland it is called fiorin grass, and, under this appellation, it was first introduced to the public notice in that country, in the year 1810, by the Rev. Dr. Richardson, of Clonfecle, in the county of Antrim.

39. The MEADOW SOFT GRASS, or YORKSHIRE WHITE GRASS (Holcus lanatus, Fig. 25), though it vegetates late in the season, produces an abundant crop, and flourishes well in any moist situation. Both its foliage and flowers are soft and woolly. It is chiefly calculated for the feeding of sheep, and has answered extremely well, when close fed. The hay that is made from it is said to be very injurious to horses, and it is not much relished by cattle.

40. CANARY GRASS (Phalaris Canariensis, Fig. 23).—This grass grows wild in Worcestershire, and some other parts of England. It is, however, often cultivated for the sake of its seeds, which are extensively used as food for small birds.

41. PURPLE MELIC GRASS (Melica cærulea, Fig. 24) is found in great luxuriance on the turf moors, near Glastonbury, in Somersetshire. The people of that neighbourhood make of its stalks a neat kind of besoms, which are used as a cheap and tolerably good substitute for hair brooms. This grass occurs in the most barren, sandy, and boggy situations; but, more especially, about pools upon mountainous heaths.

42. REED MEADOW GRASS (Poa aquatica, Fig. 26) is one of the most useful of the British grasses, particularly if grown in wet meadows, or upon the banks of rivers or brooks. In the fenny lands of Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire it not only affords a rich pasturage for cattle in summer, but forms also the chief part of their winter sustenance. In situations favourable to its growth it sometimes attains the height of five or six feet, When cut for hay, it is first dried, then bound up into sheaves, and formed into ricks, in which it undergoes a slight fermentation that much improves it. Cows and sheep are both partial to this grass. As hay, it is a valuable food for cattle, and particularly for milch cows.

43. SMOOTH-STALKED MEADOW GRASS (Poa pratensis, Fig. 27) is a favourite grass for cattle; and flourishes even on the driest soils, growing wild in meadows, on dry banks, and even on walls. In rich meadows of Somersetshire it forms a considerable part of the herbage; and, in those that have been flooded during the winter, it flourishes with such luxuriance as nearly to exclude every other grass. Notwithstanding this, it possesses the valuable property of resisting excessive drought, and is frequently green in high gravelly pastures, after almost every other grass has been withered. It flowers early, and makes an extremely valuable hay.

44. ANNUAL MEADOW GRASS (Poa annua, Fig. 28).—No grass is more common than this, and none makes a finer turf. It occurs in almost every situation, by the sides of roads, on open and extensive commons; and in many parts of England there are whole meadows of it, without any mixture of other grasses. In those districts of Suffolk which produce the best butter, the annual meadow grass is found in great abundance.

It is a remarkable circumstance respecting this grass, that it does not suffer injury, but that, on the contrary, it is improved by persons frequently walking over it. Mr. Stillingfleet states that, on the hill near Malvern, in Worcestershire, a walk which had been made for the convenience of the water drinkers, was, in less than a year, nearly covered with it, though no plant of it could be found about any part of the hill. This was attributed, in a great measure, to the constant treading upon it, by persons passing to and from the well.

45. CRESTED DOG'S-TAIL GRASS (Cynosurus cristatus, Fig. 29) is extremely common in meadows and pastures, and constitutes a principal part of the turf, on high gravelly or chalky soils, in parks, lawns, and sheep walks: and, from the close and thick turf which it makes, it affords good nourishment to cattle and deer. Parks that are famous for excellent venison contain a great proportion of this grass. In the summer time its seeds afford sustenance to pigeons and small birds.

46. SHEEP'S FESCUE GRASS (Festuca ovina, Fig. 32) has great celebrity as food for horses and cattle, and, in particular, for sheep, which are said to prefer it to all other grasses, and to become fat upon it sooner than upon any other. Though of short growth, its leaves are numerous and succulent. The Tartars are said generally to fix their habitations, during the summer, in places where there is the greatest plenty of this grass, from its yielding an abundant supply of excellent food for their cattle. And it has been remarked that the sepulchral monuments of the ancient Tartars are chiefly observed in situations where Sheep's Fescue Grass abounds; this has been considered a test of the great value which that people set upon it.

