A LIVING FROM THE LAND

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(Frontispiece)
Country homes backed by intensive types of agriculture serve modern human needs.

A LIVING
FROM THE LAND

BY

WILLIAM B. DURYEE, M.Sc.

Secretary of Agriculture,
State of New Jersey

WHITTLESEY HOUSE
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.
NEW YORK AND LONDON
1934

Copyright, 1934, by the Mcgraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be
reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers.

THIRD PRINTING

PUBLISHED BY WHITTLESEY HOUSE
A division of the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Printed in the United States of America by The Maple Press Co., York, Pa.

To my friend
Henry W. Jeffers

PREFACE

Homesteading days are here again. The present movement of people back to the land is of a different type and has different objectives from those which prevailed when a continent was to be conquered and exploited. Today we know that many urban industries will operate on a seasonal basis and we know too that periods of unemployment and shorter working days will provide more leisure and probably lower incomes for hundreds of thousands of families. The utilization of this leisure time to supplement incomes, to raise the standards of living and of health, and to attain some measure of economic security will tend more and more to settlement on the land.

In these days of rapid transportation and all the attributes and conveniences of modern country life, the hardships of the earlier period of land development are non-existent. Although urban industrial development has reached a point which will not be exceeded for many years to come, the individual who needs additional income may adjust himself to such circumstances by establishing a country homestead. Industrial activity is tending to decentralize, largely as the result of widespread power distribution, and a home in the country accessible to some form of manufacturing or business employment offers undeniable attractions.

This book is prepared primarily for the family that is inexperienced in country living and in soil culture. Such a family should know about the nature of the soil on which it lives, how to make it serve the family’s needs and purposes, what to do, and what to avoid in order that success may be attained and failure averted. Students of agriculture as a vocation and practical farmers may find, beyond the elementary facts presented, information of value and help to them. To know and to understand the science and practice of agriculture is to have power to cope with and to enjoy soil culture and animal husbandry. If this little volume helps to answer clearly and definitely the many inquiries that are in the minds of prospective and active homesteaders, it will have served its purpose.

The knowledge of many practical people and the resources of agricultural institutions and agencies have been drawn upon for this book. Grateful acknowledgment is made to those who have contributed constructive criticism and have helped in the preparation of material. Especial credit is due to the personnel of the New Jersey and New York colleges of agriculture and to my associates in the New Jersey Department of Agriculture.

William B. Duryee.

Trenton, N. J.,
December, 1933.

CONTENTS

A LIVING FROM THE LAND

Chapter I

TURNING FROM THE CITY TO THE COUNTRY

America was founded on the rock base of agriculture. The early settlers tilled the soil and derived from it the simple things that they needed. Necessity compelled them to be self-reliant, courageous and resourceful. The establishment of a home in early days meant the clearing of land, the erection of a house for human habitation and the building of shelters for a few farm animals. Each farm home became practically self-sufficient so far as the family needs were concerned. Clothing was made there for each member of the family. After clearing and subduing the land, the settlers were able to produce their cereal foods. Animals were slaughtered and the meat processed to provide sustenance throughout the year. Through the exchange of commodities and ideas with neighbors, advances in living conditions were made.

The family that was not resourceful in those days failed to survive. Neighbors were too busy working out their own existence problems to succor the incompetent. Resourcefulness was called upon in meeting onslaughts of beasts or human marauders. Thus there was built up a tradition of seeking and utilizing resources that has gone on to make our country great and the wonder of the rest of the world.

Since pioneer days we have built a great industrial, commercial and financial machine. American inventive genius, coupled with the best brains of the civilized world, attracted by resources and opportunities on every hand, has invaded every field and created a great industrial superstructure.

With the genesis and development of a great industrial era in the United States there started a movement of population from farms to established centers of population. The application of the sciences to the problems of filling human wants gave this movement greater impetus. Mining and the refining of metal ores, the exploiting of coal deposits, the building of railroads, the construction of buildings for business and residential purposes, as well as dozens of other great enterprises, served to draw from the country the best of its human resources.

Inventive genius began to concentrate on the solution of engineering and construction problems created by congestion of population and successive steps in industrialization. This same technical genius was applied also to farm operations which required laborious effort by men and work animals. That this development itself progressed rapidly is demonstrated by the fact that while in 1810 the effort of nearly every person was required to produce enough food to sustain the population, in 1910 the efforts of one-third of the people were sufficient to provide food for the nation and export vast quantities to other countries.

While the nation continued to grow rapidly in population and sought to apply to ordinary practices the newer labor-saving devices, all was well. It was inevitable, however, that the great industrial machine should become over-developed, at least temporarily. Instead of machinery being a servant of mankind it became an octopus that could not be checked. Individual initiative, the wellspring of earlier developments in the process, became atrophied. There came about such a high degree of specialization in human effort as to make men dependent upon others for work to do. Consequently, even a slight throwing out of gear of the machine created unemployment, which reduced buying power for the machine-made products and started a vicious downward spiral accompanied by every form of economic distress.

When such partial or complete breakdown of the superstructure occurs, thoughtful people are brought “down to earth,” both collectively and very intimately in thousands of individual cases. They begin to get back to fundamentals and to seek means of becoming so reestablished as to avoid future cataclysms. The family attracted to the city by the lure of high industrial wages and by crowded avenues finds in such a breakdown that it has lost its moorings.

In seeking means of reestablishment free of the terrifying complications of industrial life, the mind turns to the country, to the soil, to growing things that are not visibly affected by economic cycles. The open country seems ready to welcome back her errant children graciously and to enfold them within her protecting bosom. We cannot go back, however, to pioneer days. Free land is not available and we have not the arts or the patience to practice the means of livelihood of those days. To make the new or renewed relationship with the soil a success, it is necessary to understand that country life, too, has changed during industrial revolutions. Mother Earth is now, as ever, a generous but exacting parent. To try to reestablish relationships in a blind and haphazard manner is likely to lead to further disaster. Such a debacle is quite needless, provided some fundamental principles and practices are understood and followed.

Unquestionably, the open country is now making the greatest appeal as a place of residence that it has made at any time in the history of the nation. To list the conveniences which now exist in the country is to duplicate those which many people have considered as available only in cities. In most areas of the country, for example, there are daily mail delivery, telephone service, some measure of fire protection, and transportation by automobile, bus or train. It is quite possible, for example, to step into a bus at one’s dooryard and be carried to any part of the United States by the same method of transportation.

The development of the radio has brought to the country home all the surging activities of national life and varied educational and entertainment programs. The spread of electric light and power lines through the country constitutes a boon that makes possible the use of all kinds of electrical appliances known in the city, including refrigerators, cooking ranges, washing machines, water pumps, water heaters and hundreds of other machines and appliances, some of which are in their infancy. No great difficulty is experienced in locating in the open country where such electrical facilities are available.

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(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture)
An attractive farmstead offering requisites of a home in the open country.

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(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture)
Floor plan of house shown on opposite page.

On the main highways in the northern sections of the country a heavy fall of snow used to mean isolation for weeks. Today the snow is removed as rapidly as it falls, and these highways are kept open. The problems and perils of isolation are thus removed.

Tradesmen of all kinds are directing their sales toward country homes, and supplies of ice and all kinds of food can be obtained almost daily at the farm doorstep. There is also a tendency to develop factories in the country away from the high-rent areas of cities and to utilize the services of persons living in the vicinity of the factory for full or partial time in the plants. The cost of living can be reduced by living in the country, and opportunities for purchasing foods and other products at wholesale prices and storing them against the time of need make further economies possible.

The greatest asset that the country has to offer relates to the health and character of those who live close to nature. It has long been recognized by many European countries that the ownership of even a small tract of land, no larger than a city lot, perhaps, is a definite asset in building a nation and in building individual character. In Germany, in Denmark and in many other nations, the government lends its aid toward the establishment of people in the country and makes it possible for them to acquire and retain small holdings of land which they may call “home.” It is on these small tracts that one sees veritable bowers of pastoral industry and beauty.

Residence in the open country, in contact with the soil, contributes to physical strength and to mental health. When a man lives in the country, his house, his way of living and his contribution to the community stand out where all may see them. These latter assets have always been inherent in country life. When to these are added the conveniences and the opportunities for community enjoyment that are now a part of rural life, its appeal is not difficult to understand.

