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THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

[Available: [Transcriber's Note]]

OTHER BOOKS BY MR. ORCUTT

GOOD OLD DORCHESTER. A Narrative History

PRINCESS KALLISTO, and other Tales of the Fairies

ROBERT CAVELIER. A Novel

THE FLOWER OF DESTINY. A Novel

THE SPELL. A Novel

THE LEVER. A Novel

THE MOTH. A Novel

The Writer’s

Desk Book

Being a ref­er­ence vol­ume up­on ques­tions of PUNC­TU­A­TION · CAP­I­TA­LI­ZA­TION · SPEL­LING · DI­VI­SION OF WORDS · IN­DEN­TION · SPA­CING ITA­LICS · AB­BREV­IA­TIONS AC­CENTS · NUM­ER­ALS · FAUL­TY DIC­TION · LET­TER WRI­TING · POST­AL REG­U­LA­TIONS · Etc · Etc

By WILLIAM DANA ORCUTT
for many years Head of The University Press · Cambridge · Now associated with THE PLIMPTON PRESS · Norwood Mass.

New York · FREDERICK·A·STOKES COMPANY · Publishers · MCMXIII

Copyright, 1912, by
FREDERICK A. STOKES CO.
SECOND EDITION

THE · PLIMPTON · PRESS
[W · D · O]
NORWOOD · MASS · U · S · A

{1}

THE WRITER’S DESK BOOK

{2}

PUNCTUATION MARKS, ACCENTS, ETC.

,	Comma	¨	Dieresis
;	Semicolon	ç	Cedilla
:	Colon		Caret
.	Period	“ ”	Quotation-marks
?	Interrogation	{ }	Brace
!	Exclamation	* * *	Ellipsis
( )	Parentheses	. . .	Ellipsis, leaders
[ ]	Brackets	*	Asterisk
’	Apostrophe	†	Dagger
-	Hyphen	‡	Double dagger
´	Acute accent	§	Section
`	Grave accent	‖	Parallels
^	Circumflex accent	¶	Paragraph
~	Circumflex or tilde		Index
	Long or macron	* * *	Asterisks
	Short or breve

The Section-mark is derived from the first letters of the words signum sectionis, meaning sign of the section, the old-fashioned ∫ being used. The paragraph mark ¶ is the roman letter P reversed, with black and white interchanged.

{3}

PUNCTUATION

IN early manuscripts the words followed one another without punctuation points, thus making it difficult for readers to separate the ideas into the same parts as originally intended by the authors. Later they were separated by dots or other marks, which method obtained in the earliest printed volumes. Aldus Manutius (Venice, 1490–1515) and his family were the pioneers in establishing a basis for systematic punctuation. From this chaotic condition definite rules have gradually been evolved for general guidance, but judgment and taste must always be the final guides to correct punctuation. Assistance may be obtained by observing a few simple rules which are based upon the idea that the purpose of every punctuation mark is to indicate to the eye the construction of the sentence in which it occurs.

No one of the various punctuation marks should ever be used exclusively or to excess, for each one has some specific duty which it can perform better than any other. It is always wise to question why, in a given case, a punctuation mark should be put in rather than why it should be left out, for of the two evils an over-punctuated book is the more objectionable. “Close punctuation,” {4} characterized by the use of many commas, prevailed in the English of the eighteenth century and is today the best French usage, but “open punctuation,” which avoids the use of any point not clearly required by the construction, is now favored by the best English writers.

THE COMMA

Dean Alford once wrote, in disgust, “The great enemies to understanding anything in our language are the commas,” and prided himself that in the course of editing the Greek text of the New Testament, he destroyed more than a thousand of these “enemies.” The chief use of this, the smallest degree of separation, is to define the particles and minor clauses of a sentence. It should always be placed inside the quotation-marks when used in connection with them.

The comma is required:

1. Before a conjunction when the preceding word is qualified by an expression which is not intended to qualify the word following the conjunction: e.g., He suddenly started, and fell.

2. Between adjectives and adverbs when not connected by a conjunction: He possessed a calm, exasperating manner; but the comma may be omitted between two adjectives when the idea is close: e.g., A clear cold day. {5}

3. After adjectives and adverbs where three or more are used in succession: e.g., The man possessed a calm, cynical, exasperating manner.

4. In a succession of three or more words where the conjunctive and is used before the last one: e.g., He was tall, thin, and pale.

