The Project Gutenberg eBook, Field and Woodland Plants, by William S. Furneaux, Illustrated by Patten Wilson

FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS

[THE OUTDOOR WORLD SERIES.]

THE OUTDOOR WORLD; or, the Young Collector's Handbook. By W. S. Furneaux. With 18 Plates (16 of which are coloured), and 549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6s. net.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (British). By W. S. Furneaux. With 12 coloured Plates and 241 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6s. net.

LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS. By W. S. Furneaux. With 8 coloured Plates and 331 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6s. net.

FIELD AND WOODLAND PLANTS. By W. S. Furneaux. With 8 Coloured Plates and numerous Illustrations from Drawings by Patten Wilson and from Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6s. net.

THE SEA SHORE. By W. S. Furneaux. With 8 Plates in colour and over 300 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6s. net.

BRITISH BIRDS. By W.H. Hudson. With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by Frank E. Beddard, F.R.S. With 16 Plates (8 of which are coloured), and over 100 Illustrations in the Text. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 6s. net.

COUNTRY PASTIMES FOR BOYS. By P. Anderson Graham. With 252 Illustrations from Drawings and Photographs. Crown 8 vo. gilt edges, 3s. net.

LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO. 39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, Bombay, and Calcutta.

Plate I.

SPRING FLOWERS OF THE WOODS.

• 1. Green Hellebore.
• 2. Plantain-leaved Leopard's-bane.
• 3. Lady's Slipper.
• 4. Sand Garlic.
• 5. Wild Hyacinth.
• 6. Wood Melic Grass.

FIELD
AND
WOODLAND PLANTS

BY
W. S. FURNEAUX

AUTHOR OF
'THE OUTDOOR WORLD' 'BRITISH BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS'
'LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAMS' 'THE SEA SHORE' ETC.

WITH EIGHT PLATES IN COLOUR, AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS BY PATTEN WILSON, AND PHOTOGRAPHS FROM NATURE BY THE AUTHOR

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK, BOMBAY, AND CALCUTTA
1909

All rights reserved

[PREFACE]

This additional volume to the young naturalist's 'Outdoor World Series' is an attempt to provide a guide to the study of our wild plants, shrubs and trees—a guide which, though comparatively free from technical terms and expressions, shall yet be strictly correct and scientific.

The leading feature of the book is the arrangement of the plants and trees according to their seasons, habitats and habits; an arrangement which will undoubtedly be of the greatest assistance to the lover of wild flowers during his work in the field, and also while examining and identifying his gathered specimens at home.

A large portion of the space has necessarily been allotted to the descriptions of plants, several hundreds of which have been included, and a large proportion of these illustrated; but not a little has been devoted to an attempt to create an interest in some of those wonderful habits which lead us to look upon plants as living beings with attractions even more engrossing than their beautiful forms and colours.

It has been thought advisable to give but little attention to aquatic plants and to the flowers which are to be found only on the coast, these having been previously included in former volumes of this series dealing, respectively, with pond life and the sea shore.

The thanks of the author are due to his friend, G. Du Heaume, Esq., for his valuable assistance in collecting many of the flowers required for description and illustration.

W. S. F.

CONTENTS

COLOURED PLATES

Erratum.—On Plate VI, for 'Spring Rest Harrow' read 'Spiny Rest Harrow.'

[LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS]

FIELD
AND
WOODLAND PLANTS

[I]
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL CHARACTERS OF PLANTS AND THE IDENTIFICATION OF FLOWERS

The beginner will often find it difficult, and sometimes quite impossible, to identify some of the flowers seen or gathered during a country ramble; and he will hardly be surprised to experience many disappointments in his attempts to do this when he realises the large number of species among our flowering plants, and the very close resemblance that allied species frequently bear to one another. But there are right and wrong methods of setting to work for the purpose of determining the identity of a plant, and the object of this chapter is to put the beginner on the right track. He must remember, however, that the aid given here is intended to assist him principally in the identification of the commoner species, though it may, at the same time, help him to determine the natural affinities or relationships of other flowers that fall in his way.

The directions we are about to give the reader regarding this portion of his work will be understood by him only if he is fairly well acquainted with the general characters of a flowering plant and with the structure of flowers; and as it would hardly be advisable to assume such knowledge, we shall give a brief outline of this part of the subject, dealing only with those points that are essential to our purpose, and explaining the meaning of those terms which are commonly employed in the description of plants and their flowers.

The Root

The root is that portion of the plant which descends into the soil for the absorption of the mineral food required. It really serves a double purpose, for, in addition to the function just mentioned, it fixes the plant in its place, thus forming a basis of support for the stem and its appendages.

Forms of Roots
1. Simple fibrous. 2. Branched fibrous. 3. Tap root. 4. Tuberous root.

Roots are capable of absorbing liquids only, and all fertile soils contain more or less soluble mineral matter which is dissolved by the moisture present. This matter is absorbed mainly by the minute root-hairs—outgrowths of the superficial cells—which are to be found on the rootlets or small branches that are given off from the main descending axis.

The principal forms of roots occurring in our flowering plants are:—

1. The simple fibrous root, consisting of unbranched fibres such as we see in the Bulbous Buttercup and the Common Daisy.

2. The branched fibrous root, as that of the Chickweed and Grasses.

3. The tap root, which is thick above and tapers downwards, like the roots of the Dandelion, Carrot and Wild Parsnip.

4. The tuberous root, common among the Orchids.

5. The creeping root, possessed by some Grasses in addition to their fibrous roots.

Besides these common forms there are roots of a somewhat exceptional character, such as the aerial roots or suckers which grow from the stem of the Ivy and serve to support the plant; and the roots of the Mistletoe, which, instead of penetrating the soil, force their way into the substance of certain trees, from which they derive the necessary nourishment.

The student of plant life must always be careful to distinguish between roots and underground stems, for there are many examples of creeping and tuberous stems which resemble certain roots in general appearance. A true root bears no buds, and, therefore, is not capable of producing new plants. If a root creeps under the ground, as does the root of the Barley Grass, it merely serves the purpose of collecting nourishment from a wider area—a matter of considerable importance when the soil is dry and deficient in suitable mineral food. A creeping stem, on the other hand, developes buds as it proceeds, each bud giving rise to a new plant; and the creeping itself is the result of the growth of a permanent terminal bud.

Again, when studying plants for the purpose of identification, it is often important to note whether the root is annual, biennial, or perennial; that is, whether the root lives for one season only, lives throughout the winter, and supports the plant for a second season, or retains its life for an indefinite number of years.

Most of the roots that live over one season are of a fleshy nature, thick and tapering, or tuberous, and contain more or less stored nourishment which assists the new growths that are called forth by the warmth and light of the early spring sun.

The Stem

The stems of plants exhibit a much greater variety of structure and habit than do the roots. Their chief functions are to support the leaves and flowers, and to arrange these parts in such a manner that they obtain the maximum of light and air; also to form a means of communication by which the sap may pass in either direction. Stems also frequently help to protect the plant, either by the development of thorns or prickles, or by producing hairs which prevent snails and slugs from reaching and devouring the leaves and flowers.

The character of the stem is often of some importance in determining the species, so we must now note the principal features that should receive our attention.