Anyone who intends to live in the country has his individual problems to meet and to solve. In the solution of these problems there are many resources and avenues to which he may turn in the present day for help and for guidance. The tragic mistakes that have been made in the past can and should be largely eliminated in the future. A clearer understanding should be gained as to what one may obtain in the country in the form of a better way of living, serving as an anchor to the windward even under favorable economic conditions.

Chapter II

GETTING ESTABLISHED IN THE COUNTRY

In the selection of a residence in the country, the settler must decide whether he wishes to locate on a farm of considerable acreage or whether he wants to have a relatively small tract ranging from 2 to 15 acres. In the latter case, he is thinking primarily of a place of residence with sufficient acreage to make it possible to secure a partial living from the land immediately surrounding the home. The trend in such purchases is toward the smaller place for a number of reasons.

A large farm acquired by a relatively inexperienced person means a very considerable burden in the development and maintenance of the land itself on a producing basis. Capital is required for the purchase of equipment and power. Parts of the land may need to be drained, and taxes must be paid whether the land is productive or not. A person acquiring a farm of 50 or more acres will find that the major portion of his time, thought and capital will be called upon to make it a success. If he has definitely cut off his city connections and the idea of having a job there, and has had experience in farming, then he may be in a position to take over a large acreage so that his full time and possibly that of other members of his family can be spent on various projects on the land he acquires.

We are here primarily concerned, not with those who desire to enter upon farming on a large scale, but with the family which would like to live in the country, secure a partial living from the land surrounding the home and still have the opportunity of gaining a livelihood from some industrial or commercial activity located in a near-by city or town. It is quite likely that we shall have a shorter working week and probably periods of unemployment for hundreds of thousands of ambitious people. Therefore, a place in the country that is well located with respect to hard-surfaced highways and accessible to urban centers offers opportunities for combining the advantages and economic assets of country life with urban employment.

Getting Started Right.—Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon getting the right start, particularly with respect to location. This is not only essential for the satisfaction of the present occupant of the premises, but also gives definite sales value in case circumstances make a change of location desirable or necessary.

It will often appear that the best location is on the outskirts of a city or town and from some angles this is good reasoning. There are some factors, however, that make such a location undesirable. For one thing, the tax rate is likely to be higher in such areas than in the open country, thus adding to overhead without compensating advantages. In the second place, urban centers develop without regard to soil type and this is an essential factor to the family that expects to engage in some agricultural pursuit. Again, the type of inhabitants that live on the fringe of towns and cities may not make good neighbors or associates for children, especially. None of these disadvantages may be present in locations close to centers of population, but the prospective settler should give all these factors full consideration. The sales argument frequently advanced that such locations will grow in value due to growth of population may be fallacious.

Many have found that the higher costs of living in these areas often prevent the owner from holding on until the slow growth of population outward makes a worth-while profit possible from his real estate. Furthermore, the growth of cities and towns is definitely slowing down. The expansion of city areas is greatly curtailed and is not likely to be resumed soon.

The most important time to get expert opinion as to location is at the beginning and not after purchasing. There are available in every locality persons whose advice is useful in such matters. The county agricultural agent located in nearly every county seat knows the countryside and his advice on the subject of definite location should be sought once one has decided upon the general area which seems attractive. In determining on specific location the bank which has a clientele in the country will often be found a helpful guide through suggestions or through ability to refer the questioner to reputable and informed persons with more definite knowledge.

Another source of information is the local dealer in farm supplies. He will be found to know general soil types in the vicinity, especially those types which bring business to him because they are productive. Owners of such land are able to buy and use to advantage the supplies he has to offer to the grower.

Size of Tract.—There is the possibility that a person who goes back to the land may acquire too little land as well as too much. Inadequate land resources may seriously hinder possibilities of revenue from the place and cramp facilities for his enterprises. In this connection it may be helpful to point out that an acre of land comprises 43,560 square feet. A city lot measuring 50 by 100 feet contains 5,000 square feet. An acre therefore would comprise about eight and one-half such city lots. A 5-acre tract is usually a minimum area for a small agricultural enterprise and many have found it entirely adequate.

The size of the tract to be acquired and the enterprises that can be engaged in will depend in considerable measure upon the size of the occupant’s family—whether they can assist in its operation and whether the owner himself intends to put in all or only a part of his time. The possibility of securing extra labor should also be looked into before larger operations are attempted. No definite formula can be set down for desirable area and enterprises in relation to time available for operating. However, the owner will realize that one pair of hands can do only so much work. To try to operate beyond the capacity of his own time and that of others available is to become involved in striving to keep up with exigencies that may make country life a struggle instead of a pleasurable existence. It may result, too, in losses due to inability to get things done on time, and nature deals harshly with those who neglect the seasonable operations that come in any agricultural enterprise. “Bulling through” or skimping or cutting corners simply will not work when one is dealing with plant and animal life and only failure will come to him who undertakes to bluff nature.

The successful operator of a farming endeavor must always be on top of his work, that is, able to plan and direct his energies in the most productive way at the right time. This is really managing and is likely to lead to success and satisfaction. To have so much to do that one emergency after another must be met brings the operator down under his farming projects. He ceases to manage under these conditions and becomes driven by his own creations. To avoid this unhappy state, which is entirely unnecessary, planning must be effectively done and operations undertaken in a gradual way up to one’s capacity.

Cost of Land.—The price one should pay for land in a relatively small tract cannot be arbitrarily fixed. Those who own large farms or tracts expect to receive a bonus for the acres located along a highway as compared with an average price for the entire place. It should be possible to buy a 5- or 10-acre tract of land in the open country with highway frontage for from $150 to $250 an acre, depending on location. If the land is located near town or city where speculative operations have enhanced values, the cost will be considerably more. Where an entire farm is desired, the buildings are frequently given no value, the cost being the price of the land only. As has been stated, it is quite possible to acquire too much land as well as too little. A few acres selected from a tract of good, productive soil will usually be found a better investment than a large farm that has been abandoned because of lack of fertility.

Accessibility to Cities.—In deciding upon the location of a farm, methods of transportation that are available are as important as nearness to cities. A location near a railroad station offers the possibility of low commutation rates to a point of industrial or commercial employment. A location abutting upon an improved highway means that transportation by bus or by personally owned automobile can be utilized at the least expense and trouble the year round. The recent development of bus lines covering almost every main artery of travel offers facilities for quick and economical transportation unknown to country residents even a few years ago. Furthermore, the selection of a place of residence accessible to transportation to and from it is a factor to be borne in mind in connection with the possible resale of the property, should that at any time be desirable or necessary.

The Soil.—The type of soil is a highly important factor in determining upon location; also important is its crop-producing capacity. For all general purposes, a soil which is loamy in texture is desirable. Types to be avoided are the extremes of clay and sand. A heavy clay soil, particularly where the land is in a depression, not only inhibits plant growth of all kinds but is often undesirable as a place of residence from the standpoint of healthfulness. A condition of extreme muddiness in wet weather creates an unpleasant reaction on those forced to live near it. On the other hand, areas which are so sandy in character as to furnish no fertility for the growth of plants will be found undesirable in making the surroundings of the home attractive and in growing the vegetables and fruits which should constitute a part of the living.

One method of judging the soil consists of examining the vegetation that is already growing upon it and determining on that basis whether it is likely to be favorable for the growth of desirable plants. For this reason, the selection of a site during the growing season is recommended, rather than during a dormant season when it is difficult to form an estimate of the vegetation that the soil will support.

Availability of Electricity.—While it is possible to secure individual electrical generating plants, it is far preferable to establish a home where electric lines may be tapped. The obtaining of electrical energy from a commercial line is desirable because of its greater dependability, generally lower cost and the fact that unlimited use of electricity may be obtained without the overloading that frequently occurs where individual plants are set up. Probably the availability of public utility lines is the greatest asset of comfortable country life and one of the most important factors in creating genuine resale value. These lines bring to the country dweller most of the advantages that are enjoyed by city residents. This is true not only because of the advantages of electric lights, but also because electricity makes possible the use of such modern appurtenances to the home as electric refrigerators, washers, radios, water pumps and various devices and machines for use in connection with poultry keeping and vegetable growing.

Type of Buildings.—Especial attention should be given to the adaptability to the buyer’s needs of the residence and the other buildings that may already be in existence. If the plot being considered is on a main highway, it is highly desirable to have the residence located back from the highway a hundred feet or more as a means of eliminating noise and promoting safety especially if children are in the family. The location of a home directly on one of the main arteries of traffic destroys many of the advantages of country life, owing to the distracting noises that accompany intensive truck and passenger traffic.