5. When the word after the conjunction is followed by an expression which qualifies that word alone: e.g.,

’Twas certain he could write, and cipher too.

6. After inverted phrases and clauses: e.g., Discouraged by constant opposition, he resigned his position. Short phrases of similar nature do not require the comma: e.g., Of his intentions there could be no doubt.

7. To separate the adverbs however, now, then, too, perhaps, and indeed from the context when they are used as conjunctions: e.g., This idea, however, had not occurred to him. When these words are used as adverbs, the comma is not required: e.g., It must be done, however contrary it may be to our present advantage.

8. To separate parenthetical or intermediate expressions from the context: e.g., His intentions, though at first concealed, became obvious.

9. After the last word of a series composed of several words not connected by conjunctions: e.g., The men, the women, the children even, were up in arms. {6}

10. Between words or phrases in apposition with each other: e.g., I refer to Mr. Taylor, the father of Scientific Management. But when used as a single phrase or a compound name, no comma is required: e.g., The poet Tennyson was born in 1809.

11. Between the name of a person and his title or degree: e.g., Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus; Woodrow Wilson, LL.D.

12. Between two independent clauses connected by a conjunction: e.g., The door was barricaded, but we managed to open it.

13. Between relative clauses which are explanatory of an antecedent, or which present an additional thought: e.g., Her voice, which was charming in her own drawing-room, was not powerful enough for a public auditorium. But relative clauses which limit the meaning of the antecedent (called restrictive) do not require the comma: e.g., He did that which he was obliged to do.

14. Between two clauses, one of which depends on the other, and usually introduced by if, when, unless, though, where, wherever, etc.: e.g., If we stand together, success is assured. If the clauses are closely connected both in sense and construction, the comma is not required: e.g., William was ten years old when his father moved to Boston.

15. In compound sentences, to separate the co-ordinate clause when closely related and simple in construction: e.g., He was {7} courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.

16. To indicate an ellipsis: e.g., Price, seventy-five cents.

17. To separate vocative words or expressions from the context: e.g., I leave it, gentlemen, to your sense of right and wrong.

18. Before not, when introducing an antithetical clause: e.g., He devoted his attention to the matter before him, not because he was interested, but because he could not avoid the issue.

19. To separate similar or identical words, even though not required by the sense or grammatical construction: e.g., I tell you, you are wrong.

20. To separate two numbers: e.g., March 1, 1912; In 1911, 869 cases were reported.

21. To separate a quotation or similar brief expression from the preceding part of the sentence: e.g., To quote the proverb, “Look before you leap.”

22. Before the word of, connecting a proper name with residence or position: e.g., Senator Lodge, of Massachusetts.

23. After the salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter, when informal: e.g., My dear Mother, but, when formal, Gentlemen:

The comma is not required:

1. Before or after conjunctions such as and, or, nor, but, and yet when employed to {8} connect two words belonging to the same part of speech and in the same construction: e.g., Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. When words are not in pairs, the comma must be used: e.g., Sink, die, or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote.

2. Before or after conjunctions when they are employed to connect two expressions in the same construction used as if belonging to the same part of speech: e.g., The new system of management guarantees accuracy in getting orders under way and promptness in completing them.

3. Before the conjunction too when placed at the end of a sentence: e.g., I hope that you will come too.

4. Where there are two or more words or phrases having a conjunction between each two: e.g., Lest he should be tempted and yield and thus be false.

5. After an adjective that describes or limits another adjective together with the noun following: e.g., He had on a pair of torn gray corduroy breeches.

6. When a pronoun is used with a noun for emphasis: e.g., Lafcadio Hearn himself could not have described the scene more vividly.

THE SEMICOLON

The semicolon is used to indicate a pause or a degree of separation next greater than {9} the comma. Caxton was the first to introduce into English printing the Roman points of punctuation as used in Italy. The comma replaced the unwieldly |, and the colon was an added refinement, but for some unexplained reason he steadfastly opposed the introduction of the semicolon. This mark should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless forming a part of the quotation itself.

Use the semicolon:

1. When the members of a compound sentence are complex in construction or contain commas: e.g., He was courteous, not cringing, to superiors; affable, but not familiar, to equals; and kind, but not condescending, to inferiors.

2. To connect successive sentences: e.g., His face never showed an emotion other than that which he wished to have seen there; the mouth was protected by his heavy mustache; his eyes penetrated the object on which they fixed themselves. Shorter sentences should be divided by commas.