As regards surface, the stem may be smooth or hairy. In general form, as seen in transverse section, it may be round, flattened, triangular, square, or traversed longitudinally by ridges and furrows more or less distinct. Flattened stems are sometimes more or less winged with leaf-like extensions, as in the Everlasting Pea, in which case the wings perform the functions of foliage leaves. It should also be noted whether the stems are herbaceous, or woody, and whether they are hollow, or jointed.

In some plants the stem is so short that the leaves appear to start direct from the root, as in the Dandelion and Primrose. Such stems are said to be inconspicuous.

Running Underground Stem of Solomon's Seal
a, Terminal bud from which the next year's stem is developed; b, Stem of the present year; c, and d, Scars of the stems of previous years.

The longer and conspicuous stems are either simple or branched, and they may be erect, prostrate, trailing, climbing, or running. In the case of climbing stems it should be noted whether the necessary support is obtained by means of tendrils, rootlets, or suckers, or by the twining of the stem itself.

Running stems are those which run along the surface of the ground by the continued growth of a terminal bud, and produce new plants at intervals, as in the case of the Wild Strawberry. Many stems, however, creep under the ground, and these should always be distinguished from running roots, from which they may be known by the production of buds that develop into new plants, as in the Iris and Solomon's Seal.

The Leaf

The arrangement of the leaves on the stem is a matter of great importance for purposes of identification. Especially should it be noted whether the leaves are opposite, alternate, whorled (arranged in circles round the stem), or radical (apparently starting direct from the root).

Some leaves have smaller leaves or scales at their bases, that is, at the points where they are attached to the stem of the plant. Such leaves or scales are termed stipules. They are often so well developed that they are as conspicuous as the ordinary foliage leaves, and in such instances they perform the functions of the latter. The presence and character of the stipules should always be noted. A leaf without stipules is said to be exstipulate.

Arrangement of Leaves
1. Opposite. 2. Alternate. 3. Whorled.

Leaf of the Pansy with Two Large Stipules.

A leaf usually consists of two distinct parts—the petiole or stalk, and the lamina or blade. Some, however, have no petiole, but the blade is in direct contact with the stem. These leaves are said to be sessile, and some of them clasp the stem, or even extend downwards on the stem, forming a wing or a sheath.

A leaf is said to be simple when the blade is in one continuous whole, even though it may be very deeply divided; but when the blade is cut into distinct parts by incisions that extend quite into the midrib (the continuation of the stalk to the tip of the leaf), the leaf is compound.

The student must be careful to distinguish between compound leaves and little branches or twigs bearing several simple leaves, for they are often very similar in general appearance. The compound leaf may always be known by the total absence of buds, and often by the presence of one or more stipules at the base of its stalk; while a branch bearing a similar appearance usually has a terminal bud, also buds in the exils of its leaves, and never any stipules at the point where it originates. The distinct parts of compound leaves are termed leaflets.

Attention to the form and character of the leaf is often of as much importance as the observation of the flower in the determination of species. Not only should we note the general shape of the leaf, but also the character of its surface, its margin, and its apex. The surface may be smooth, hairy, downy, velvety, shaggy, rough, wrinkled or dotted. The margin is said to be entire when it is not broken by incisions of any kind. If not entire it may be toothed, serrate (sawlike), crenate or wavy. Sometimes it happens that the teeth bear still smaller teeth, in which case the margin is said to be doubly toothed; or, if the teeth are sawlike, it is doubly serrate. As regards the apex, it is generally sufficient to note whether it is acute (sharp), obtuse (blunt), or bifid (divided into two).

Margins of Leaves
1. Entire. 2. Serrate or sawlike. 3. Doubly serrate. 4. Dentate or toothed. 5. Crenate. 6. Doubly crenate. 7. Sinuate or wavy.

It is not necessary to describe separately all the principal forms of simple and compound leaves. These are illustrated, and the student should either make himself acquainted with the terms applied to the different shapes, or refer, as occasion requires, to the illustrations. Concerning the compound leaves, however, their segments are themselves sometimes divided after the manner of the whole, and even the secondary segments may be similarly cut. Thus, if the segments of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnately compound, the leaf is said to be bi-pinnate; and, if the secondary segments are also compound, it is a tri-pinnate leaf.

Inflorescence

We must now turn our attention to the different kinds of inflorescence or arrangement of flowers. Flowers are commonly mounted on stalks (peduncles), but in many cases they have no stalks, being attached directly to the stem of the plant, and therefore said to be sessile. Whether stalked or sessile, if they arise from the axils of the leaves—the angles formed by the leafstalks and the stem—they are said to be axillary. When only one flower grows on a stalk it is said to be solitary; but in many cases we find a number of flowers on one peduncle, in which instances, should each flower of the cluster have a separate stalk of its own, the main stalk only is called the peduncle, and the lesser stalks bearing the individual flowers are the pedicels.

Various Forms of Simple Leaves
1. Oval or elliptical. 2. Ovate. 3. Obovate. 4. Orbicular. 5. Lanceolate. 6. Linear. 7. Cordate (heart-shaped). 8. Obcordate. 9. Reniform (kidney-shaped). 10. Sagittate (Arrow-shaped). 11. Rhomboidal. 12. Spathulate (spoon-shaped). 13. Peltate (stalk fixed to the centre). 14. Oblique. 15. Runcinate (lobes pointing more or less downwards). 16. Hastate (halberd-shaped). 17. Angled. 18. Palmate. 19. Pinnatifid.

Forms of Compound Leaves
1. Binate. 2. Ternate. 3. Digitate. 4. Pinnate.

Forms of Inflorescence
1. Spike. 2. Raceme. 3. Corymb. 4. Umbel. 5. Cyme. 6. Compound Raceme or Panicle. 7. Capitulum or Head. 8. Compound Umbel.

It is often convenient to make use of certain terms to denote the various arrangements of flower-clusters, and the principal of these are as follows:—

1. Spike.—Sessile flowers arranged along a common axis.

2. Raceme.—Flowers stalked along a common axis.

3. Corymb.—Flowers stalked along a common axis, but the lengths of the pedicels varying in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to the same level.

4. Umbel.—The pedicels all start from the same level on the peduncle.

5. Cyme.—An arrangement in which the flower directly at the end of the peduncle opens first, followed by those on the branching pedicels.

6. Panicle.—A compound raceme—a raceme the pedicels of which are themselves branched.

7. Capitulum or Flower-head.—A dense cluster of flowers, all attached to a common broad disc or receptacle.

Other forms of inflorescence may also be compound. Thus, a compound umbel is produced when the pedicels of an umbel are themselves umbellate.

The Flower

A flower, if complete in all its parts, consists of modified leaves arranged in four distinct whorls, the parts being directly or indirectly attached to a receptacle.

The outer whorl is the calyx, and is composed of parts called sepals, which may be either united or distinct. The calyx is usually green; but, in some cases, is more or less highly coloured. Sometimes the calyx is quite free from the pistil or central part of the flower, the sides of which are thus left naked, and the calyx is then said to be inferior. If, however, it is united to the surface of the pistil it is superior. When it remains after other parts of the flower have decayed, it is said to be persistent.

The second whorl—the corolla—is usually the whorl that gives most beauty to the flower. It is composed of parts, united or distinct, called petals.