47. HARD FESCUE GRASS (Festuca duruscula, Fig. 30) is common in pastures, meadows, and waste grounds. It springs early, affords excellent food for all kinds of cattle; and, in good ground, yields a plentiful crop.

48. FLOTE FESCUE GRASS (Festuca fluitans, Fig. 31).—This plant, which grows almost exclusively in wet ditches, and in ponds, is so favourite a food of horses and swine, that they will sometimes even endanger their lives to obtain it. A farmer, who resided some years ago at Ruscomb, in Berkshire, assured Mr. Stillingfleet that he had known a field of four acres (which was nearly always covered with water) afford sufficient nutriment to maintain five farm horses, in good condition, from April to the end of harvest, without any other food; and that it yielded even more than they could eat. The Cottenham and Chedder cheeses are said, in a great measure, to derive their celebrity from the cows feeding on this grass.

Its seeds are small, and are remarkable for their sweet flavour and nutritious qualities. They are annually collected in Poland, and are exported thence, into Germany, and other parts of the continent, under the name of manna seeds. These are used in soups, gruel, and puddings, even by persons of the first rank and consequence. When ground into flour, they are convertible into bread, which is little inferior to that made of wheat. The bran of these seeds is stated by Linnæus to be useful as a medicine for horses that are troubled with worms. Geese are fond of the seeds, and well know where to find them. It is remarkable that these seeds have hitherto been entirely neglected in England; though without difficulty they might be obtained in sufficient quantity to prove beneficial.

49. The COMMON REED (Arundo phragmites, Fig. 33) grows in ditches, ponds, and by the sides of rivers, attaining the height of six or seven feet, and flowering about the month of July.

Reeds are frequently made into screens or fences for gardens, and they are considered particularly eligible for sheltering tender plants from injury by cold, or blighting winds. They likewise make excellent weavers' combs; and, when nailed across a frame of wood-work, are frequently employed as a foundation for plaster floors. They are sometimes made into chair bottoms; and into thatch for cottages and out-buildings.

From the flowers of the reed the country people of Sweden extract a green dye, which they occasionally use for woollen cloth; and we are informed that, from the dried roots, a flour may be made, which is capable of being converted into a wholesome and nutritive bread.

50. SEA MATWEED (Arundo arenaria, Fig. 34) is an useful and common plant on most of our sandy sea shores. Its cultivation has, at various times, been much encouraged, and even acts of parliament have been passed for its preservation, in consequence of its spreading roots giving stability to the loose, blowing sand, and thus raising a bulwark against the encroachments of the waves. The Dutch are said to have availed themselves of the advantage of these plants in securing and rendering firm several parts of their coasts, which would otherwise have suffered much injury.

At Newborough, a town on the south coast of the island of Anglesea, the inhabitants manufacture this plant into mats and ropes; and the Danes employ the fibrous roots for making whisk brushes.

The common people of Iceland collect the seeds of the sea matweed for making bread.

51. RYE GRASS, or RAY GRASS (Lolium perenne, Fig. 35), has, of late years, been cultivated in some countries, to considerable extent, as fodder for cattle. Its agricultural merits were first discovered in Norfolk, and, thence, the seeds have been distributed through the greater part of the kingdom; those who purchase them little suspecting that the plant was a weed in their own fields. In dry pastures, and by road sides, this kind of grass is extremely common.

When sown in high or sandy lands, either alone or mixed with clover, it yields an earlier crop than most other grasses; and thus affords food at a season when it is sometimes difficult otherwise to be obtained. The ray grass that grows wild is stated to be much superior to that which is obtained by cultivation; and we are informed that, if sown in a rich and fertile soil, it will dwindle in a few years to a poor and insignificant grass.