3. Between expressions in a series which have a common dependence upon words at the beginning or end of a sentence: e.g., The half-sick man is a nuisance to his entire household: he is not ill enough to accept restraint; he is too ill to be reasonable.

4. To separate passages containing chapters in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16. {10}

THE COLON

The colon is used between clauses of compound sentences, additional clauses without a conjunction, formal quotations, and particulars in apposition with a general term, to mark the necessity of a pause greater than that indicated by the semicolon and less than that indicated by the period. The colon is much less used today than formerly, as modern writers employ shorter and less formal sentences than those of a century ago. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless included as a part of the quotation itself.

Use the colon:

1. Before as, viz., that is, namely, etc., when these words introduce a series of simple particular terms in apposition with a general term: e.g., There are three genders in Latin: namely, masculine, feminine, and neuter.

2. Between two members of a sentence when one or both are made up of two or more clauses divided by semicolons: e.g., Vallie was nervous in his temperment; the Captain was calm and self-contained: Vallie was the product of the city; the Captain was the product of the world.

3. Between a complete sentence and an additional clause enlarging upon the same idea without a conjunction: e.g., Imagination {11} is essential to business success: without imagination, plans for future development cannot intelligently be made.

4. Before particulars definitely stated: e.g., These new duties of the management are grouped under four heads: first, they develop a science for each element of a man’s work, etc.

5. Before formal quotations: e.g., In a recent speech attributed to you by the daily press, you are reported to have used these words: “Good principles follow good habits.”

6. After the formal salutatory phrase at the beginning of a letter: e.g., Gentlemen:[1] When less formality is desired, the comma may be used: e.g., My dear Mother,

[1] See page [117,] §§ 2, 3, 4.

7. Between the hours and minutes in indicating time: e.g., 11 : 30 A.M.

8. Between the chapter and verse in scriptural references: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8, 12, 16; chap. 3; 8 : 16.

9. Between the city of publication and the name of publisher in literary references: e.g., “The Adventures of Tom Sawyer” (New York: Harpers).

THE PERIOD

Always place the period inside the quotation-marks and inside the parentheses when parenthetical matter forms an independent sentence and is not a part of the preceding sentence. {12}

Use the period:

1. After every abbreviation.

2. To set off decimal numbers from whole numbers.

3. After every complete sentence unless the sentence is interrogative or exclamatory.

4. To indicate an ellipsis, repeating the mark three or more times separated by spaces: e.g., . . .

Do not use the period:

1. After running-heads.

2. After cut-in side-notes.

3. After centered head-lines.

4. After box-heads in tables.

5. After legends beneath illustrations.

6. After subheads set in separate lines.

7. After date-lines at the top of letters.

8. After signatures at the end of letters.

9. At end of lines in display composition, such as titles,[2] blocked headings, etc.

10. After roman numerals, even though they possess the value of ordinals: e.g., Vol. VIII; George V is king of England.

[2] First adopted by William Pickering, the London publisher, about 1850.

THE DASH

The dash is more misused and overused than any of the other punctuation marks. The following rules define its proper use: {13}

Use the dash:

1. Whenever the construction or the sense is suddenly changed or suspended: e.g., You cannot believe — but I will not humiliate myself by asking the question.

2. To connect extreme dates in specifying periods of time: e.g., 1912–1918.

3. When the sentence is abruptly terminated: e.g., “If he is alive, I can make him one from this time; and if — if —”

4. To secure rhetorical emphasis: e.g., We are ready — we are more than ready to meet the issue.

5. To define verse references in the Bible: e.g., Matt. 1 : 4–8; or to indicate page references in a book: e.g., See pp. 21–42.

6. Between short, snappy sentences to increase the speed of the discourse: e.g., Hullo! ho! the whole world’s asleep! — bring out the horses, — grease the wheels, — tie on the mail!

7. Between the subject-matter and its authority.

8. To indicate the omission of letters: e.g., Mrs. B——.

9. At the end of a series of phrases which depend upon a concluding clause: e.g., Courtesy and attention, patience and judgment, accuracy and carefulness — these are but a few of the elements which constitute successful business relations. {14}

10. To precede expressions which are added to an apparently completed sentence, but which refer to some previous part of the sentence: e.g., The question of hearing was seriously troubling the minister — they probably had heard too much.

¶ Dashes may be substituted for commas or marks of parenthesis before and after expressions having closer connection with the main sentence than could be indicated by marks of parenthesis: e.g., They might have been talking for a quarter of an hour or more, when Monks — by which name the Jew had designated the strange man — said, etc.