Both calyx and corolla vary very considerably in shape. They may be cup-shaped, tubular, bell-shaped, spreading, funnel-shaped, lipped, &c. If the sepals and petals are arranged symmetrically round a common centre, the calyx and corolla, respectively, are said to be regular; if otherwise, they are irregular.

The third whorl consists of the stamens, each of which, in its most perfect form, is made up of a filament or stalk, and an anther which, when mature, splits and sets free the pollen that is formed within it. Sometimes the stamen has no filament, and the anther is then said to be sessile.

The mode of attachment of the stamens is very variable. They may grow from immediately below the pistil, or from its summit; or they may be attached to either the petals or the sepals. The filaments are usually distinct, but sometimes they are united in such a manner as to form a tube, or grow into two or more bundles. The anthers are usually distinct, even when the filaments are united; but these sometimes grow together.

Longitudinal Section Through the Flower of the Buttercup
Showing the calyx, corolla, stamens and pistil. The pistil consists of several distinct carpels, one of which is represented in section to show its single ovule.

The central part of the flower is the pistil, and this is made up of one or more parts called carpels. Each carpel, when distinct, is a hollow case or ovary, prolonged above into one or more stalks or styles, tipped by a viscid secreting surface called the stigma. The ovary contains the ovules, attached to a surface called the placenta; and these ovules, after having been impregnated by the pollen, develop into seeds which are plants in embryo. The ovary may have no style, and the stigma is then sessile.

Where the pistil consists of more than one carpel, these carpels may unite in such a manner as to form a single cell, or an ovary of two or more cells. In other cases the carpels remain quite distinct, thus forming a number of distinct ovaries, each with its own stigma. For purposes of identification it is often necessary to note the position of the placenta. This may be at the side of the ovary, in which case it is said to be parietal; or it may stand up in the centre of the ovary, without any attachment to the sides, when it is described as free central. If, however, it occupies the centre of the ovary, but is attached by means of radiating partitions to the sides, it is termed axile.

If the ovary is quite free in the centre of the flower, the surrounding parts being attached below it, it is said to be superior; but if the perianth (p. [11]) adheres to it, it is inferior.

A leaf or scale will often be observed at the foot of a flower stalk or at the base of a sessile flower. This is termed a bract, and a flower possessing a bract is said to be bracteate. The bract is sometimes so large that it almost completely encloses the flower, or even a cluster of flowers.

Inferior (1) and Superior (2) Ovary.

The flower is the reproductive part of the plant, being concerned in the production of the seeds; but the organs directly connected with the seed-formation are the pistil and the stamens, the former containing the ovules, and the latter producing the pollen cells by means of which the ovules are impregnated. Thus the stamens and the pistil are the essential parts of the flower, though the corolla and the calyx may perform some subsidiary function in connexion with the reproduction of the species.

This being the case, a flower may be described as perfect if it consists of stamens and pistil only, without any surrounding calyx or corolla; and imperfect if it possesses no pistil or no stamens, regardless of the presence or absence of calyx and corolla.

Unisex Flowers of the Nettle
1. Pistillate. 2. Staminate.

The two outer whorls of a well-developed perfect flower (calyx and corolla) together form the perianth. Some flowers, however have only one whorl outside the anthers, representing both the calyx and corolla of the more highly organised flower. This one whorl, therefore, is the perianth, and its parts are not correctly termed either petals or sepals, since they represent both.

A perfect flower is sometimes spoken of as bisexual, for it includes the two sexual organs of the plant—the ovary or female part, producing the ovules; and the stamens or male part, which is concerned in the impregnation or fertilisation of the ovules.

Many plants produce only unisexual (and therefore imperfect) flowers, which contain either no stamens or no pistil. If such possess stamens and no pistil, they are called staminate or male flowers; and if pistil and no stamens, pistillate or female flowers. These two kinds are sometimes borne on the same plant, when they are said to be monœcious; but often on separate plants (diœcious), as in some of the Nettleworts and the Willow Tree. Spikes of unisexual flowers, such as are common among our forest trees, are called catkins.

The Fruit and Seed

Dehiscent Fruits
1. Pod. 2. Siliqua. 3. Silicula. 4. Follicles(cluster of three). 5. Capsule splitting longitudinally. 6. Capsule splitting transversely. 7. Capsule splitting by pores.

After the ovules have been impregnated by the pollen they develop into seeds, each of which consists of or contains an embryo plant; and, at the same time, the ovary itself enlarges, changing its character more or less, till it becomes a ripened fruit.

Fruits vary very considerably in their general characters, but may be divided into two main groups—those that split when ripe (dehiscent fruits) and those which do not split (indehiscent fruits).

The principal forms of dehiscent fruits are:—

1. The pod or legume, which splits into two valves, with placenta on one side.

2. The siliqua, a long, narrow fruit that splits into two valves which separate from a membrane with placenta on both sides.

3. The silicula, of the same nature as the siliqua, but about as broad as it is long.

4. The follicle, which splits on one side only, through the placenta.

5. All other fruits that split are termed capsules. Some of these split longitudinally, some transversely, and others by forming pores for the escape of the seeds.

The chief kinds of indehiscent fruits are:—

1. The drupe or stone-fruit, which consists of a hard stone surrounded by a fleshy covering, as the plum and the cherry.

2. The berry, which is soft and fleshy, and contains several seeds, like the currant and the grape.

3. The nut or achene—a fruit with hard and dry walls, as the filbert and the acorn.

4. The samara or winged fruit, like that of the sycamore.

Various modifications of these indehiscent fruits are to be met with; thus, the blackberry is not really a berry, but a cluster of little drupes formed from a single pistil of many carpels. A berry, too, may be made up of many parts, as is the case with the orange. The apple and similar fruits consist of a core (the true fruit) surrounded by a fleshy mass that is produced from the receptacle of the flower; and the strawberry is a succulent, enlarged receptacle of the flower, with a number of little achenes (the true fruits) on its surface.

The seed, as we have already observed, is the embryo plant. It consists of one or more seed-leaves or cotyledons, a radicle or young root, and a plumule or young bud. In many cases the skin of the seed encloses nothing more than the three parts of the embryo, as named above; but it sometimes contains, in addition, a quantity of nutrient matter in the form of albumen, starch, oil, gum, or other substance.

Classification of Flowering Plants

Our flowering plants are divided into two main groups, the dicotyledons and the monocotyledons. These terms suggest that the division is based on the nature of the seed, which is really the case, but the groups are characterised by differences in other parts. Thus, the plants which produce seeds with two cotyledons may be known by the nature of the stem, which consists of a central pith, surrounded by wood arranged in one or more rings, and the whole enclosed in an outer epidermis or in a bark. These plants also bear leaves with netted veins, and the parts of the flower are usually in whorls of four or five or multiples of four or five. Those plants whose seeds have only one cotyledon may be known by the absence of a central pith and true bark in the stem, while the wood is arranged in scattered bundles instead of in a ring or rings. They have also, generally, leaves with parallel veins; and the parts of the flower are usually in threes or multiples of three. The following table shows these features at a glance:—

These two great divisions or classes are split up into sub-classes, each embracing a large number of plants with common characters; and the sub-classes are again divided into orders, and the orders into genera.