52. COUCH, or SQUITCH GRASS (Triticum repens, Fig 36), is, in general, considered a troublesome and pernicious weed. The roots strike so deeply into the ground, and extend so widely, that the eradicating of them is frequently attended with difficulty. As the plant lies upon the ground it strikes out fibres from every joint; and so luxuriant is it sometimes seen, that a single joint, when transplanted, has, in the course of twelve months, covered a square yard of land.

The roots of couch grass are collected in large quantities at Naples, and sold in the market as food for horses. They have a sweetish taste, somewhat resembling that of liquorice; and, in times of scarcity, when dried and ground into meal, they have been converted into bread. A decoction of the roots is sometimes used in medicine.

CLASS IV.—TETRANDRIA.

MONOGYNIA.

53. TEASEL (Dipsacus fullonem) is a plant, with a somewhat egg-shaped head of flowers, and hard reflected scales, which is cultivated in several parts of England, to be used in the carding of woollen cloth.

The Fullers Teasel is distinguished from other plants of the same tribe by having its leaves connected at the base, the flower scales hooked, and the general calyx reflected or bent back.

The seeds of this plant are usually sown in strong rich land, about the commencement of spring. The flowers appear in July, and the blossoms begin to decay in the following month. Shortly after this the heads are cut off, and exposed daily to the sun until they are perfectly dried.

In the clothing counties of England the fuller's teasel is an article of considerable importance. The crooked scales accompanying the flowers are so hard and rough that the heads are employed for raising the nap of woollen cloths. For this purpose they are either set into flat boards like cards, or are fixed round the circumference of a large and broad wheel. The former are used with the hand; and the latter is turned round whilst the cloth is held against it.

54. MADDER (Rubia tinctorum) is a rough, trailing plant, that grows wild in several parts of the South of Europe, and is much cultivated in England and Holland on account of its roots, which are used by dyers and calico-printers.

The land best adapted for the cultivation of madder is a soft, sandy loam. When the roots have attained sufficient growth, they are taken up, carefully peeled, and dried in an airy shed. After this they are conveyed to a kiln, where they undergo a kind of management somewhat similar to that adopted in the drying of hops ([260]). The next process is to pulverize them, which is done by pounding or grinding; a secret that was long exclusively possessed by the Dutch.

Madder is extensively used in dyeing, not only on account of its yielding a fine red colour, but also as forming a first tint for several other shades. The madder used for dyeing cottons in the East Indies, is, in some respects, different from that cultivated in Europe. And, in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, and in the island of Cyprus, a kind of madder is grown which affords a peculiarly bright and beautiful colour.

This root is sometimes employed in medicine, in obstructions of the bowels, rickets, and a few other complaints. It tinges water a dull red colour, and spirit of wine a deep bright red. When eaten by animals, it stains even their most solid bones.

Cows are remarkably fond of the madder plant; and when they freely eat of it their milk becomes red, yet the cream which it affords makes a yellow butter,

55. SANDAL WOOD, or YELLOW SAUNDERS, is a yellowish, odoriferous wood, which is imported from the East Indies in logs or short pieces, chiefly as a perfume, or for the manufacture of ornamental articles.

The tree that produces it (Santalum album) grows principally on the coast of Malabar, and in the island of Timor. It has somewhat the appearance of a large myrtle, with stiff branches, and smooth, shining, spear-shaped leaves, each about two inches long. The flowers grow in clusters, small and red, and are succeeded by berries about the size of peas.

When the sandal wood trees are cut down they are stripped of their bark; after which the wood is usually chopped into billets or small pieces, and buried in a dry place for about two months. During this time the ants eat the outer part of it, without penetrating to the heart, which is the sandal. The billets are then taken up, smoothed, and sorted; and the deeper the colour the higher is found the perfume.