¶ Use the dash preceded by the colon before a long quotation forming a new paragraph. The dash is not otherwise used with other punctuation marks unless demanded by clearness.

¶ In France, printers use the dash as a frequent substitute for quotation-marks in dialogue, placing quotation-marks only at the beginning and the end, even though extended over several pages.

THE EXCLAMATION

The proper use of the exclamation-point lends force and vigor to language in expressing surprise or emotion, but when overused it cheapens intended pathos and thus defeats the writer’s purpose. It should always be placed {15} outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself. The mark is formed from the word Io, signifying joy, written vertically

.

The exclamation-point is required:

1. At the end of a word or sentence to express strong emotion: e.g., God forbid ! “Mind that, Fagin !”

2. To indicate sarcasm or doubt on the part of the writer regarding the authenticity of a statement: e.g., “For Brutus is an honorable man !”

3. After exclamatory words. If the same interjection is repeated use the comma to separate the words, placing the exclamation-point only at the end, unless the intention is to make each of the repeated words emphatic: e.g., “Oh ! dear, dear, dear !” he exclaimed; “what an unfortunate memory you have !”

¶ Use great care in distinguishing between Oh !, an interjection expressing pain or surprise, and the vocative O, expressing a wish or an imprecation, which does not call for the exclamation-point: e.g., “Oh ! what damned minutes tells he o’er !” and “O that I had wings like a dove !”

THE INTERROGATION

The interrogation-point is formed from the first and last letters of the Latin word quaestio (a question) placed one over the other; as {16}

. It should always be placed outside the quotation-marks unless it is a part of the quotation itself.

1. Every sentence containing a direct question should close with an interrogation-point: e.g., When can this order be shipped ? We have received a letter which asks, “What date can you give us for shipping these goods ?”

2. The interrogation-point is used to express doubt: e.g., This volume is said to be bound in real ( ?) morocco.

3. Indirect questions do not take the interrogation-point: e.g., He inquired when it would be ready.

QUOTATION-MARKS

1. Enclose every direct quotation in double quotation-marks: e.g., “I insist upon it,” he said; “there is no alternative.”

2. When a quotation of a passage from an author in his own words is run into the text it should be placed between quotation-marks.

3. Selections from different works by the same author, or from different authors, following each other without intervening original matter, or by reference to their sources, should be quoted.

4. When setting poetry the quotation-marks should overhang the beginning of the line. This should also be done when prose display matter is “blocked.”

5. Single quotes are used for quotations {17} within quotations; double quotes for quotations within single quotations.

6. Quotations should always include the phrase etc., and other ellipses whenever necessary to secure perfect clearness.

7. When a long quotation is made, including several paragraphs or verses, the quotation-mark should appear at the beginning of each paragraph, but at the end of the last one only.

Quote:

1. A phrase or a word which is accompanied by its definition: e.g., “Roman quote” means to place the matter indicated between quotations in roman type.

2. Words or phrases in the text which are intended by the writer to possess an unusual, technical, or ironical meaning: e.g., Her literary “salon” will long be remembered; This so-called “captain of industry.”

3. Titles of poems, books, etc.: e.g., Longfellow’s “Belfry of Bruges.”

4. Serial titles: e.g., the “Oriental Series,” “Stories of Nations.”

5. Words to which the writer desires to attract attention: e.g., The name of “Florence” immediately causes one to think of humanism.

6. The names of ships, unless directed to italicize them.

7. The titles of works of art: e.g., Raphael’s “Sistine Madonna.” {18}

PARENTHESES

1. Marks of parenthesis are employed to separate from the rest of the sentence enclosed expressions having no essential connection: e.g., I am unable to take this action (why do you urge me?) for reasons which I cannot now give.

2. Figures or letters used to mark divisions in enumerations should be placed between parentheses: e.g., There is a double reason for doing this: (a) it is the simplest form; (b) it is clearer for the reader.

BRACKETS

Use brackets:

1. To enclose explanations or notes which are entirely independent of the balance of the sentence. Ordinarily these are comments, queries, directions, corrections, or criticisms inserted by some person other than the original writer: e.g., Let them clamor to get them back again [cheers].

2. Rather than parentheses, to enclose drop-folios (folios placed at foot of page).

3. For enclosing parenthetical statements within parentheses.

THE APOSTROPHE

Use the apostrophe (or the apostrophe and the letter s):

1. To form the possessive case of common and proper nouns: e.g., The nation’s {19} hope; For Jesus’ sake; James’s apple; For appearance’ sake; The boys’ camp.