The age of buildings and their previous care have a direct relation to their value, particularly if they are of frame construction. If the buildings have been standing for a number of years, full allowance must be made for depreciation and repairs incident to weathering and long usage. The actual investment represented in a building erected under war or post-war conditions may not be in line with present values. In measuring the value of the principal buildings that are already on a tract, careful consideration should be given to the cost of replacement. Consideration should be given also to the outbuildings that may be on such a place. Instead of being an asset to the property, they may be a distinct liability if they are not directly useful to the intending purchaser. From the standpoint of economy of maintenance and generally good appearance, it is much better to have one building serve a number of purposes than to have a number on different parts of the property, adding to the cost of maintenance and multiplying steps.

Educational Facilities.—Where there are children in the family, the location of schools and the facilities which they offer should be investigated by the prospective buyer. It is desirable to locate as near to schools as possible. In recent years there has been a strong tendency throughout the country to do away with local schools and to consolidate educational facilities in one building. Coupled with this trend is the free transportation of pupils to consolidated schools. Therefore, it is highly important to locate either near a school which will be kept in operation or where transportation facilities are available to and from the home and the school. It should be said that the trend toward consolidation of schools has carried with it great benefits to children who live in the open country by affording them educational facilities that are not exceeded by most city schools.

Community Advantages.—The community, in addition to educational facilities that are available, should include those opportunities that appeal especially to the family. The accessibility of the church of one’s preference should not be overlooked, and the general type of community life is highly important too. Some communities are known for the law-abiding proclivities of their residents while others do not have a savory reputation from the standpoint of the peace and security of their more respectable inhabitants. One should establish a residence in the community with the thought that he is to become a factor in the life of that community. He should be sure that there is a genuine spirit of healthy and cooperative activity which constantly tends to upbuild the neighborhood, by keeping out or suppressing undesirable elements and by developing a concerted feeling of responsibility for the welfare of all who live within its boundaries.

A resident of a city moving to the country frequently finds a difference in his neighbors’ viewpoint that surprises him. There is, and must be, in the rural community a closer relationship between the people in that community than ever exists in an apartment dwelling in the city. In the country, one’s neighbors are apt to show a surprising amount of friendly interest in one’s doings, since the whole trend of the community is based upon the actions and attitude of the relatively few people who live within it. It should be repeated, therefore, that the type of community and the facilities which the people of that community have developed should be given careful attention by the prospective resident and he should determine for himself whether the particular community that he has in mind is in accord with his ideas and ideals. To be out of step with the community in which one lives is apt to create dissatisfactions and a critical attitude on both sides that is not conducive to happiness.

A home in the country has more of the attributes of genuine ownership than has a home anywhere else. The country home must be established with an idea of permanence and of becoming really rooted in the soil where one locates, if the true benefits of rural home ownership are to be secured.

Do’s

Decide either on large farm or on house and small acreage.

Determine accessibility at all times of the year.

Purchase soil of loam texture, mixture of sand and clay.

Determine whether electricity is available.

Locate back from highway.

If present buildings are to be used, be sure of their condition and need of repair.

Find out type and accessibility of schools and other community buildings.

Prepare to be of the community as well as in it.

Remember there are advantages of small tract over large farm where available time is an important element.

Use local sources of information as to desirability of tract before purchasing.

Work out a plan of management that fits into the time available for the farm duties.

Don’ts

Don’t overlook intrinsic values of the location, such as soil, low tax rate and good neighbors.

Avoid excessive capital outlay.

Avoid extra heavy or extra sandy soils or evidently unproductive ones.

Don’t overlook advantages of electric light and power.

Don’t buy a place just because it has buildings. They may not be adapted to your needs.

Don’t buy too much land. It can be a burden.

Don’t let the farm become your master.

Don’t pay too much for land. There is plenty of it.

Chapter III

FINANCING AND PROTECTING THE INVESTMENT

Acquiring land for residence and for subsistence calls for the exercise of good business judgment. Not only must the site and general location be acceptable to the family, but the investment involved should be within the capacity of the owner to finance without undue strain on his resources. It should be recognized that there will be ordinary living expenses to be met in the country and perhaps some extraordinary demands resulting from emergencies. Consequently, adequate thought and preparation must be made for financing the investment and making sure, as far as that is possible, that the investment in a country home will not be lost through inability to meet possible contingencies.

It goes without saying that the capital investment should be kept as low as possible. Wherever feasible, the cash available should take care of the full investment without the necessity for additional financing. This reduces the drain upon resources through obviating the necessity of meeting interest payments on mortgages and makes possible the use of any surplus funds for improvement, for education and for giving the family the advantages which country life offers. If it is necessary to borrow funds for financing the purchase, special attention should be given to the type of mortgage which is obtained.

Mortgage Financing.—One of the most desirable types of financing is through a financially sound building and loan association whereby the interest and the amortization of the mortgage are taken care of through monthly payments. Such building and loan mortgages are available in most localities throughout the country. A series of monthly payments can be made which will take care of the interest payments and the mortgage itself so that within a period of from ten to twelve years, in most cases, the mortgage is amortized and the owner has the advantages of a home that is free of encumbrance. For example, if the mortgage amounts to $3,000, subscription to fifteen shares of a building and loan association at $1 a share per month would make it possible to clear off the mortgage in about eleven years. This would call for the payment to the association of $15 per month and interest. Through the compounding of interest, the mortgage can be lifted at less expense than any other procedure.

Another satisfactory plan is to place the mortgage with a bank or financing company or insurance company that will not call the mortgage so long as the payments are met, and at the same time start saving through a building and loan association so as to complete the payments over a series of years.

There is a far greater sense of security in having no mortgage or in setting up a definite and practical procedure for eliminating it than in always having a mortgage encumbrance with its interest payments and the possibility of having it called at an inopportune moment. A home that is free from mortgage can be carried at small cost, especially where the owner is willing to make most of the repairs and attend to the upkeep himself. The demand for outlay of cash for mortgage interest may be financially embarrassing, especially where income is not guaranteed or may be jeopardized through a drastic reduction at critical periods or as the result of emergency expenses in the family, such as are entailed by serious illness.

Taxes.—One of the factors that is frequently overlooked in the purchase of a residence in the country is the cost of meeting taxes. Since taxes must be met if the property is to be held, it is highly important that the location be one in which tax rates are not excessive. On the other hand, an exceedingly low tax rate may indicate lack of progressiveness in the community and lack of facilities which from many angles would lessen the value of the tract as a place of residence. In most localities, the tax rate is based principally upon the costs of building and maintaining highways and schools. Good facilities in both of these respects are highly desirable, and yet excessive expenditures in either direction may so advance the tax rate as to make them expensive luxuries.

In many rural communities, taxing districts are burdened with the costs of building monumental schools or a very elaborate system of roads, undertaken at some time through the flotation of bond issues. The establishment of a sinking fund for payment of interest and amortization of these bonds frequently constitutes a very heavy drain upon the residents of the district. It is, therefore, necessary to determine not only the tax rate in the locality under consideration, but also to know definitely what are the current charges for maintenance of government. Taxing methods vary so widely, even in adjoining districts, that the only method of determining the annual charges for taxes is to secure from the present owner or from the local tax assessor the definite payments that must be made.

As a means of saving trouble later, an investigation should be made of the property under consideration to make sure that taxes have been paid to the date of purchase. This is distinctly the obligation of the owner. Unpaid taxes constitute a lien on the property, and an investigation of the status of the tax payments is essential in protecting the proposed investment.

The Title and Survey.—A great deal of possible trouble can be eliminated by making sure that the title is clear. An investigation should be made along this line by an attorney or agency equipped to secure information from appropriate county offices. Very often the owner has had a recent search made and is willing to pass this on to the purchaser, thus saving expense and delay in tracing back the records over a long period of years. Such study will show whether there are encumbrances or liens of any kind on the property, and these, of course, must be cleared up before any transaction is entered into.

The potential buyer should also have a survey made by a competent engineer to definitely fix the boundaries of the property. Stakes can then be placed, indicating the corners and any irregularities in the outline of the area under consideration, showing the new owner exactly where his property extends. In many sections of the country the buyer is in a position to demand of the owner that such a survey be made at the owner’s expense. This survey is particularly important where an area of considerable size has been cut up into parcels for sale to individuals.