In China this elegant wood, when cut into large planks, is sometimes made into coffins for the principal persons; and such coffins are said to resist the effects of air and moisture for many years. The Chinese also reduce the wood to powder, and, with the addition of water, convert it into a paste, which they apply to their bodies, their furniture, and about their houses, as a perfume. The powder of sandal wood is likewise employed as an incense in their idolatrous temples. Hence it is that a considerable trade in this wood exists between the East Indies and China.

Besides the logs, the chips and cuttings of the roots of sandal wood are an article of commerce. From these chips, and from the waste wood, an odoriferous oil is sometimes prepared, which is considered nearly equal in fragrance to oil of roses.

Sandal wood is at present seldom used in medicine; though, from its powerful qualities, it might probably be applied to many medicinal purposes with success. It has a bitterish aromatic taste, accompanied by a degree of pungency which is by no means unpleasant,

TETRAGYNIA.

56. HOLLY (Ilex aquifolium) is a small evergreen tree, with shining, irregular, and spinous leaves, and white flowers which grow in clusters round the branches, and are succeeded by small red berries.

In those parts of the country where hollies are very abundant they afford a cheerfulness to the scenery in winter which is extremely pleasing. It is on this account principally that they are planted in gardens and shrubberies. The barbarous taste of our ancestors was such that they frequently clipped them into the shape of birds, quadrupeds, and other fantastic representations of nature.

As a fence, holly is eminently serviceable. When formed into hedges, it admits of being cropped, and retains its verdure and beauty, without injury, even through the severest winters. Its growth is slow, and its duration longer than that of most other trees. The wood, which is hard and close-grained, is much used in veneering, and is frequently stained black, to imitate ebony. It is likewise advantageously used in making handles for knives, cogs for mill-wheels, and other articles. The leaves in winter afford a grateful food to sheep and deer; and the berries yield a subsistence, during this inclement season, to the feathered tribes. In some places, particularly in the island of Corsica, the inhabitants employ the seeds of holly for making a beverage somewhat similar, but much inferior, to coffee.

The bark of the holly is smooth, and replete with a strong mucilaginous substance, from which the article called bird-lime is made. For this purpose it is boiled ten or twelve hours; and, when the green rind is separated, it is covered up in a moist place, to stand for a fortnight. It is afterwards reduced to a tough paste, and washed in a running stream until no impurities are left. The next part of the process is to suffer it to ferment for four or five days; after which it is mixed, over the fire, with a third part of nut-oil ([241]), or some other oily fluid, and is thus rendered fit for use.

Bird-lime has a remarkably adhesive quality, particularly to feathers and other dry substances. It is, on this account, employed for the smearing of twigs to ensnare birds. In its elasticity and inflammable nature it has much resemblance to Indian rubber; and, if any means could be adopted to harden it, there is little doubt but it might be substituted for that article.

Holly deserves to be much more extensively cultivated than it is. Some years ago a person who purchased a holly wood in Yorkshire, sold the bird-lime prepared from the bark to a Dutch merchant, for nearly the whole sum of his original purchase.

Among the ancient Romans it was customary to send branches of holly, to their friends, with new years' gifts, as emblematical of good wishes. We decorate our houses and churches with it at Christmas, to give, as it has been observed, an air of spring in the depth of winter.

CLASS V.—PENTANDRIA.

MONOGYNIA.

57. ALKANET is a dyeing drug, the bark of a root which produces a rough plant (Anchusa tinctoria), with downy and spear-shaped leaves, and clusters of small purple or reddish flowers, the stamens of which are shorter than the corolla.

Though this plant is sometimes cultivated in England, by far the greater portion of the alkanet which we use is imported either from the Levant, or from the neighbourhood of Montpelier in France.

Alkanet imparts a fine deep red colour to all unctuous substances, and to spirits of wine; but it tinges water with a dull, brownish hue. Its chief use is for the colouring of oils, plasters, lip-salve, and other similar articles. It is likewise employed in compositions for rubbing, and giving colour to mahogany furniture. Wax tinged with alkanet, and applied to the surface of warm marble, stains it flesh colour, and sinks deep into the stone.

58. The COWSLIP is a plant (Primula veris) which grows in most meadows and pastures, and is too well known to require any description.