2. To form the plural of numerals, but the apostrophe alone for the plural of polysyllabic proper nouns ending in a sibilant: e.g., They passed by in two’s and four’s; She is one of those W.C.T.U.’s; That came from Perkins’. Add es or s for monosyllabic proper nouns: e.g., The Fosses. In general, the pronunciation may be taken as a guide: if it is necessary to add a syllable to pronounce the possessive, use the double s: e.g., Sickles’ corps, not Sickles’s.

3. Use the apostrophe to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a contracted word, or the omission of figures in a number: e.g., That’s ’ow ’twas; The spirit of ’76; High o’er our heads; I’ll for I will; Don’t for do not, sha’n’t, etc.

4. The custom of substituting the apostrophe for the letter e in poetry, at one time common, is now obsolete: e.g., At ev’ry word a reputation dies. This rule is disregarded when the letter is omitted for metrical reasons.

THE HYPHEN

The hyphen is employed to join words together which have not become single words through general usage, and where words are necessarily broken at the end of a line. It is also used to separate the syllables of words, in showing the correct pronunciation. (See Compound Words.)

{20}

CAPITALIZATION

THE original use of capitals in early manuscripts was for the purpose of variety and ornamentation, and their position was naturally subject to each writer’s individual taste. Good form now prescribes certain definite rules of capitalization as follows:

RELIGIOUS TERMS

Capitalize:

1. Titles of parables: e.g., the parable of the Prodigal Son, etc.

2. The books and divisions of the Bible and of other sacred books: e.g., Old Testament, Book of Job, etc.

3. Versions of the Bible: e.g., King James Version, Revised Version, etc.

4. The names of monastic orders and their members: e.g., the Jesuits, the Black Friars, etc.

5. The word Church when it stands for the Church universal, or when part of a name: e.g., the Church, the First Congregational Church, the Church of Rome; but use lower case when referring to church history.

6. The word Gospel when it refers to a book of the Bible, as the Gospel of John, or {21} the Gospels; but use lower case when referring to the gospel message.

7. Pronouns referring to God or Christ when used in direct address, or whenever the reference might otherwise be mistaken.

8. General biblical terms: e.g., Priestly Code, Apostles’ Creed, Lord’s Prayer, Lord’s Supper, The Prophets, and Major and Minor Prophets, when the collection of prophetical books is intended; but use lower case for the adjectives biblical and scriptural.

9. Names applied to the Evil One, except when used as an expletive, or as a general name for any demon: e.g.,

“When the Devil was sick, the Devil a monk would be;

When the Devil was well, the devil a monk was he.”

10. The word Holy in the Holy place and the Holy of holies.

11. The title of a psalm: e.g., the Twenty-fourth Psalm.

12. Capitalize the following:

• Almighty
• Authorized Version
• Common Version
• Creator
• Deity
• Father
• God
• Holy Bible
• Holy Spirit
• Holy Writ
• Jehovah
• Jesus Christ
• King
• Logos
• Lord
• Messiahship
• Messiah
• Messianic
• Passover
• Pentecost
• Redeemer
• Revised Version
• Sabbath
• Saviour
• Scriptures
• Son of Man
• Son
• Spirit
• The Trinity
• The Virgin Mary
• Word

{22}

Do not capitalize:

1. Words like epistle, book (as the book of Ruth), psalm, or psalms when not used distinctively, or psalmist when the author of a single psalm is intended.

2. Words like heaven, heavenly, hell.

3. The words fatherhood and sonship, god when a pagan deity is referred to, temple.

PROPER NAMES

Capitalize:

1. Epithets employed as substitutes for or affixes to proper names: e.g., Peter the Great, the Pretender, etc.

2. The words Pilgrim Fathers and Early Fathers (referring to the Early Church), etc.

3. The word Revolutionary when referring to the Revolution of 1776: e.g., a Revolutionary soldier.

4. The words river, creek, brook, mountain, mine, district, county, channel, when used as a part of a title: e.g., Hudson River, Clear Brook, Rocky Mountains; but use lower case when preceded by the: e.g., the Hudson river, etc.