The student should always endeavour to determine the order to which any flower he finds belongs; and, if possible, the genus and the species. It is certainly a pleasure to be able to call flowers by their names, but at the same time it must be remembered that a vast deal of pleasure may be gained by the study of flowers—their peculiar structure, habits and habitats—even though their names are unknown; and the student who has learnt to recognise these characters, and to discover the relationships that exist between certain flowers of different species, is certainly much more fortunate than the one who knows abundance of names with only a meagre acquaintance with the flowers themselves.

Our table of classification gives the most important distinguishing characters of the classes, sub-classes, and orders, of a very large proportion of our wild flowers, and will enable the reader to determine the natural order of almost every one he sees. In order to show how this table is to be used we will take an imaginary example.

Let us suppose that we find a plant with a square stem; opposite, simple leaves with netted veins; flowers apparently in whorls, in the axils of the leaves; persistent calyx of five united sepals; a lipped corolla, of five united petals, two forming the lower, and three the upper lip; four stamens, attached to the corolla, two longer than the others; a superior, four-lobed ovary; and a fruit of four little nuts; then we proceed to determine the natural order to which it belongs as follows:—

The netted veins of the leaves, and the arrangement of the parts of the flower in whorls of four and five, show us at once that the plant is a dicotyledon. Then, the presence of both calyx and corolla enables us to decide that the plant belongs to Division I. of the dicotyledons—that it belongs to one of the orders 1 to 59. Noting, now, that the corolla is composed of united petals, we are enabled to fix its position in the subdivision I.B, among orders 37 to 59. Next, the superior ovary shows that it must be located in the group I.B 2—orders 44 to 59; and as the stamens are attached to the corolla, we see at once that it is not a member of order 44. Turning now to the Synopsis of the Natural Orders (p. [17]), we find that the irregular flowers of this group of orders occur only in 51, 52, 53, 54, and 56. Finally, the square stem, opposite leaves, and character of the fruit, show us that the plant must belong to the order Labiatæ.

The student should, as far as possible, deal with all flowers in this manner, assigning each one to its proper order; and, if he preserves his specimens for future observation, the names of the orders should always be attached, and the plants arranged accordingly.

Again, should the reader meet with a common flower the name of which was previously known, while he is as yet ignorant as to the order to which it belongs; or, should he find a flower that he can at once identify by means of one of our illustrations; he should not rest satisfied on seeing that the name of the order is given beside the name of the plant, but turn to the synopsis, and note the distinguishing characters which determine the natural position of the plant. In this way he will cultivate the habit of careful observation; will make much more rapid progress in forming an acquaintance with plants in general, and will soon become familiar with those natural affinities which mark, more or less distinctly, a cousinship among the flowers.

To aid the reader in this part of his work we have given the name of the natural order with the name of every plant described; and, where difficulties are likely to occur in the identification of similar common species of the same genus, though perhaps only one member of the genus has been selected for description, a few notes are often included with the object of assisting in the identification of the others.

In our descriptions of wild flowers we do not always repeat those features which are common to the species of their respective orders. These features are, however, of the greatest importance; and thus it is essential that the reader makes himself acquainted with them, by referring to the synopsis of the orders, before noting those characters which are given as being more directly concerned in the determination of the species themselves. Thus, when we describe the Pasque Flower (p. [297]) we do not refer to those general characters that apply to all the Ranunculaceæ or Buttercup family, and which may be seen at once by referring to p. [17], but give all those details that are necessary to enable one to distinguish between the Pasque Flower and the other members of the same order.

Dicotyledons

(Leaves with netted veins. Parts of flower generally in fours or fives or multiples of four or five)

• I. Flowers with both calyx and corolla.
  • A. Corolla composed of free and separate petals.
    • 1. Stamens attached to base of flower, beneath the pistil—Orders 1-22.
    • 2. Stamens attached above or around the pistil—Orders 23-36.
  • B. Corolla of united petals.
    • 1. Ovary inferior.
      • a. Stamens on the corolla—Orders 37-41.
      • b. Stamens on the ovary—Orders 42-43.
    • 2. Ovary superior.
      • a. Stamens free from the corolla—Order 44.
      • b. Stamens on the corolla—Orders 45-59.
• II. Flowers with calyx or corolla or both absent.
  • A. Flowers with corolla absent, and, generally, with stamens and pistil in the same flower.
    • 1. Ovary superior—Orders 60-64.
    • 2. Ovary inferior—Orders 65-67.
  • B. Corolla and calyx usually absent. Stamens and pistil usually in separate flowers.
    • 1. Flowers not in catkins—Orders 68-71.
    • 2. Flowers in catkins—Orders 72-76.

Monocotyledons

(Leaves usually with parallel veins. Parts of flower in threes or multiples of three)

• I. Perianth (see p. [11]), coloured or petal-like, not scaly. (Sometimes absent.)
  • A. Ovary inferior.
    • 1. Leaves with parallel veins—Orders 77-80.
    • 2. Leaves with netted veins—Order 81.
  • B. Ovary superior—Orders 82-88.
• II. Flowers without perianth, enclosed in scales or husks.
  • A. Grassy herbs, with solid stems; leaves forming unsplit sheaths round the stem; flowers in spikelets, with one to three stamens—Order 89.
  • B. Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; leaves generally forming split sheaths round the stem; flowers generally perfect, with three stamens—Order 90.

SYNOPSIS OF THE NATURAL ORDERS

1. Ranunculaceæ.—Herbs mostly with alternate leaves and regular flowers. Sepals generally 5, distinct. Petals 5 or more. Stamens 12 or more. Pistil of many distinct carpels. Fruit of many one-seeded achenes. (The Buttercup Family.)

2. Berberidaceæ.—Shrub with compound spines; alternate, spiny leaves; and pendulous flowers. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Stamens 6. Fruit a berry. (The Berberry Family.)

3. Nymphæaceæ.—Aquatic plants with floating leaves and solitary flowers. Petals numerous, gradually passing into sepals outwards, and into stamens inwards. Ovary of many cells, with many seeds. (The Water-lily Family.)

4. Papaveraceæ.—Herbs with a milky sap; alternate leaves without stipules; and regular (generally nodding) flowers. Sepals 2, deciduous. Fruit a capsule. Petals 4. Stamens many. Ovary one-celled, but with many membranous, incomplete partitions. (The Poppy Family.)

5. Fumariaceæ.—Herbs with much divided, exstipulate leaves; and racemes of small irregular, bracteate flowers. Sepals 2 or 0, deciduous. Petals 4, irregular. Stamens 6, in two bundles. Ovary of two carpels, one-celled. (The Fumitory Family.)

6. Cruciferæ.—Herbs with alternate, exstipulate leaves, and racemes of regular flowers. Sepals 4. Petals 4, cruciform. Stamens 6, four longer and two shorter. Ovary one-or two-celled. Fruit a siliqua. (The Cabbage Family.)

7. Resedaceæ.—Herbs or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate leaves; and spikes of irregular, greenish flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, persistent. Petals 4 to 7, irregular. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 lobes, one-celled. (The Mignonette Family.)