The flowers of the cowslip, when picked and dried, are sometimes used as a balsamic tea. When boiled, with a certain proportion of water and sugar, and afterwards properly fermented, they may be made into a peculiarly pleasant wine.

The roots have a fine odour; and, when immersed in ale or beer, are said to add considerably to the strength of the liquor. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads; and both the leaves and flowers are an excellent food for silk-worms.

59. BUCK-BEAN, or BOG-BEAN (Menyanthes trifoliata), is a common plant in shallow ponds; and is distinguishable by its leaves growing in threes, and its pink and white flowers being shaggy on their inner surface.

There is no British plant the flowers of which are more beautiful than those of buck-bean; and nothing but the difficulty of propagating it in dry ground could prevent its having a place in every garden. The leaves are intensely bitter, and are occasionally used in the Highlands of Scotland as a tea, to strengthen the stomach. The inhabitants of some parts of Sweden employ them in place of hops, to impart a bitter taste to ale; two ounces of them being considered equal in strength to a pound of hops. By some persons the leaves of buck-bean are smoked instead of tobacco; and different preparations of this plant have been found efficacious as a remedy against agues, and in scorbutic and scrofulous diseases, rheumatisms, and dropsy. There is an opinion that sheep, when compelled to eat of buck-bean, are cured of the rot. In Lapland it is said that the pounded roots, though very unpalatable, are sometimes converted into bread.

60. SCAMMONY is a concrete or dried juice obtained from the roots of a climbing plant of the convolvulus tribe (Convolvulus scammonia, Fig. 7,) which is cultivated in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, and Persia.

This plant is known by having arrow-shaped leaves, notched in a particular manner at the base, and each flower-stalk bearing two or three large and somewhat purplish white flowers.

The roots of the scammony plant are thick, black on the surface, white within, and full of an acrid milky juice, which, in a concrete state, is frequently used in medicine. To obtain it, the earth, at a certain season of the year, is removed from the upper part of the roots whilst they are growing, and the tops are cut obliquely. The juice flows from the wound into a small vessel sunk into the earth, at the lower end of the gash, to receive it. But, as each root furnishes only a very small quantity, the produce of several roots is usually mixed together for the greater convenience of being exposed to the sun and dried. Still, however, the quantity, thus obtained, is sometimes insufficient to supply the demand. In this case an addition is made to it by the pressure of juice from the leaves and stalks.

The best scammony is imported from Aleppo, in light, spongy, friable pieces, of shining blackish grey colour, which have a faint, unpleasant smell, and a bitterish, pungent taste. It is sometimes adulterated with flour, and sometimes even with sand or earth.

In its medical effects, scammony, when administered alone, is an efficacious, though violent purgative. But if triturated or ground down with sugar, almonds, or gum-arabic, its operation becomes sufficiently mild and safe.

61. JALAP is a dark-coloured root, which is usually imported, in transverse slices, from South America.

The plant that produces it (Convolvulus jalapa, Fig. 8) belongs to the convolvulus tribe, and has generally somewhat heart-shaped leaves, and flowers that are reddish on the outside, and dark purple or yellowish within.

The name of jalap is derived from Xalapa, a town in South America, situated betwixt Vera Cruz and Mexico, where the plant, of which it is the root, was originally discovered, and whence it has been imported, in great quantities, into Europe. The jalap plant is now cultivated in the botanical garden at Charlestown, and in several other parts of America. When recent, the root is large, whitish, and full of juice; but, when dried, the best pieces are compact, hard, weighty, and of dark colour, with black circular marks. Both in smell and taste it is very nauseous. It is frequently mixed with slices of bryony root; but these are easily distinguished by their paler colour and porous texture.

The only mode in which this root is of use is as a medicine; and it is administered in substance, in a tincture, and an extract. It has been advantageously employed in several disorders; but, as it is very powerful in its effects, great caution is necessary in the use of it, particularly with children.