The steps that have been outlined to protect the investment are only those which a prudent purchaser will insist upon before transfer of ownership takes place. Frequently a buyer becomes so enamored with a property that he hopes nothing will interfere with his acquisition of it, and he is apt to mentally minimize the possibilities of a cloud on the title or the exactness of the property lines. So many people have suffered serious losses from failure to look thoroughly before leaping that emphasis is given to these points as a means of securing ample protection for the buyer.

An Income from the Investment.—It is presumed that in most cases the owner of even a small tract expects to secure some financial returns from the land as a means of adding to his income. The plan that is proposed as a means of securing an income from the land should not be too complicated and should be of a type that can be carried on when the owner is necessarily engaged in other work. This, of course, may run the gamut from a small home garden to supply the vegetable needs of the household to the operation of a larger tract on a commercial basis. Furthermore, as we get into the commercial type of production, that may be planned as a means of materially supplementing an income or eventually supplying the entire family income.

Especial attention has been given in recent years to the use of poultry as a means of supplying an income to the family which is willing to use its own resources for taking care of the flock. Another means of securing an income is the growing of vegetables and the sale of these vegetables at a stand erected near the house for the convenience of the traveling public. Many who engage in vegetable growing or egg production on a relatively small scale will find an outlet for their products through associates in some other line of work, who will be glad to buy from their country friends on the basis of quality and freshness that may not be obtainable through their community stores.

It should be pointed out that where the area under cultivation is small, the production must be intensive. In other words, it would be uneconomic for the owner of a small tract to try to supplement his income through the growth of staple crops. He must specialize in some particular phase of agriculture, horticulture or animal industry that will bring the largest possible net returns per acre even though that implies a considerably larger labor cost per unit of operation than would be the case in the growing of the staple crops, such as the cereals. The successful production of vegetable crops or poultry products, for example, and their successful merchandizing, rest primarily on the interest and the adaptability of the individual.

Avoiding Causes of Failure.—To know what procedures to avoid is to be fortified against failure and to be prepared to take advantage of those constructive measures which are conducive to success. A recent survey has been made in an eastern state on the causes of failure in farming, frequently followed by necessitous abandonment of the farm and home. This survey shows that one of the principal causes of failure is the effort to manage a farm that is too large for the operator’s capacity; his inexperience and lack of knowledge constitute too great a handicap on a large acreage. Best results can be secured in farming only by seeding, cultivating and harvesting at the proper time in each case. To a greater extent than is usually realized, success depends upon good management, which means doing the things that need to be done at the right time.

If the farm is large there is a necessity for employing hired labor, and the costs of this labor, especially under inexperienced management, are likely to be out of line with the value of the products raised. In many instances the lack of technical experience can be corrected by dependence upon governmental agencies, such as experiment stations, county agricultural agents and departments of agriculture. These services are available to every farmer, in most cases without cost, and all that he needs is the will to avail himself of such expert help. In the cases of farms that have been abandoned, we find that the operators did not make contacts with dependable sources of information, an indication of the necessity of cooperating with the agricultural agencies or with experienced and successful neighboring farmers.

Still another cause of failure lies in the purchase of a farm at a price which requires the assumption of a mortgage which is too high in relation to the income from the farm. In short, an attempt to operate on an overcapitalized basis will, sooner or later, lead to disaster. Failure to locate on a productive type of soil may easily lead to loss of the investment. If the local conditions, including good roads, school advantages and a healthy community spirit, are lacking, there will develop a feeling of discouragement and mental dissatisfaction which destroys morale and creates the desire to get out from under at any cost.

The Stocked Farm.—The question is frequently raised as to whether a farm should be bought already stocked with work and domestic animals and with farm equipment or whether it should be stocked by the operator himself. This will depend, of course, upon the type of equipment which may be available in the individual case. Sometimes fairly good equipment will be sold with the farm as a means of facilitating a sale, but the value of each item should be determined by someone experienced in prices of such livestock or commodities as may be sold with the farm.

In many cases the buyer has loaded himself with animals or equipment that are ill adapted to the farm or that are of no particular value, and in struggling to get along with them he may seriously handicap the efficiency of his labors. In most cases it will be found a better practice to add stock and equipment as the need becomes definite and the finances of the operator make it possible for him to add them to the farm. In this way he will be fairly sure of acquiring only those items which will be of direct use and benefit to him and will avoid an accumulation of worn-out or antiquated articles which will not meet the requirements he must observe in selecting tools for his work.

Avoiding Fire Loss.—Possibility of loss by fire is an ever-present reality to the owner of a country place. There are two methods of preventing loss, and the observance of both will contribute to the peace of mind of the owner.

In the first place, he should make sure that adequate insurance is carried on his buildings and equipment so that in case of loss through fire there will be sufficient indemnity to permit the rebuilding of the destroyed or damaged structures. Lightning heads the list of the causes of farm fires and is frequently not reckoned with by urban residents who have seen little evidence of its destructiveness. In cities, points of electrical concentration are avoided by diffusion through piping, metal poles and a number of other conductors of electricity. The owner of a country home can secure quite complete protection from damage through lightning by the use of electrical conductors, usually called lightning rods, properly installed. Such equipment does away with 90 per cent of the risk caused by lightning.

In installing a system of lightning rods, it is well to observe a few simple precautions. The most exposed parts of a building should be provided with rods and the rod points should extend 3 to 4 feet above the structure. Conductors from the rod point should go in the most direct line possible to the ground and sharp bends in the conductors should be avoided. One of the most essential precautions is to thoroughly ground the conductors. Water pipes on the buildings furnish excellent grounding. The grounds for the conductors must be deep enough in the soil to reach permanent moisture. Lightning rods that are not properly constructed or properly grounded may be a worse menace than if no such protection is attempted. Specific methods of protecting farm buildings from lightning damage can be secured from state agricultural agencies or from reliable commercial firms which make a practice of erecting them.

Another cause of fires lies in unsound chimney construction. By using care and the proper materials in the building of chimneys, fire may be avoided. Chimney bricks should be laid flat rather than on edge, thereby practically eliminating the development of chimney cracks through which sparks can escape into floor spaces, attics and roofs.

Fire risks to residences and other buildings can be reduced by building the roof of fireproof or fire-resistant materials. Wooden shingles, while attractive and inexpensive, may become so dry at certain seasons of the year as to furnish tinder for sparks that may rise from a brush fire or from burning buildings in the vicinity. The use of slate or asbestos shingles is recommended for roofs and there are other materials now on the market which have fire-resistant qualities and can be safely utilized. Flying sparks carried along on high winds constitute little menace to those who have equipped their roofs with non-inflammable materials.

It is important to see that electrical wiring has been properly installed, and for this purpose it is safest to secure expert help. If the menace of fire is properly evaluated by the owner, he will naturally take suitable precautions to cope with it, both through utilizing adequate preventive measures and through having available equipment to make possible the smothering of accidental fires which may develop. The application of these available common-sense methods of fire prevention will practically eliminate the fire risk. An ounce of such prevention effort is to be stressed rather than placing dependence on means of fire suppression after the combustion occurs.

Do’s

Keep capital investment as low as possible.

If part of capital must be borrowed, select type of mortgage that can be paid off most conveniently.

Determine tax rate before buying.

Make sure that title is clear and the property lines definitely fixed.

If some income is expected, check on possibilities of location with that in mind.

Plan to secure income from intensive crop and animal projects, e.g., vegetables and poultry.

Use governmental aids to the fullest extent.

Carry adequate insurance on buildings, equipment and furniture as protection against fire loss.

Install protection against lightning.

Be sure electrical wiring is properly installed.

Don’ts

Don’t become heavily involved with fixed financial obligations at outset.

Avoid localities with heavy bonded indebtedness, resulting in excessive taxes.

Don’t expect to get an income from growing staple crops such as grains.

Don’t become dependent on hired labor if it can be avoided.

Avoid unproductive soil and top-heavy investment of capital.

Don’t buy a stocked farm unless the stock is adapted to needs and properly valued.

Don’t neglect to take every precaution against fire.

Don’t forget chimney flues are potential risks.

Avoid roofs of inflammable materials.