5. Nouns designating definite geographical portions of the country or divisions of the world: e.g., the North, the South, the West, the Old World; and in the division of the Jewish Commonwealth, the Northern Kingdom, the Southern Kingdom. Also capitalize the adjectival nouns derived from them: e.g., Northerner, Southerner, Oriental, {23} Occidental. Use lower case for adjectives: e.g., He is now in southern California, etc.

6. Abstract ideas or terms when personified; e.g., Pride flaunts herself; Nature gives willingly of her abundance.

7. Names of streets, squares, parks, buildings, etc.: e.g., Beacon Street, Copley Square, Franklin Park, Tremont Building, etc.

8. Abbreviations of names of corporations and firms: e.g., N.Y.C. & H.R.R.R.

9. The abbreviation Co. (Company) in firm or corporation names.

10. The scientific names of divisions, orders, families, and genera in all botanical, geological, or zoölogical copy: e.g., Ichneumon Fly (Thalessa lunator), Reptilia, Vertebrata, etc.

11. The days of the week and the months of the year, but use lower case for the seasons, unless personified or referred to specifically: e.g., It was a bright spring day; but, Spring, beautiful Spring; the Spring of 1911, etc.

12. The popular names of the bodies of the solar system (except sun, moon, stars, earth): e.g., the Dipper, the Milky Way, Venus, etc.

13. In botanical and zoölogical copy, the names of species if derived from proper names or from generic names, but in geological and medical matter use lower case for the names of species, even though derived from proper names: e.g., Clover-root Borer, Hylesinus trifolii, Pterygomatopus schmidti. {24}

14. Capitalize the following:

• Articles of Confederation
• Bill of Rights
• Commonwealth (Cromwell’s)
• Commune
• Constitution
• Crusades
• Hundred Years’ War
• Inquisition
• Magna Charta
• Middle Ages
• Reformation
• Renaissance
• Restoration
• Revolution of July
• Seven Years’ War
• Stone Age

Do not capitalize:

1. Words derived from proper names and their derivatives when such words are so familiarly used as to lose the significance and personality of their origin: e.g., fletcherize, macadamize, quixotic, italicize, etc.

2. Nouns and adjectives when they merely fix a point of the compass: e.g., He came from the north, western New York, upper Canada, etc.

3. The words father, mother, mamma, and all other family appellations, except when used with the proper name of the person or without a possessive pronoun: e.g., I expect to meet my mother, but, I have received a telegram from Mother; My aunt gave me this, but, It is a present from Aunt Mary.

TITLES

Capitalize:

1. The word State when it refers to a political division of the Union: e.g., the State {25} of Massachusetts; but use lower case when the word is employed as an adjective.

2. The words Federal, Government, Constitution, Cabinet, Administration when they refer to United States Government, and President when referring to the President of the United States.

3. All titles of honor, nobility, and respect: e.g., His Excellency, Her Majesty, Father William, Mother Hubbard, Cousin John, Deacon Smith.

4. Civil and military titles when they are used specifically: e.g., President Taft, King George, the Governor, General Grant, etc.; but do not capitalize the titles of offices actually existing when following the name: e.g., William H. Taft, president of the United States.

5. The names of societies: e.g., Young People’s Society of Christian Endeavor, Boston Congregational Club, Second Church Parish.

6. Names of expositions, conventions, etc.: e.g., Brockton Fair, Congress of Physiology, etc.

7. Abbreviations of degrees: e.g., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D., omitting space between the letters.

8. Such titles as von, in German, le, la, du, de, or d’, in French, da, della, di, or de’, etc., in Italian, when the forename is not given: e.g., Von Humboldt, Da Ponte; but when the article or preposition is preceded by {26} a forename the title should not be capitalized: e.g., Lorenzo de’ Medici. Van in Dutch is always capitalized.

9. After Whereas and Resolved, followed by a comma, begin the first word with a capital; e.g., WHEREAS, It has pleased Almighty God . . . ; therefore be it Resolved, That . . .

10. After a colon, capitalize the first word only when followed by a complete independent sentence or passage or where preceded by such introductory phrases as namely, as follows, for instance, the point is this, my conclusion is this, etc.

11. In titles of books or essays all words except unimportant adjectives, prepositions, and conjunctions: e.g., The Fall of the House of Usher.

Do not capitalize:

1. Adjectives compounded with an inseparable prefix with proper names; e.g., transatlantic, unamerican.

2. The words apostle, pope, bishop, canon, rector, chaplain, minister, etc., when separated from names or used descriptively: e.g., the apostle Paul; but in direct address they should be capitalized: e.g., “O Apostle Paul.”