8. Cistaceæ.—Herbs or undershrubs with entire, opposite leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5. Petals 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens many. Ovary of 3 carpels, one-chambered. (The Rock-rose Family.)

9. Violaceæ.—Herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and axillary, irregular flowers. Sepals 5, persistent. Petals 5, unequal, the lower one prolonged into a spur. Stamens 5. Ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (The Violet Family.)

10. Droseraceæ.—Small marsh plants with radical, glandular leaves; and cymes of small, white, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or 10. Ovary of 3 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sundew Family.)

11. Polygalaceæ.—Herbs with alternate, scattered, exstipulate, simple leaves; and racemes of irregular flowers. Sepals 5, the inner ones resembling petals. Petals 3 to 5, unequal. Stamens 8, in two bundles. Ovary two-celled. Fruit a capsule. (The Milkwort Family.)

12. Frankeniaceæ.—Herb with opposite, exstipulate leaves; and small, axillary, red, regular flowers. Sepals 4 to 6, united into a tube. Petals 4 to 6. Stamens 4 to 6. Ovary of 2 to 5 carpels, one-celled. (The Sea Heath.)

13. Elatinaceæ.—Small aquatic herbs, with opposite, stipulate, spathulate leaves; and minute, axillary, red flowers. Sepals, petals and stamens 2 to 5. Fruit a capsule with 2 to 5 valves. (The Waterwort Family.)

14. Caryophyllaceæ.—Herbs mostly with jointed stems; opposite, simple leaves; and red or white, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. Styles 2 to 5. Fruit a one-celled capsule, opening at top by teeth. (The Pink Family.)

15. Linaceæ.—Herbs with slender stems; narrow, simple, entire, exstipulate leaves; and cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Petals twisted in the bud, fugacious (falling early). Carpels each with two ovules. Fruit a capsule of 3 to 5 cells. (The Flax Family.)

16. Malvaceæ.—Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and conspicuous, axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into a tube. Carpels many, each with one ovule. (The Mallow Family.)

17. Tiliaceæ.—Trees with alternate, stipuled, oblique, serrate leaves; a large bract adherent to the flower stalk; and cymes of greenish, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens many. Carpels 5, each with two ovules. (The Linden Family.)

18. Hypericaceæ.—Herbs or shrubs with opposite, simple, exstipulate leaves, often dotted with glands; and cymes of conspicuous yellow, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5, with glandular dots. Petals 4 or 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens many, united into several bundles. Carpels 3 to 5, with many ovules. Fruit a capsule with 3 to 5 cells. (The St. John's-wort Family.)

19. Aceraceæ.—Trees with opposite, palmately-lobed leaves; and small, green, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 to 9. Stamens 8, on the disc. Fruit a samara. (The Maple Family.)

20. Geraniaceæ.—Herbs with lobed, generally stipulate leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. Petals 3 to 5. Stamens 5 to 10. Carpels 3 to 5, surrounding a long beak. (The Crane's-bill Family.)

21. Balsaminaceæ.—Herbs with simple, alternate leaves; and axillary, irregular, yellow flowers. Sepals 3 or 5, one forming a wide-mouthed spur. Petals 5, four of which are united in pairs. Stamens 5. Fruit a capsule with five elastic valves. (The Balsam Family.)

22. Oxalidaceæ.—Low herbs, with radical, generally trifoliate leaves; and axillary, regular flowers. Sepals 5. Petals 5, united at the base. Stamens 10. Ovary five-celled, with many ovules. (The Wood Sorrel Family.)

23. Celastraceæ.—Trees or shrubs, with opposite leaves; and small, regular flowers in axillary cymes. Sepals and petals usually 4. Stamens usually 4, alternating with the petals. Carpels 4. Fruit a fleshy capsule. (Spindle Tree.)

24. Rhamnaceæ.—Shrubs with simple leaves; small, greenish flowers; and berry-like fruit. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Stamens opposite the petals. Ovary superior, three-celled, with one ovule in each cell. (The Buckthorn Family.)

25. Leguminosæ.—Herbs or shrubs with alternate, stipuled leaves, generally pinnate or ternate, often tendrilled; and papilionaceous (butterfly-like) flowers. Sepals 5, combined. Petals 5, irregular. Stamens generally 10, all, or nine of them united. Ovary superior. Fruit a pod. (The Pea Family.)

26. Rosaceæ.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs with alternate, stipuled leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens many. Carpels 1, 2, 5, or many. (The Rose Family.)

27. Onagraceæ.—Herbs with mostly entire, simple, exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals 2 to 4. Petals 2 to 4, twisted in the bud, or absent. Stamens 2 to 4, or 8. Ovary inferior, with carpels 1 to 6 (usually 4), many-seeded. (The Willow-herb Family.)

28. Haloragiaceæ.—Aquatic herbs with whorled leaves and minute flowers. Sepals 2 to 4 or absent. Petals 2 to 4 or absent. Stamens 1, 2, 4, or 8. Ovary inferior. Carpels 1 to 4. (The Mare's-tail Family.)

29. Lythraceæ.—Herbs with opposite or whorled, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, and petals 3 to 6. Stamens generally twice as many as petals. Ovary superior. Carpels 2 to 6. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Loosestrife Family.)

30. Tamariscaceæ.—Shrub with minute, scale-like leaves; and lateral spikes of small, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 to 10, on the disc. Styles 3. (The Tamarisk.)

31. Cucurbitaceæ.—Rough, climbing herb, with tendrilled, palmately-lobed leaves; greenish, diœcious flowers in axillary racemes; and scarlet berries. Sepals and petals 5, united. Stamens 3. Ovary inferior. Carpels 3. (The White Bryony.)

32. Saxifragaceæ.—Shrubs and herbs with regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4 or 10. Carpels 2 or 4, united. (The Saxifrage Family.)

33. Crassulaceæ.—Succulent herbs with simple leaves; and small, regular, starry flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3 to 20, usually 5. Stamens twice as many as the petals. Carpels superior, forming follicles. (The Stonecrop Family.)

34. Araliaceæ.—Climbing shrub with clinging rootlets, evergreen leaves, umbels of yellowish flowers, and black berries. Sepals, petals, stamens, carpels, and seeds 5 each. Ovary inferior. (The Ivy.)

35. Cornaceæ.—Herbs and shrubs with opposite leaves, small flowers, and berry-like fruits. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary inferior. Carpels 2, each with one ovule. (The Dogwood Family.)

36. Umbelliferæ.—Herbs with mostly compound, pinnate leaves, sheathing at the base; and compound umbels of small, white flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary inferior. Fruit of two adhering carpels. (The Parsley Family.)

37. Caprifoliaceæ.—Shrubs and herbs with opposite leaves, and conspicuous (sometimes irregular) flowers. Sepals and petals 3 to 5. Stamens 4 to 10. Fruit a berry. (The Honeysuckle Family.)

38. Rubiaceæ.—Herbs with whorled leaves; and small, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 6. Carpels 2. (The Bedstraw Family.)

39. Valerianaceæ.—Herbs with opposite leaves and small (sometimes irregular) flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, often downy. Petals 3 to 5. Stamens 1 or 3. Ovary of three carpels, one-celled. (The Valerian Family.)