Chapter IV

ATTRIBUTES OF A HOUSE IN THE COUNTRY

The problem of selecting a home is always a serious one. Success in choosing a satisfactory location and home in the country calls for careful study and good judgment throughout the procedure. In urban centers many services are taken for granted, such as water supply, sewerage, public utility connections and delivery systems. The establishment of a home in the country calls for the consideration of all these services. Some may not be available and preparations must be made to do without them or to set up such procedures as will take care of the family’s needs on the basis of the individual home.

The Rural Home.—To give the elements of satisfactory living under modest circumstances, the country home should be so located and serviced as to give the maximum of comfort and convenience for the money invested. The location, type of construction and interior arrangement of the home are important factors in attaining these objectives.

Unless the location selected already has buildings on it which meet the needs of the purchaser and his family, there will be the immediate problem of building the home or remodeling the structure already in existence. In recent years a great deal of attention has been given to rural homes, stimulated no doubt by the very evident trend of population from the city to the country. These homes should have attributes distinctly their own and should harmonize with the purpose and the location in mind. A house with lines that look well in town or city may be only a blot on the landscape when set in the open country. Many excellent recommendations have been made for country houses by the United States Department of Agriculture, the President’s Conference on Home Building and Home Ownership (December, 1931) and by architects who have given this problem the specific attention it deserves.

In general, we may say that the exterior of the house should have simple lines and should not be ostentatious or covered with inappropriate decorative effects. This is especially the case where the house is comparatively small and is located in the open country where there is a simple and pleasing natural background. The country house should be low and broad, rather than tall and narrow. The windows and doors should be of a size and shape that will meet utilitarian requirements and be so situated as to give a pleasing and attractive appearance to the whole structure. The materials used should be selected to meet the needs of economy in the original construction and should be of long-lasting type, assuring economy in maintenance.

Essential Requirements.—In planning the house there are certain minimum requirements which should be kept in mind. For example, the sleeping facilities should include at least one bedroom for every two persons and should contain not less than 100 square feet per room. All sleeping rooms should be provided with cross ventilation, that is, with a window on each of two sides, and sufficient closet or wardrobe space should be provided, equipped with shelves and hangers for taking care of clothing. Ordinary lighting facilities for each room include at least one window, with the kitchen, living room and sleeping areas preferably having two. Windows should be so placed as to permit direct sunlight to enter at least three-fourths of the rooms. There should be daylight and artificial lights on all work surfaces such as the stove, the sink, work tables and in the family reading center.

Especial attention given in advance to the kitchen will be more than repaid by the convenience and efficiencies secured. There should be ample built-in kitchen equipment for small and large utensils, kitchen tools and linens. Ample lighting devices should be employed and step-saving arrangements provided so as to eliminate as much effort as possible in carrying out the daily duties that are conducted in this important part of the country home.

Where the funds available for construction or remodeling are limited, it is important to know what the cost will be before the job is started. This procedure calls for a plan which will show the exterior appearance, the interior arrangement, and the cost of the completed job. Plans can be secured from many sources in addition to those already mentioned. Persons with architectural experience and ability may often be employed directly to plan the house and to supervise its construction. If the prospective builder wishes to select his own plans and to know in advance the complete cost, he can secure from processors of lumber a catalog of plans which are accompanied by costs of every item needed. Such processors cut the material to fit at the factory and identify each piece so that the mechanically minded man can do much of the work himself with help he may employ. These companies will also quote prices on the cost of erection by their own employees in addition to the cost of materials. The outlay needed for lighting, plumbing and heating facilities can also be obtained from the same source.

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(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture)
A modest country home.

[Larger Image]

(Courtesy U. S. Department of Agriculture)
Floor plans of house shown on opposite page.

Another method of procedure is to draw a plan of the house that contains the rooms considered necessary, submit such plans to a lumber merchant and get quotations on costs of various types of material necessary to construct it. Such construction will usually require the services of a skilled carpenter and mason but permits of more latitude in most cases than is available under a set building arrangement.

Types of Country Houses.—Illustrations of small houses suitable for the country are shown on pages 8 and 44. The floor plans of these houses are shown on the facing pages. There are many other types of small houses adapted to use in the country and the selection of any one is largely a matter of individual preference and ability to finance.

Because of the variation in prices of material in different locations, the kind and quality of material that the owner may desire and also the amount of labor that may be furnished by the owner, it is difficult to give in definite terms the cost of various types of buildings. Estimates of costs of materials and construction may easily be obtained from contractors in the vicinity.

Simply with the idea of giving approximate costs, the Conference on Home Building gives the following cost bases for building frame dwellings, obtained roughly by multiplying the volume by the cost per cubic foot. Naturally the cost will vary in different sections of the country, and the level of artistry that is set up by the builder himself will be a factor.

APPROXIMATE COSTS PER CUBIC FOOT FOR FRAME DWELLINGS

* The cheapest type of shelter (shack) may be built for perhaps half this cost.

Pre-fabricated Houses.—The field of house construction has been occupied almost exclusively by the individual architect or builder who has wrought according to the general ideas of the intending occupant or the real estate developer. When the plans are completed and approved, the contractor assembles the necessary materials from local sources, builds and equips the house and turns it over to the buyer in completed condition. Under such a procedure there is little application of mass production measures which have reduced costs and raised quality standards in many industries, notably in automobile construction, for example.

Thousands of houses built to sell in the recent construction era of the 1920’s have proved unsatisfactory and costly to the occupants as the result of shoddy building methods. Such methods seem to be typically American as distinguished from the far more solid and permanent Old World procedure. It now seems likely that the problem of economical and substantial housing will be met in the method that is also American—namely, by the pre-fabricated house to which various natural resources of the country contribute. The parts of such houses are made under mass production methods and easily assembled on the owner’s lot. The same idea can be applied with ease to apartment house construction in any location. The first step in this direction has already been mentioned in the case of mail-order companies which cut the lumber to fit and supply every needed accessory to the last detail.

The next step, and the one that bids fair to inaugurate an entirely new house-building procedure, is now in the making, although as yet it is in the experimental and testing stage. Examples of such construction made their first public appearance at the Century of Progress Exposition at Chicago in 1933.

Materials that enter into the construction of these new-type houses include steel, asbestos, aluminum and cement. As a rule, the buildings have a steel frame erected on cement foundations and without a cellar; the walls and partitions are of asbestos composition and the roof constructed of steel sheets with aluminum insulation. Such a building is fireproof and proof also against vermin, lightning, wind and earthquake. The house is also adapted to and equipped with heating, lighting, plumbing and air conditioning facilities. The whole building is pre-planned and pre-fabricated as a unit with its component parts constructed under economical and interchangeable mass production methods.

Modifications of the construction above mentioned include the use of sound-proofed steel panels or insulation board for partitions and walls with an exterior of painted steel. Many other modifications are being developed to insure individuality, stability, insulation and economy in first cost and maintenance. The lines of most of these houses are severe and modernistic in design, although decorative and unique effects are easily obtainable.

The costs of the complete house unit range from $600 for a one-room type to $3,500 to $6,000 for a complete home of modest size. The principal fabricators of these houses and their addresses are: General Houses, Inc., Chicago, Illinois; American Houses, Inc., New York City; American Rolling Mill Company, Cleveland, Ohio; American Radiator and Standard Sanitary Company, New York City; Columbian Steel Tank Company, Kansas City, Missouri, and National Steel Homes, Inc., Los Angeles, California. Information on types and costs can be obtained by addressing these companies.

Rural Home Life.—To have a successful experience in country life, one must become identified with one’s surroundings and become a part of the community. Those who seek to establish a country residence simply as a place from which to commute to city attractions will not only miss the greatest asset in country living but will probably find this existence unsatisfactory. To become interested in the growing plants and animals at home, to do with one’s own hands the things that make the home more attractive and to develop a contact with the community that helps to increase its normal activities mean the attainment of pleasure and satisfaction so far beyond that obtainable in congested urban quarters that there is no comparison. In many cases this direct affinity with one’s surroundings will come gradually and not always easily. It can be cultivated and should be a part of the plan of every family expecting to reside in the country.

Trees as Assets.—One of the greatest assets that can be secured in the country is well-developed shade. If the house under consideration is already built and has around it trees that serve as a softening and beautifying factor, as well as for shade purposes, the value is decidedly enhanced. If the home is to be newly built and a site is available where trees are already well grown, the house can often be placed in the midst of such trees, thereby gaining a number of years in the benefits that trees give and for which there is no substitute.