62. PERUVIAN BARK is the produce of a tree which grows in South America, and chiefly in Peru, whence its name has been derived.

This tree (Cinchona officinalis), in size and general appearance, somewhat resembles our cherry-tree. Its leaves are in pairs, oval, pointed, nerved, and smooth on the upper side; and the flowers hang in loose clusters, are fringed at the edges, and red in the inside (Fig. 10.)

Formerly this valuable medicine had the name of Jesuit's bark, from its having been first introduced into Europe by some persons of the religious order called Jesuits, that were settled in South America. They had been instructed in the use of it by the inhabitants of Peru, to whom it had long been known; and it continued, for many years, to be a lucrative article of commerce to them. For its officinal name of cinchona it was indebted to the lady of a Spanish Viceroy, the Countess del Cinchon, who, about 170 years ago, derived great benefit from taking it.

The tree from which it is obtained grows spontaneously, and in great abundance, in several of the mountainous forests of Quito and Peru. The proper time for cutting it is from September to November, the only season during which there is any considerable intermission from rain. The Indians, as soon as they have discovered a spot where the trees are in sufficient number, build a few huts for themselves, and one large hut for containing the bark, to preserve it from wet. They then go forth, each furnished with a large knife, and a bag which will hold about fifty pounds' weight of bark. Each tree occupies two men. They first cut or slice down the bark as far from the ground as they can reach. They then tie to the tree several sticks a little distance apart, and each about half a yard in length, to serve as a ladder by which they can ascend to the upper part, always slicing off the bark as far as they can reach, before they fix a new step. In this manner one of the two mounts to the top, whilst the man below collects what his companion cuts. To relieve each other, they ascend the different trees by turns; and they are generally able to fill their bags once in the course of the day. When they return to their huts, they spread out the bark to dry, and they are very careful to preserve it from wet, which would greatly injure it.

There are three sorts of bark in use: the pale, the red, and the yellow. Of these the two last have recently been discovered. The red is now very scarce, and is seldom brought into Europe. The pale bark is imported, from the Spanish Main, in large bundles, closely packed in goat or other skins. The yellow is in much larger pieces, and flatter and thicker than those of the pale bark.

We are informed, by some writers, that the Peruvians first learned the use of this bark from observing certain animals, affected with intermittent fevers, instinctively led to it. Others say that one of the inhabitants of Peru, having an ague, was cured by drinking the water of a pool into which some trees of this kind had accidentally fallen. On its first introduction into Europe, its use was opposed by many eminent physicians; and, for a long time afterwards, it was believed to be a very dangerous remedy. Its character, however, in process of time, became perfectly established, and it is now considered one of the most valuable medicines we possess.

Peruvian bark is used as a remedy in intermittent fevers or agues; and, by some persons, is prescribed in other kinds of fevers, in confluent small-pox, in gangrenous sore throat, and indeed in every species of gangrene. It is given in powder, as an extract, a spirituous tincture, and a decoction; but the most efficacious form is that of powder. In taste it is bitter and astringent, leaving an impression upon the palate which continues for some time afterwards; but its smell is rather agreeable than otherwise.

63. COFFEE is the seed of an evergreen shrub which is cultivated in hot climates, and is chiefly imported from Arabia and the East and West Indies.

This shrub (Coffea Arabica, Fig. 9) is from fifteen to twenty feet in height. The leaves are four or five inches long, and two inches broad, smooth, green, and glossy on the upper surface; and the flowers, which grow in bunches at the base of the leaves, are white and sweet-scented. The berries or fruit are of a somewhat oval shape, about the size of a cherry, and of dark red colour, when ripe. Each of these contains two cells, and each cell has a single seed, which is the coffee as we see it before it undergoes the process of roasting.