40. Dipsaceæ.—Herbs with opposite leaves; and heads of small flowers, mostly blue. Calyx enclosed in a whorl of scaly bracts. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 4, free. Ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (The Teasel Family.)

41. Compositæ.—Herbs with heads of small flowers with tubular or strap-shaped corollas. Calyx absent or represented by a whorl of silky hairs (pappus). Stamens 4 or 5, anthers generally united. (The Daisy Family.)

42. Campanulaceæ.—Herbs with milky sap; alternate, entire, scattered leaves; and usually conspicuous, blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary of 2 to 8 carpels. (The Bellflower Family.)

43. Vacciniaceæ.—Low (mostly mountainous) shrubs, with scattered, simple, alternate leaves; small drooping, reddish or pink, regular flowers; and edible berries. Sepals, petals, and carpels 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10. (The Cranberry Family.)

44. Ericaceæ.—Shrubs or herbs with opposite or whorled, evergreen leaves; and small conspicuous, regular, flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 4 or 5. Stamens 5 to 10. (The Heath Family.)

45. Aquifoliaceæ.—Shrub with evergreen, spiny leaves; and small, greenish, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels 4 or 5. Fruit berry-like, with one-seeded stones. (The Holly.)

46. Oleaceæ.—Trees or shrubs with opposite leaves; and small, regular flowers. Sepals and petals 4, sometimes absent. Stamens 2. Fruit a berry or a samara. (The Olive Family.)

47. Apocynaceæ.—Slender, prostrate shrubs, with milky sap; opposite, evergreen, entire leaves; and conspicuous, regular, purple flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Corolla salver-shaped. (The Periwinkle Family.)

48. Gentianaceæ.—Bitter herbs with opposite, simple, entire leaves; and regular, conspicuous flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 10. Carpels 2. Fruit a capsule. (The Gentian Family.)

49. Convolvulaceæ.—Herbs, generally twining, with alternate, simple leaves (sometimes absent); and mostly conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary two-or four-celled. Fruit a four-seeded capsule. (The Bindweed Family.)

50. Solanaceæ.—Herbs or shrubs with alternate leaves, and axillary cymes of regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Ovary two-celled. Fruit berry-like or a capsule, many seeded. (The Nightshade Family.)

51. Scrophulariaceæ.—Herbs with mostly irregular, lipped flowers. Sepals and petals 4 or 5. Stamens 2, or 4, two longer than the others. Carpels 2. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Figwort Family.)

52. Orobanchaceæ.—Fleshy, brown, parasitic plants, with scattered scale-leaves; and mostly brownish, irregular flowers. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals 5, lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Carpels 2. Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Broom-rape Family.)

53. Verbenaceæ.—An erect, branched herb, with opposite leaves; and a compound spike of small, irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla lipped. Stamens 4, two longer than the others. Ovary four-celled. Fruit of 4 nutlets. (The Vervain.)

54. Labiatæ.—Herbs, mostly aromatic, with square stems, opposite leaves, and whorls or cymes of irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla usually lipped. Stamens 4 (rarely 2), two longer than the others. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Dead Nettle Family.)

55. Boraginaceæ.—Herbs, mostly rough, with alternate, simple leaves; and spikes of conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Carpels 2. Fruit of 4 one-seeded nutlets. (The Borage Family.)

56. Lentibulariaceæ.—Insectivorous, marsh herbs, with radical, entire leaves, or much-divided floating leaves with bladders; and conspicuous, irregular flowers. Sepals and petals 5. Corolla usually lipped. Stamens 2. Fruit a one-chambered, many-seeded capsule. (The Butterwort Family.)

57. Primulaceæ.—Herbs, mostly with radical leaves; and conspicuous, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 to 9. Stamens opposite the petals. Ovary one-celled, with free central placenta. Fruit a many-seeded capsule. (The Primrose Family.)

58. Plumbaginaceæ.—Herbs, mostly maritime, with radical or alternate leaves; and mostly blue, regular flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 5. Stamens opposite the petals, and usually free. Carpels 3 to 5. Ovary one-celled and one-seeded. (The Thrift Family.)

59. Plantaginaceæ.—Herbs with (generally) simple, entire, radical leaves; and spikes of greenish flowers. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4. Corolla scaly. Carpels usually 2 or 4. Fruit a one-to four-chambered capsule. (The Plantain Family.)

Note.—Plants in which calyx or corolla are, or appear to be, absent occur in orders 1, 6, 14, 26, 27, 28, 29, and 32.

60. Amaranthaceæ.—A smooth, prostrate herb, with scattered, stalked, exstipulate, simple leaves; and small, axillary, green, monœcious flowers. Sepals and stamens 3 to 5. (The Amaranth.)

61. Chenopodiaceæ.—Herbs with simple, exstipulate leaves, or leafless, jointed stems; and small green flowers. Sepals 3 to 5, persistent. Stamens 1 to 5, opposite the sepals. Fruit indehiscent. (The Goosefoot Family.)

62. Polygonaceæ.—Herbs with sheathing stipules; alternate, simple leaves; and small flowers. Sepals 3 to 6, green or coloured, usually persistent. Stamens 5 to 8. Fruit indehiscent. (The Dock Family.)

63. Eleagnaceæ.—A shrub with silvery scales; alternate, entire, exstipulate leaves; and inconspicuous, diœcious flowers. Sepals 2 to 4, persistent. Stamens 4. Fruit berry-like. (The Sea Buckthorn.)

64. Thymelaceæ.—Shrubs with tough inner bark; simple, entire, exstipulate leaves; and conspicuous, perfect, sweet-scented flowers. Sepals 4. Stamens 8. Fruit berry-like. (The Spurge Laurel Family.)

65. Loranthaceæ.—A green, parasitic, much branched shrub, with opposite, simple, entire leaves; inconspicuous, diœcious flowers; and whitish viscid berries. Sepals and stamens 4. Ovary one-chambered. Berry one-seeded. (The Mistletoe.)

66. Aristolochiaceæ.—Herbs and climbing shrubs, with alternate leaves and perfect flowers. Sepals 2 or 3, sometimes coloured, sometimes lipped. Ovary with 4 to 6 chambers, containing many ovules. (The Birthwort Family.)

67. Santalaceæ.—A slender, prostrate, root-parasite, with alternate, linear leaves; and inconspicuous, perfect flowers. Sepals and stamens 4 or 5. Ovary one-celled. Fruit dry, one-seeded. (The Bastard Toad-flax.)

68. Empetraceæ.—A mountain, evergreen, resinous shrub, with alternate, narrow leaves; and inconspicuous, diœcious flowers. Perianth of 6 scales. Stamens 3. Ovary of 3 to 9 cells, with one ovule in each cell. (The Crowberry.)

69. Euphorbiaceæ.—Trees, shrubs, or herbs, generally with a milky sap; simple, entire leaves; and small, inconspicuous flowers, sometimes enclosed in calyx-like bracts. Perianth of 3 or 4 parts, or absent. Stamens 1 or many. Fruit separating into 2 or 3 carpels elastically. (The Spurge Family.)

70. Urticaceæ.—Herbs, often with simple, stinging leaves; and small, green, clustered, unisexual flowers. Stamens 4 or 5, opposite the sepals. Ovary superior, one-celled. Fruit indehiscent. (The Nettle Family.)