Few persons can resist the charm of trees. That they also have a definite economic value is shown by the added desirability we all attach to an attractively landscaped home where trees of various kinds and sizes furnish the motif. In acquiring a place in the country the newcomer will at once wish to plant trees, shrubs and ornamentals to beautify his holdings. If this is carefully planned at the beginning, succeeding years and a little care will add to the attractiveness and intrinsic value of the home. The saying, “a house is not a home until it is planted,” has a great deal of truth behind it. Most nurserymen will be glad to render assistance in properly planning and setting the ornamental landscaping of the home, helping the owner avoid mistakes and costly movings and replacements later.

Commercial Horticulture.—In addition to the plantings around his home, the owner of a few acres can at slight expense start small trees for later ornamental use or for sale at a roadside stand, for example. Such small trees and ornamental plants can often be purchased at wholesale prices from nursery companies which have “laying out” stock, as it is called, for sale. The standard large-growing evergreens and deciduous shade trees can be thus transplanted to one’s own acres, as can the popular dwarf types of evergreens and flowering shrubs. These may be planted in one area where they can be cared for as a growing crop, or they may be planted in groups for beautifying the premises while they are growing. Again, single plants may be set by themselves and given special attention, later becoming “specimens” which are much in demand by admirers of the species.

An appreciation of tree habits can be thus developed by all the members of the family, and considerable income may be obtained in later years, as the trees become “of age,” through their sale. We are entering upon an era of making homes attractive as places in which to live and not as houses to go away from. All forms of plant life that contribute to this end will be admired and sought after in the years to come.

Do’s

Give special consideration to location, type of construction and interior arrangement.

If building a home, select a type that fits surroundings.

Strive for simplicity of lines and full utilization of every cubic foot of space.

Remember pre-fabricated houses are practical and likely to supplant some other types of construction.

In buying a pre-fabricated house, be sure plans and construction fit needs of family and materials used are adapted to the climatic conditions.

Give special attention to convenience and cheerfulness of kitchen.

Develop a plan of planting ornamental plants and trees to be carried out in due course.

Don’ts

Don’t try to build a city house in the country.

Don’t neglect windows in number or size.

Don’t overlook costs of completed job before commencing building or improvements.

Don’t neglect the asset value of trees.

Chapter V

SERVICING THE HOME

Many types of services are available to the country home owner, including rural mail delivery, the telephone and electricity. Rural mail delivery in particular is so common that, on practically every highway, mail service is secured by the placing of a mail box along the highway at the entrance to the residence. Telephone service is available along practically all the main-traveled highways and on a majority of the other types of roads. Where the lines are not already installed, extensions may be obtained to new locations, and this is facilitated when more than one residence is to be served by the same line. The majority of families accustomed to city conveniences will want to have electricity available so as to use electric lights and the labor-saving devices that are operated by electric power. With the expansion that has taken place in the development of rural electric lines in recent years, there is not a great deal of difficulty in getting a location which will give the housewife the advantages that electricity offers.

Telephone service and electrical facilities may fall into the class of luxuries for those with limited resources. It may be pointed out in this connection that millions of farm homes are still using petroleum products for lighting purposes and are finding it no hardship. Practically all would, of course, use electricity if it were available and financially possible. The new home owner in the country will find it advantageous to locate where electric service is obtainable.

Other services for the country residents are pretty largely up to the owner as to their utilization and type. It is necessary, of course, to have an ample water supply, to maintain sanitary conditions through sewerage of some description, to provide a method of heating the home during cold weather and to provide storage facilities for food during the dormant season.

The Water Supply.—Perhaps the most important attribute of the country home is an adequate supply of water. This is particularly true where families have been accustomed to utilizing municipal water supplies which are safe and pure as to quality and unlimited in amount. In most country homes it is necessary to construct a water-supply system, which means reaching a supply of underground water, pumping it to the surface and piping it to locations where it is wanted. Higher standards of living create new and increased demands for water.

Water for domestic use should be clear, colorless, odorless, soft, neither strongly acid nor alkaline, with a temperature averaging 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Such water supplies can be obtained in nearly every section of the country. Hot water is necessary in every home and there must be a heater of some type, using coal, petroleum products, natural or artificial gas or electricity for fuel. For this purpose a hot-water storage boiler or tank must be installed.

The Dug Well.—A dug well is one of the older types of wells. It should be large enough in diameter to permit ingress and egress to all parts of it for repairs or for cleaning. Most dug wells require cleaning occasionally, due to the entrance of dirt at the top and to the washing in of clay and silt with the ground water. Many of these wells contain harmful gases which have proved fatal to those entering them. Before an attempt is made to clean such a well or to make any repairs, a lighted candle should be lowered into it. If the candle is extinguished, it will be dangerous to enter until the well has been thoroughly ventilated.

A dug well will vary in depth from 20 to 60 feet, depending upon the distance it is necessary to dig for an adequate supply of water. Types of pumping apparatus are on the market to cope with any depth in digging such a well. If dug wells are shallow, the water supply depends very largely upon current rainfall and in times of prolonged drouth there may be a serious shortage. Fairly deep wells of this type are usually very satisfactory and will supply surprisingly large amounts of water when the demand is made upon them.

[Larger Image]

Well drilling—an early step in locating in the country.
In the foreground may be seen part of the excavation for the house.

Artesian Water Supply.—Artesian wells have distinct advantages over dug wells although they are more expensive to construct. The water from such wells is absolutely pure and it never fails. This is because subterranean streams have been tapped which are not subject to possible surface contamination, nor are they dependent upon showers for replenishment.

Special power apparatus is necessary for constructing an artesian or drilled well. The drilling costs from $3 per foot up, depending upon the nature of the subsoil and whether rock is encountered. Unless such a well has been drilled in the immediate vicinity it is not possible to hazard even a guess as to when water will be struck. The consolation that such an undertaking has for the owner is in knowing there will be no doubt as to quantity or purity when the strike occurs.

Water Pumps.—Pumps are now available which operate automatically by electricity and constantly supply the home with fresh water drawn from the earth as needed. The requirements for the pump and the motor will vary with the depth of the well and the water requirements of the family. In all such cases, therefore, it is desirable to call in for consultation engineers or competent representatives of pump manufacturers or distributors. It should be borne in mind that adequacy of supply is most important and that economy in first cost, achieved at the sacrifice of an adequate supply, may be a definite handicap to necessary home services.

Heating Facilities.—The type of heating apparatus that is used will depend upon the size of the house and its arrangement as well as upon the funds available. The simplest type of heaters are those which do not have a complete system of extending radiation through the home but depend upon circulation of the air within the house to equalize the temperature. In deciding upon the type of apparatus, it is necessary to make sure that the system is as low in original cost as possible; that it will probably have a long life, thereby spreading the first cost over a period of years; that it be economical in operation through efficient consumption of fuel, and that the system be easily controlled. The health of the family and the ability to live in a satisfactory manner will depend to a considerable extent upon the method of heating the home, especially in cold climates.

Particular care should be taken to make sure that whatever type of heating is employed is adequate in size. It is more economical to operate a heater that is somewhat oversized than to “rush” one which cannot easily maintain a comfortable temperature in cold weather. Heating engineers and contractors are available to furnish information on heating costs in every locality. The generally used types of heating include stoves, circulator heaters, warm air, hot water and steam systems, and fireplaces. Specialists of the United States Department of Agriculture have developed a great deal of information to enable the home owner to cope with the heating problems in a practical manner. It is estimated by the department that if a two-pipe hot-water system for a six-room house costs $500, the other systems for the same house ordinarily would cost about as follows:

Of course, these systems vary in efficiency and in providing comfort as much as they vary in cost, but these estimates will provide the home owner with an idea of the outlay for taking care of the heating problem.

The ability to maintain a satisfactory temperature depends as much upon the construction of the house as upon the heating apparatus itself. Heat is readily lost through walls, roofs and windows. Most houses can be made more comfortable at small cost by applying insulation or by correcting defects in construction. The use of storm doors or storm vestibules where doors are frequently opened to the out-of-doors will prevent drafts and conserve heat. Metal weather stripping is the most effective means of preventing air leaks around windows and doors and making the entire house weather-tight.