INSTITUTIONAL TERMS

Capitalize:

1. Thanksgiving Day, Lord’s Day, New Year’s Day, the Fourth (referring to the {27} Fourth of July), Children’s Day, Easter, Founder’s Day, etc.

2. The word College or University only when part of the title: e.g., Amherst College, Harvard University.

3. Political alliances and terms which have acquired similar significance: e.g., the Dreibund, the Insurgents.

4. Titles of treaties, laws, and acts: e.g., the Treaty of Portsmouth, the Declaration of Independence, the Edict of Nantes.

5. Names of political parties: e.g., Republican, Democrat, etc.; but use lower case for republican form of government, a true democrat, etc., where reference is not made to members of political parties.

6. Names and epithets of races, tribes, and peoples: e.g., Hottentots, Celestials, etc.; but use lower case for negro, colored people, the blacks, the whites, poor whites, etc.

7. Generic parts of names of political divisions (a) when the term is an organic part of the name, directly following the proper name: e.g., the Russian Empire, Norfolk County, etc.; (b) when it is used with the preposition of as an integral part of the name indicating administrative subdivisions of the United States: e.g., Commonwealth of Massachusetts; (c) when it is used singly as designation for a specific division: e.g., the Dominion (of Canada), the Union; (d) when it is used as part of an appellation as though {28} a real geographical name: e.g., the Pine Tree State, the Promised Land; but use lower case for such terms when standing alone or preceding the specific name: e.g., the empire of Germany, the county of Norfolk.

8. Numbered political divisions: e.g., Ward Eleven, Fifth Precinct, Eleventh Congressional District, etc.

Do not capitalize:

1. The words legislature, circuit court, district court, city council, supreme court, senate, and house of representatives except when specifically applied: e.g., the legislature of the State, the circuit court, etc.; but Congress, the Circuit Court of Suffolk County, the House of Representatives of the United States.

2. The words high school, grammar school, except as part of title: e.g., the Dorchester High School; but the high school of Dorchester.

REFERENCES

Capitalize:

1. Nouns followed by a capitalized roman numeral: e.g., Act I, Vol. VIII, etc. In references the nouns and the roman numerals are often lower-cased.

Do not capitalize:

1. Minor subdivisions and their abbreviations of literary references: e.g., line, verse, note, section, chapter, page, etc. {29}

ORDINALS

Capitalize:

1. Sessions of Congress, dynasties, names of regiments, etc.: e.g., the Fifty-fourth Congress, the Sixteenth Dynasty, the Forty-fourth Massachusetts.

IN GENERAL

Capitalize:

1. The first word of a sentence and the first word of each line of poetry.

2. The words I and O.

3. The first word after a colon when introducing a sentence having an independent meaning: e.g., My explanation is: Competition forces each manufacturer to study economies.

4. Words having special meanings: e.g., the Referee’s decision, a Bachelor’s degree.

5. The first word of every direct quotation.

6. In side-heads capitalize only the first word and proper names.

7. In a letter, the first word after the address. In the address, sir, friend, father, brother, sister, etc.

Do not capitalize:

1. Words used in forming parts of hyphenated compounds: e.g., The speed of the Twentieth-century Limited, West Twenty-third Street, etc.

2. Units of measurement and their {30} abbreviations: e.g., second, minute, hour, ounce, pound, foot, yard, etc.

3. The first word of a quotation following a colon (a) if it is closely connected with what precedes it; (b) if the phrase is dependent upon the preceding clause; or (c) if the words following the colon contain comment: e.g., These explanations occur to me: either the manufacturers are unaware of the situation, or they have become indifferent.

4. The definite article as a part of the title in mentioning newspapers or magazines: e.g., the Boston Herald, the Review of Reviews.

¶ When a date is at the end of a letter or paper, it is to be placed at the left of page, using roman caps and lower case if above signature; caps, small caps, and italic if below signature.

¶ On title-pages and in headings certain words may be capitalized which in paragraphed matter would be made lower case: e.g., Queen Maria Sophia, a Forgotten Heroine.

¶ In MS., two lines drawn underneath a word or words indicate SMALL CAPITALS; three lines, CAPITALS.