71. Ulmaceæ.—Trees with alternate, distichous leaves, and perfect flowers. Perianth of 4 or 5 parts, bell-shaped. Stamens 4 or 5. Ovary superior, with one or two cells. Fruit a thin, one-seeded samara. (The Elm Family.)

72. Cupuliferæ.—Trees or shrubs with alternate, stipuled, simple leaves; and small, green flowers. Perianth of 5 or 6 parts. Stamens 5 to 20. Fruit a nut, enclosed in a tough cupule. (The Oak Family.)

73. Betulaceæ.—Trees or shrubs with alternate leaves and small flowers. Stamens 1 or more. Fruit small, indehiscent, winged, not enclosed in a cup. (The Birch Family.)

74. Salicaceæ.—Trees with alternate, simple leaves; and flowers which generally appear before the leaves. Stamens one or more to each scale. Fruit many-seeded, not enclosed in a cup. (The Willow Family.)

75. Myricaceæ.—A small aromatic shrub, with alternate, simple leaves; and inconspicuous flowers. Stamens 4 to 8. Fruit a drupe. (The Bog Myrtle.)

76. Coniferæ.¹—Shrubs or trees with rigid evergreen, linear leaves; and resinous juices. Male flowers in catkins. Female flowers generally in cones. Seeds not enclosed in an ovary. (The Pine Family.)

¹ The members of the Pine family do not really belong to the Dicotyledons, although their stems increase in thickness in the same way as those of our other trees and shrubs. They belong to the Gymnosperms (naked-seeded group), in which the seeds are not produced in ovaries; but it is more convenient, for our present purpose, to place them near our other forest trees.

77. Orchidaceæ.—Herbs mostly with tuberous roots, and conspicuous, irregular, perfect flowers in spikes or racemes. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3. Stamens 1 or 2, united to the style. (The Orchid Family.)

78. Iridaceæ.—Herbs with fleshy, underground stems; narrow leaves; and handsome, irregular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens and carpels 3. Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a many-seeded capsule with three valves. (The Iris Family.)

79. Amaryllidaceæ.—Herbs with bulbs, narrow leaves, and handsome, regular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens 6. Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a 3-valved capsule. (The Narcissus Family.)

80. Hydrocharidaceæ.—Aquatic herbs, with floating or submerged leaves; and conspicuous, regular, diœcious flowers. Sepals and petals 3. Stamens 3 to 12. Carpels 3 or 6. Fruit a berry. (The Frog-bit Family.)

81. Dioscoriaceæ.—A climbing herb, with broad, glossy leaves; and small, monœcious flowers. Sepals, petals, and carpels 3. Stamens 6. Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a berry. Seeds 6. (The Black Bryony.)

82. Liliaceæ.—Herbs with mostly narrow leaves, and conspicuous, regular, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts, Stamens 6. Ovary 3-celled. Fruit a berry or capsule. (The Lily Family.)

83. Alismaceæ.—Aquatic plants with radical, net-veined leaves; and conspicuous, white, perfect flowers. Perianth of 6 parts. Stamens 6 or more. Carpels numerous, and distinct or nearly so. (The Water-plantain Family.)

84. Naidaceæ.—Aquatic plants with mostly floating or submerged leaves; and inconspicuous flowers. Perianth of 4 to 6 scales, or absent. Stamens and carpels 1 to 6. (The Pond-weed Family.)

85. Lemnaceæ.—Minute floating plants, with green, cellular fronds, rarely flowering. Flowers very small, enclosed in a bract. Stamen 1. Ovary one-celled. Ovules 1 to 7. (The Duckweed Family.)

86. Araceæ.—Herbs with net-veined, radical leaves; and small flowers on a fleshy spadix enclosed in a leafy sheath. Perianth of 6 parts, or absent. Stamens 1 to 6. Ovary of one to three cells. Fruit berry-like. (The Cuckoo Pint Family.)

87. Typhaceæ.—Erect marsh plants, with long, narrow leaves; and small monœcious flowers in conspicuous spikes or heads. Perianth absent. Stamens many. Fruit a one-seeded drupe. (The Reed-mace Family.)

88. Juncaceæ.—Rush-like herbs, with cylindrical or narrow leaves, and small, brown flowers. Perianth membranous, of 6 parts. Stamens 6. Carpels 3. Fruit a 3-valved capsule. (The Rush Family.)

89. Cyperaceæ.—Grassy herbs, with usually solid, triangular stems; and linear leaves, with tubular sheaths. Flowers in spikelets, unisexual or perfect. Stamens 1 to 3. Carpels and stigmas 2 or 3. (The Sedge Family.)

90. Gramineæ.—Grassy herbs, with hollow stems; and linear leaves, with split sheaths. Flowers usually perfect. Stamens usually 3. Stigmas 1 or 2. (The Grass Family.)

[II]
THE POLLINATION AND FERTILISATION OF FLOWERS

Since flowers are the reproductive organs of the plant it seems only natural to suppose that the wonderful variety of colour and form which they exhibit might have some connexion with the processes concerned in the propagation of their respective species, and the more we study the nature of the flowers and observe the methods by which pollen is transferred from stamens to stigmas, the stronger becomes our conviction that the diversities mentioned are all more or less connected with the one great function of reproduction.

This being the case, we propose to devote a short chapter to a simple account of the uses of the parts of a flower, and to the various contrivances on the part of the plant to secure the surest and best means of perpetuating the species.

It has already been stated that the stamens produce pollen cells, and that the ovary contains one or more ovules. As soon as the anthers are mature, they open and set free the pollen cells they contained. A stigma is said to be mature when it exposes a sticky surface to which pollen cells may adhere, and on which these cells will grow. When a pollen cell has been transferred to such a stigma, it is nourished by the fluid secreted by the latter, and sends out a slender, hollow filament (the pollen tube) which immediately begins to descend through the stigma, and through the style, if any, till it reaches the ovary.

Pollen Cells throwing out their Tubes.

Should the reader desire to watch the growth of the pollen tubes, he can easily do so by shaking some pollen cells (preferably large ones, such as those of some lilies) on to a solution of sugar, and watching them at intervals with the aid of a lens. In the course of a few hours the pollen tubes will be seen to protrude, and these eventually grow to a considerable length.

In order that the ovules of a flower may develop into seeds, it is necessary that they become impregnated by pollen from the anthers of the same species, and this is brought about in the following manner: The pollen cells having been transferred by some means to the mature stigma, they adhere to the surface of the latter, and, deriving their nourishment from the secretion of the stigmatic cells, as above described, proceed to throw out their tubes. These tubes force their way between the cells of the stigma and style, and enter the ovary. Each tube then finds its way to one of the ovules, which it enters by means of a minute opening in its double coat called the micropyle, penetrates the embryo-sac, and reaches the ovum or egg-cell. The ovule is now impregnated or fertilised, and the result is that the ovum divides and subdivides into more and more cells till at last an embryo plant is built up. The ovule has thus become a seed, and its further development into a mature plant depends on its being transferred to a suitable soil, with proper conditions as to heat and moisture.