Coffee is an article of only late introduction. To the Greeks and Romans it was wholly unknown. Its use appears to have originated in Ethiopia; and, in 1554, it is stated to have been first introduced into Constantinople, whence it was gradually adopted in the western parts of Europe. In 1652 Mr. Daniel Edwards, a Turkey merchant, brought with him to England a Greek servant, whose name was Pasqua, and who understood the methods of roasting coffee, and making it into a beverage. This man was the first who publicly sold coffee in this country; and he kept a house for that purpose in George Yard, Lombard Street. At Paris, coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival of the Turkish ambassador, Solomon Aga, in 1669; about three years after which the first coffee-house is said to have been established in that city. The coffee shrub was originally planted in Jamaica in 1732.

Great attention is paid to the culture of coffee in Arabia. The trees are raised from seed sown in nurseries, and afterwards planted out, in moist and shady situations, on sloping grounds, or at the foot of mountains. Care is taken to conduct little rills of water to the roots of the trees, which at certain seasons require to be constantly surrounded with moisture. As soon as the fruit is nearly ripe, the water is turned off, lest the fruit should be rendered too succulent. In places much exposed to the south, the trees are planted in rows, and are shaded from the otherwise too intense heat of the sun, by a branching kind of poplar tree. When the fruit has attained its maturity, cloths are placed under the trees, and, upon these, the labourers shake it down. They afterwards spread the berries on mats, and expose them to the sun to dry. The husk is then broken off by large and heavy rollers of wood or iron. When the coffee has been thus cleared of its husk, it is again dried in the sun, and lastly winnowed with a large fan, for the purpose of clearing it from the pieces of husks with which it is intermingled. A pound of coffee is generally more than the produce of one tree; but a tree in great vigour will produce three or four pounds.

The best coffee is imported from Mocha, a town on the eastern bank of the Red Sea. This, which in Europe is called Mocha and Turkey coffee, bears a higher price than any which our colonists are able to raise; owing, as it is supposed, to the difference of climate and soil in which it is grown. It is packed in large bales, each containing a number of smaller bales; and, when good, it appears fresh, and of a greenish olive colour. The coffee next in esteem to this is grown in Java and the East Indies, and that of lowest price in the West Indies. When stowed in ships with rum, pepper, or other articles, it is said that coffee contracts a rank and unpleasant flavour, and this has been assigned as a reason of the inferiority of such as is imported from our own plantations.

The quantity of coffee annually supplied by Arabia is supposed to be upwards of fourteen millions of pounds. Before the commencement of the French Revolution the island of St. Domingo alone exported more than seventy millions of pounds per annum.

Almost all the Mahometans drink coffee at least twice a day, very hot, and without sugar. The excellence of coffee depends, in a great measure, on the skill and attention that are exercised in the roasting of it. If it be too little roasted, it is devoid of flavour; and if too much, it becomes acrid, and has a disagreeable burnt taste. In England the operation of roasting is usually performed in a cylindrical tin box, perforated with numerous holes, and fixed upon a spit which runs lengthwise through the centre, and is turned by a jack.

In a medical view, coffee is said to be of use in assisting digestion, promoting the natural secretions, and preventing or removing a disposition to drowsiness. It has been found highly beneficial in relieving some cases of severe head-ach.

The outer pulpy part of the berry, and the inner membrane, which immediately invests the seeds, are used by the Arabians, and of these the former is much esteemed, and constitutes what is called coffee à la sultane.

64. STRAMONIUM, or THORN-APPLE (Datura stramonium), is an annual plant, with thick round stalks, somewhat triangular leaves, jagged or toothed at the edges, large white and funnel-shaped flowers, and seed vessels large and beset with spines.

Although originally a native of America, stramonium is now a frequent weed on dunghills, and in cultivated ground of our own country; and, when once introduced into a garden, it is difficult to be eradicated. Its smell is exceedingly unpleasant, and its qualities are so pernicious, when taken internally, as to occasion giddiness, torpor, and sometimes even death. The seeds are particularly injurious. Notwithstanding this, the inspissated or dried juice of the leaves has been considered a valuable remedy in epileptic and other convulsive disorders. An ointment prepared from them affords relief in external inflammations; and smoking the dried leaves has lately been recommended in asthmatic complaints.