SMALL CAPITALS

1. B.C. and A.D., A.M. and P.M. should be set in small caps, with no spacing between the letters: e.g., B.C. 480.

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SPELLING

THE difficulties which a writer encounters who has not firmly anchored himself to some recognized authority are many, and for those who have found this refuge to remain consistent is almost an impossibility. To the complications occasioned by variations in spelling certain words given authority by the different recognized dictionaries, there has been added more recently the bewilderment of the “reformed” spelling. To lay down hard-and-fast rules, therefore, would be an act of folly, but a safe guide to follow is to note that when two or more forms exist in any good usage, including good minority usage, or recent usage among bibliographers, scientists, and other systematic writers, the following rules are observed:

• (a) Prefer the form most correct etymologically
• (b) Prefer the shortest and simplest
• (c) Prefer the more phonetic form
• (d) Prefer English spelling rather than foreign.

With this as a basis, the following rules may be formulated:

NUMBERS

1. Percentage should always take figures: e.g., ¹⁄₂ of 1 per cent. {32}

2. Spell out references to specific decades: e.g., Back in the eighties.

3. Spell out years and months in stating ages: e.g., Edward is five years and four months old.

4. Spell out numbers of centuries, dynasties, military bodies, streets and thoroughfares, sessions of Congress.

5. In statistical or technical matter figures should be used: e.g., The paper to be used is 33 × 44 inches, and weighs 120 pounds to the ream.

6. Spell out, in ordinary reading matter, all numbers of less than three digits: e.g., We have twenty-five titles, amounting to 250,000 volumes in all.

7. If, in a group of numbers, some consist of three digits and others of less, use figures for all: e.g., The packages contain, respectively, 50, 85, and 128 sheets, not fifty, eighty-five, and 128.

8. Spell out round numbers, but use figures for specific, even though approximate statements: e.g., The population of the United States is about one hundred millions; but, The population of the United States is 92,000,000.

9. Always spell out a figure, whatever its size, when it begins a sentence. If for any reason this is impracticable the sentence must be reconstructed.

10. In ordinary reading matter spell out the time of day, but in enumerations, and {33} always in connection with A.M. and P.M., use figures, omitting the word o’clock: e.g., The doors open at 7:30 P.M.

DIPHTHONGS

1. Avoid all diphthongs, especially æ and œ, but retain æ and œ in Latin words and in nominal English forms like formulæ and other plurals, arbor vitæ, etc. Established English words having now or formerly the ligature æ or œ are generally written with the simple e.

SIMPLE RULES OF ORTHOGRAPHY

1. Monosyllablic words which end in f, l, or s, when preceded by a single vowel, double their final letter: e.g., muff, still, lass. Exceptions: clef, of, if, bul, nul, sal, sol, as, gas, has, was, yes, gris, is, his, this, pus, us, thus.

2. Monosyllabic words which end in consonants other than f, l, or s do not double their final letter. Exceptions: abb, add, ebb, odd, mumm, inn, bunn, err, purr, burr, butt, mitt, fizz, fuzz, buzz.

3. Monosyllabic words ending in a consonant immediately following a diphthong or a double vowel do not double their final letter. Exception: guess.

4. In monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable ending with a single consonant (excepting h or x) preceded by a single vowel, or by qu and a vowel, the final consonant is doubled before an added {34} termination beginning with a vowel, irrespective of the addition of another syllable: e.g., stop, stopped; regret, regretting. When, however, the place of the accent is changed by the added termination, the final consonant is not doubled: e.g., prefer´, pref´erable.

5. In monosyllables and words not accented on the last syllable, an added termination does not double the final consonant when it is preceded by a diphthong or by two vowels: e.g., profit, profited; cancel, canceled; benefit, benefited; equal, equality, novel, novelist, and all the derivatives of parallel.

6. Words which end in any double letters retain the double with a termination not beginning with the same letter. This rule also holds for derivatives formed by means of prefixes: e.g., agreeing, calling, recall. Exceptions: instalment, enrolment, skilful, wilful, enthralment, pontific, withal, until, and similar derivatives.

7. Words ending in -our, the u being unsounded, are spelled -or, with the exception of Saviour and glamour. The English custom is to retain the -our in most words having this ending.

8. Words derived from words ending in silent e after a consonant retain the e when the added termination begins with a consonant: e.g., state, statement, stately; pale, paleness; move, movement. Exceptions: abridgment, {35} acknowledgment, judgment, lodgment, nursling, wholly, wisdom.

When another vowel (except e or i) immediately precedes the final e, the final e is usually dropped before a consonant: e.g., argue, argument; awe, awful; true, truly, etc. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule: e.g., eye, eyesight, etc.