The fuel that is used will depend upon the type of furnace and the relative prices prevailing for different kinds. Recent developments in oil heating bring this fuel in close competition from the standpoint of economy with coal or coke. Oil is particularly adaptable as a source of fuel in homes in the country since tank trucks can readily deliver oil to the home owner. Improvements in securing the maximum efficiency from all types of fuel are being developed continually; and there are now on the market furnaces, using anthracite or bituminous coal as fuel, which offer many advantages that were unknown to older types.

Fireplace Construction.—An open fireplace where wood can be used as fuel is a great source of satisfaction and pleasure, as well as a comfort, in country homes. Wood of proper length for fireplace burning can be readily secured in the country and there is ample room for storing it. Where the house is small in size, such wood fires can be used for heating the house satisfactorily in spring and fall and can be used to supplement other types of heating when desired.

No country home can be considered complete without a fireplace. The comfort and homelike atmosphere that it gives make it a general asset for the enjoyment of the family circle. Fireplaces should be constructed so as to insure a good draft with a maximum of heat radiation. It is desirable to build in the fireplace flue a damper which can be open when the fire is burning and can be shut when it is desired to keep heat from escaping from the room via the chimney. It is also a convenience to have a trap opening placed in the back of the fireplace on the floor so that ashes may be removed in this manner, eliminating the labor of carrying them from the fireplace.

Sewerage of Farm Homes.—All wastes from the farm home coming under the term of sewage should go direct to a septic tank. Here the sewage is held in a quiet state for a period of time, and through bacterial processes, the organic matter is destroyed. A septic-tank installation consists of four parts: first, the house sewer from house to tank; second, the sewage tank, consisting of one or more chambers; third, the sewer from tank to distribution field; fourth, the distribution field where the sewage is distributed, sometimes called the absorption field. Plans for sewerage construction may be obtained from state and local boards of health and from federal health and agricultural agencies.

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(Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service)
An adequate sewage disposal plant is essential and inexpensive. A practical one is shown here.

The Rural Engineering Department of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station recommends that the septic tank have a capacity adequate to hold all the water used by the family for two entire days. For a family of six persons the inside dimensions of the tank should be 4 feet in width with a length of 4 feet in the first chamber and 3 feet in the second chamber. The depth of water should be 4 feet, giving the tank a capacity of over 600 gallons, thus allowing 100 gallons for each person during the forty-eight-hour period. The entire tank will be 4 feet wide, 8½ feet long and 6½ feet deep.

Septic tanks are usually built of solid concrete, concrete blocks or brick, waterproofed on the inside to prevent escape of the contents except through the outlets described. These outlets should be 100 to 150 feet away from any source of water supply to prevent contamination of potable water.

Leading from the outlet of the second chamber, several lines of tile 10 to 14 inches in depth should be laid at a gentle slope away from the tank, permitting escape of the effluent at each joint. For a family of six persons a total length of 150 feet of tile pipe will be sufficient in most types of soil.

Food Storage.—Every country home should have a basement in which a room can be set apart for cold storage. Such a place is suitable for keeping supplies of potatoes and other root crops, as well as commodities that deteriorate under conditions of warmth. Surplus supplies of food from the garden can be placed in such storages and be readily available for use during the winter. With the surplus of perishable food products in cans and with a good supply of non-perishable products in such a type of storage room, economies in food purchase can be effected and the healthfulness of the family maintained through their use when fresh products are difficult to secure or are unseasonable and expensive.

If a basement is not available for food storage, root crops can be stored outside the house and kept during the winter. These products should be piled in a heap, covered with straw or other clean, loose material and the mound then covered with earth. In this manner, potatoes and similar crops can be kept throughout the winter and until late in the spring without serious deterioration. It is important to select a site for such outdoor storage that is well drained so that water will not collect and freeze in the storage area.

Services Available to the Country Resident.—Public agencies are available for help in solving the problems of country residents, varying from agricultural and horticultural practices to building construction, water supply and sewage disposal. As a rule, these services are of advice and suggestion, are free of cost and may be utilized freely by those living in the country.

Most of the counties in the United States have a county agricultural agent, who is located at the county seat and whose territory covers only the county in which he resides. The costs of such service are paid by federal and state appropriations, frequently supplemented by county appropriations, and also frequently through annual individual subscriptions. The county agricultural agent is really a field representative of the United States Department of Agriculture and of the state agricultural college in the state where he works. There is hardly a problem of the country resident for which he cannot obtain aid from the county agricultural agent. In many of the more thickly populated areas the problems of the family getting a location on the land for a home are already well known to the agricultural agent and he is therefore in a position to guide the newcomer and help him to prevent mistakes.

In many counties there is also a home economics service connected with the office of the county agricultural agent and supported in the same general manner. This service, along the lines which the name implies, is available to the country home maker. Groups of women are organized and meet at intervals for discussions on food preparation, canning and storage and the making of clothing for the family.

In nearly every state there is a state department of agriculture with regulatory and promotional activities and dealing especially with law enforcement provisions passed by the respective legislatures. These agencies are also concerned with development of marketing facilities in many states. They are supported by state and federal funds and carry on such projects as the testing of cattle for tuberculosis, treatment in prevention of communicable animal diseases and the control of insect and fungous pests through quarantine and inspection activities. These departments are located at the state capitols and information on the services available can be secured by addressing the department in the state where one resides.

Because there is a lack of understanding among newcomers to the country of the services that are available through these agencies without cost, this particular mention of them is made. It is recommended that each family get in touch with the county agricultural agent, the college of agriculture and the department of agriculture and learn definitely of the help that can be secured without cost in meeting the problems of country life.

Electric Wiring Principles.—Public utilities are organized to furnish electric service and it will be found that they are ready to assist customers in securing the most satisfactory use of electricity. Such knowledge, based on experience, will be valuable in helping owners to avoid costly mistakes and to provide for a wiring system that will be economical and yet complete. When the plans and specifications of the wiring system have been worked out, it is important to secure bids from reliable contractors. Only those contractors who can do the work in a capable manner should be employed and it should be determined in advance that the installation will be in strict compliance with the National Electrical Code. For wiring work it is necessary to know the number of amperes the wire is to carry. This may be determined by dividing the load in watts by the voltage which is to be used.

The service lateral is a system of wires which form a path over which electricity is carried from the main line to the house. This is generally built by the utility company and its cost will depend upon the distance of the residence from the main line and whether the owner furnishes poles, labor, etc.

Wires should be of such size as to give sufficient mechanical strength to stand up under sleet conditions. Usually three entrance wires are used to carry the electric energy from the utility connection to the house. The lateral is the electrical doorway to the farm and is the most essential part of the wiring system. The wires should be of adequate size so as to provide proper voltage and give complete electrical service for all ordinary requirements of current.

It is important to see that the electrical equipment is properly “grounded,” that is, the connecting to earth of certain metallic objects which are near power conductors. The purpose is to carry to the earth any heavy electrical charge which might exist on such objects and cause electrical shocks when they are touched. Grounding may be secured by connecting with water pipes that reach some depth under ground, or driven pipe may be used as a means of securing intimate contact with moist earth.

Recommendations for outlets from the electrical wires in the house call for centering ceiling lighting outlets, and placing wall brackets about 5½ feet above the floor. Convenient outlets in the kitchen and bathroom should be about 33 inches above the floor. In other locations they are usually best placed in the baseboard. Wall switches are usually located 4 feet above the floor. A switch should be located at each door to a room or entrance to a hall and in many cases three-way switches can be used to advantage, since these afford control over the same lighting from two separate locations.

With these general observations on a rather complicated subject, most of which are based on the excellent recommendations of the National Committee on the Relation of Electricity to Agriculture, the home owner should be in a position to take care of his needs properly, bearing in mind that the system of wiring should be adequate in every respect and the number of outlets sufficiently numerous to provide easy and convenient service throughout the house. An official check-up should be made of all installations after completion. The method of securing such inspection can be obtained through a local electrical contractor.

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(Courtesy New Jersey Agricultural Extension Service)
Ground floor plan of a house, showing the number, the type, and the location of electrical current outlets.

Tank Gas Supply.—A service of supplying compressed gas in portable tanks has recently been developed for country homes located away from public gas lines. This gas can be used either with a specially adapted range which is supplied as part of the service or in some cases with an ordinary gas range. Companies offering this service are located in most cities and are understood to be willing to supply residences anywhere with gas. The cost of first installation of the system is about $40. Renewals cost approximately $12 per cylinder of gas. Each cylinder will supply a family of four with gas for three to four months, making a monthly bill of from $3 to $4, which compares favorably with artificial gas supply through a meter from pipe lines. This gas may be used for any purpose for which any other gas is adapted. The gas and the servicing of it constitute a boon to country residents from the standpoint of utility and economy. It is especially desirable for those previously accustomed to city gas supplies and to whom the use of any other type of fuel is strange and somewhat of a problem.

Do’s

Remember that important service factors include mail delivery, telephone, electricity, water supply and sewage disposal.

Be sure of adequate water supply of good quality.

Obtain artesian water supply wherever possible.

Provide for such heating facilities as the budget can stand.

Select the heating system in relation to fuel costs.

Make sure that the sewerage system is adequate for waste disposal.

Use fully such governmental agencies as county agents, home demonstration agents, experiment stations and agricultural colleges, state and federal departments of agriculture.

Provide storage space for surplus food products.

Remember electric wiring requires skilled workmanship.

Investigate advantages and costs of tank gas as a cooking fuel.

Don’ts

Don’t forget that services automatically available to urban residents must be planned for in the country.

Don’t neglect construction defects that prevent full benefits from heating system.

Don’t overlook the advantages of a well-built fireplace.

Don’t install electrical service without full attention to principles of convenience, safety and economy involved.

Chapter VI

MAKING THE SOIL PRODUCE CROPS

There are many treatises available that deal with the soil, its composition and its treatment. No attempt will be made here to go exhaustively into that subject. There are a few fundamental factors, however, which the potential owner should know regarding soil treatment, for that is the base upon which he will build his income-producing operations.

The particles of soil have had their genesis in rock. The rock has become disintegrated and decomposed through natural processes. The action of the weather is the most important factor in creating soil. Water falling on rock not only wears it away mechanically, but through certain mild acid elements which it acquires, disintegrates the binding materials that hold rock segments together. In addition, there is the action of frost and freezing, too, making the moisture in rock expand and contract and thereby causing the breaking down of the segments. With this action is coupled that of hot suns which cause expansion and breaking up of the rock as it becomes heated and cooled under atmospheric influence.

A great deal of the soil surface in many sections of the country is the result of glacial action. These glaciers not only eroded the surface, thereby creating millions of rock particles, but they also carried large deposits of the rock particles to more distant areas and deposited them over a subsoil that may be totally different in character from the surface soil thus deposited.

How Tillable Soil Is Made.—The action of plants themselves has a great effect in adding to our supply of tillable soil. Seeds of plants or seeds of trees become established in some slightly weathered rock areas and begin to grow. The roots penetrate wherever there is any loose soil, and partly by their pressure and partly through the acidity accompanying decomposing plant tissue, complete a further breaking down of the rock. There is a continuous process of destruction of rocks and leveling off of mountains and hills to fill the valleys below.

Many groups of deep-rooted plants tend to increase the depth of the surface soil by growth of the roots in the subsoil and by creating therein a condition approaching that which already exists on the surface. The action of earth worms and similar forms of life in bringing subsoil to the top and in opening channels through which water and surface air can penetrate constitutes another continually operating force in the creation of a productive soil. A deeper layer of productive soil can also be created through a plan of consistently deeper plowing, bringing up with each annual plowing operation a small portion of subsoil which, when mixed with the surface soil, tends to become like it.

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(Courtesy New Jersey Department of Conservation and Development)
Soil is created from rock by nature’s weathering processes and by plant growth.
At the bottom may be seen solid rock; just above are disintegrating rock fragments, and at the top, the soil.

Every type of real soil contains all the elements of plant growth. This plant food results from a breaking down of soil particles and the setting free of chemical elements which, either singly or in combination, serve as food for plants.

Whatever the type of soil may be, it will be found that certain crops will make better growth in it than others. As a general rule, it may be said that the only way to determine which plants will grow best on a given soil is by the trial-and-error method. However, by observation of the growth on similar types of soil we can learn something of a soil’s crop adaptability. There are some crops that will grow in almost any soil and there are others that need an exactness of texture, moisture and plant food which makes them highly specialized products. The operator must learn how to work in harmony with the peculiarities of his own soil before he can hope to get the best results.

In acquiring a tract for the growing of plants of any kind it is desirable to get a soil type that will meet the requirements of most plants. As a general rule, this type contains enough clay to be retentive of moisture, enough sand to be easily worked and is generally suitable for bacterial growth. In other words, what is commonly called a loam is the ideal type for general agricultural and horticultural purposes. This may be a heavy loam, in which clay predominates, or a so-called light loam, in which sand particles predominate. An examination of a handful of soil by a person experienced in farming will indicate its nature and its adaptability to ordinary crop production.

Essential Elements of Plant Food.—Countless scientific experiments in plant growth show that potassium, lime, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, sulphur, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are essential to normal development. The carbon, hydrogen and oxygen elements make up nearly 99 per cent of the entire composition of the plant and are derived from the atmosphere. All of the other elements are derived from the soil except in the case of peas, beans, clovers and other legumes which secure most of their nitrogen from the air.

The mineral elements are not needed in large amounts but well-balanced plant growth is strictly dependent upon their presence in available form. Of these elements, those most likely to be deficient either in total amount or in availability are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. It is entirely feasible and economical to apply concentrated chemical fertilizers containing the first three elements so that their lack will not constitute a limit to size of crops harvested. In many cases it is necessary to apply chemical fertilizers to get satisfactory yields, even where natural manures are available and can be applied as well.

In addition to supplying essential plant food, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium perform specific functions in plant growth. The application of nitrogen in one of its readily available forms (e.g., nitrate of soda and sulphate of ammonia) will stimulate vegetative growth. If too much of this one element is applied, leaf and branch development may occur at the expense of the crop. Good results follow the use of nitrogen on grass sods and on leafy vegetables like spinach. On the other hand, corn, peas, beans and other seed-forming crops need to have the nitrogen balanced with phosphorus. Potatoes, in common with other tuber and root crops, will utilize plenty of potassium in the development of starch.

Sources of Plant Food.—Chemical fertilizers can be purchased at supply stores in ready mixed condition and of analyses that will meet general crop needs. A good formula for such a general purpose fertilizer is 4 to 5 per cent nitrogen, 7 to 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 to 10 per cent potash to the ton. It is known that such a mixture will supply the food needs of a large variety of plants in balanced amounts. Highly concentrated mixtures are now on the market providing double the amount of plant food in the example quoted, costing nearly twice as much but effecting a saving by cutting in half the material handled to get the same result. Care should be taken, in using these highly concentrated fertilizers, to avoid contact with tender roots. A mixture for general farm and garden purposes may contain the following ingredients:

This mixture will have a formula of 4-9-7 (4 per cent nitrogen, 9 per cent phosphoric acid and 7 per cent potassium). The individual who wishes to mix his own fertilizer may do so by purchasing the finely ground ingredients separately, and by means of a shovel, integrate them all into a mixture. Home mixing will not be found profitable where small amounts of fertilizer are used. Those who practice home mixing for the first time should realize that most combinations of ingredients will “set” or harden if not used immediately, necessitating the breaking up and pulverizing of the mass. When it is broken up after curing, no further difficulty should be experienced with “setting” if the mixture is kept in a dry place. The advantages of home mixing for the large user lie in lower cost per ton of plant food as a rule; confidence in the quality of the ingredients which he should purchase on the basis of guaranteed analysis; and the setting up of a mixture which study of his soil and the plant requirements has convinced him is best suited for his individual case.

Chemical Soil Analysis Not Helpful.—There is a mistaken notion that it is necessary to analyze soils chemically in order to fertilize them intelligently. Such an analysis of a reasonably fertile soil will show the presence of the essential elements of plant food, though perhaps not all in sufficient amounts, to produce ordinary crops for centuries to come. Only a small amount of the elements become available for root absorption each year and a chemical analysis will not bring out this most important factor—availability. The use of a few simple tests, mainly of a physical nature by a competent soils specialist, will prove of some assistance in the treatment of the soil. Such tests will show the presence of adequate amounts of humus, and indicate the acidity content. The soil texture will give some index of its crop adaptability and thereby serve as a basis for fertilizing treatment that will meet the needs of both soil and crop. The practical man will not expect any considerable aid from a highly technical and costly chemical analysis of his soil.