If the flower concerned is a perfect one, and the ovules are impregnated by pollen from its own anthers, it is said to be self-fertilised; but if the pollen cells that fertilise the ovules have been transferred from a distinct flower, it is said to be cross-fertilised.

Now, it has been observed that although self-fertilisation will give rise to satisfactory results in some instances, producing seeds which develop into strong offspring, cross-fertilisation will, as a rule, produce better seeds. In fact, self-fertilisation is not at all common among flowers, and the pollen has frequently no effect unless it has been transferred from another flower. In a few cases it has been found that the pollen even acts as a poison when it is deposited on the stigma of the same flower, causing it to shrivel up and die. In many instances the structure and growth of the flower is such that self-pollination is absolutely impossible; and where it is possible the seedlings resulting from the process are often very weak.

It has already been hinted that the wonderful variety of form and colour exhibited by flowers has some connexion with this important matter of the transfer of pollen, and the reader who is really interested in the investigation of the significance of this great diversity will find it a most charming study to search into the advantages (to the flower) of the different peculiarities presented, especially if he endeavours to confirm his conclusions by direct observations of the methods by which the pollen cells are distributed to the stigmas.

Pollen cells are usually distributed either by the agency of the wind or by insects; and it is generally easy to determine, by the nature of the flower itself, which is the method peculiar to its species.

A wind-pollinated flower is generally very inconspicuous. It produces no nectar, which forms the food of such a large number of insects, and has no gaudy perianth, nor does it emit any odour such as would be likely to attract these winged creatures. Its anthers generally shed an abundance of pollen, to compensate for the enormous loss naturally entailed in the wasteful process of wind-distribution, and the pollen is so loosely attached that it is carried away by the lightest breeze. Further, the anthers are never protected from the wind, but protrude well out of the flower; and the stigma or stigmas, which are also exposed, have a comparatively large area of sticky surface, and are often hairy or plumed in such a manner that they form effectual traps for the capture of the floating pollen cells.

An insect-pollinated flower, on the other hand, has glands (nectaries) for the production of nectar, and its perianth is usually of such a conspicuous nature that it serves as a signal to attract the insects to the feast. (In some instances the individual flowers are very small, but these are generally produced in such clusters that they become conspicuous through their number.) Often it emits a scent which assists in guiding the insects to their food. Its stamens are generally so well protected by the perianth that the pollen is not likely to be removed except by the insects that enter the flower; and the supply of pollen is usually not so abundant as in the wind-pollinated species, for the insects, travelling direct from flower to flower, convey the cells with greater economy. The stigmas, too, are generally smaller, and are situated in such a position that, when mature, they are rubbed by that portion of the insect's body which is already dusted with pollen.

As we watch the nectar-feeding insects at work, we not only observe that the flowers they visit possess the general characters given above as common to the insect-pollinated species, but also that, in many instances, the structure of the flower is such that the transfer of pollen from anthers to stigma could only be accomplished by the particular kind of insect which it feeds. Various contrivances are also adopted by many flowers to attract the insects which are most useful to them, and to exclude those species which would deprive them of nectar and pollen without aiding in the work of pollination. Thus, some flowers are best pollinated by the aid of certain nocturnal insects, which they attract at night by the expansion of their pale-coloured corollas and by the emission of fragrant perfumes. These close their petals by day in order to economise their stores and protect their parts from injury while their helpers are at rest. Others require the help of day-flying insects: these are expanded while their fertilisers are on the wing, and sleep throughout the night.

We do not propose to give detailed accounts of the various stratagems by which flowers secure the aid of insects in this short chapter. Several examples are given in connexion with the descriptions of flowers in subsequent pages, but a few typical instances, briefly outlined here, will give the reader some idea of features which should be observed as flowers are being examined.

In many flowers the anthers and the stigma are not mature at the same time, and consequently self-pollination is quite impossible. With these it often happens that the anthers and stigma alternately occupy the same position, so that the same part of the body of an insect which becomes dusted with pollen in one flower rubs against the stigma of another.

Other flowers, such as the Forget-me-not, in which both stamens and stigma are ripe together, project their stigmas above the stamens at first, in order that an insect from another flower might touch the stigma before it reaches the stamens, and thus cross-pollinate them; and their stamens are afterwards raised by the lengthening of the corolla until they touch the stigma. Thus the flowers attempt to secure cross-pollination; but, failing this, pollinate themselves.

In the Common Arum or Cuckoo Pint, described on p. [106], we have an example of a flower of peculiar construction, surrounded by a very large bract in which insects are imprisoned and fed until the anthers are mature, and then set free in order that they might carry the pollen to another flower of which the stigmas are ripe.

Sometimes the flowers of the same species assume two or three different forms as far as the lengths of the stamens and pistils are concerned, the anthers of one being of just the same height as the stigma of another, so that the pollen from the former will dust that portion of the body of the insect which rubs against the latter Examples are to be found among the Primulas, and in the Purple Loosestrife, both of which are described in their place.

In some flowers the stamens are irritable, rising in such a manner as to strike the insects that visit them; and in these cases the anthers almost invariably deposit pollen on that portion of the insect's body which is most likely to come in contact with the stigma of the next flower visited. Again, in Sages, the anthers are so arranged that they are made to swing, as on a see-saw, to exactly the same end.

These few examples will suffice to show that the structure and conformation of flowers are subservient to the one great purpose of securing the most suitable means of the distribution of pollen, and the student who recognises and studies the various forms of flowers in this connexion will find his work in the field doubly interesting.

[III]
CLIMBING PLANTS

Many plants have stems which grow to a considerable length, and which are at the same time too weak to support the plants in the erect position. A considerable number of these show no tendency to assume an upward direction, but simply trail along the surface of the ground, often producing root fibres at their nodes to give them a firmer hold on the soil and to absorb additional supplies of water and mineral food. Some, however, grow in the midst of the shrubs and tall herbage of thickets and hedgerows, or in some other position in which it becomes necessary to strive for a due proportion of light, and such plants would stand but a small chance in the struggle for existence if they did not develop some means of securing a favourable position among their competitors.

These latter are collectively spoken of as climbing plants; but it is interesting to note that in their seedling stage they are all erect, and it is only after they reach a certain height that they commence to assume some definite habit by which they obtain the necessary support, or to develop special organs by which they can cling to objects near them.

Some climbers produce no special organs for the purpose of fastening themselves to surrounding objects, but trust entirely to the wandering and more or less zig-zag nature of their feeble stems, and thus reach the open light merely by a process of interweaving, as in the case of the Hedge Bedstraw (Galium mollugo). Others adopt this same method of interweaving, but at the same time develop some kind of appendages to give them additional support. Thus, the Rough Water Bedstraw (G. uliginosum), which sometimes reaches a height of four or five feet, has recurved bristles all along its slender stem, and these serve as so many little hooks, holding the plant securely on to the neighbouring rank herbage of the marsh or swamp in which it grows, while the rigid leaves further assist by catching in the angles of surrounding stems.

Another good example is to be seen in the common Goose-grass or Cleavers (G. aparine) of our hedgerows, which also reaches a height of four or five feet, and clings very effectually by means of the hooked bristles of its stems and leaves.

The Marsh Speedwell (Veronica scutellata), though it grows to a height of only one foot, is too weak to stand erect without support, and it has quite a novel method of securing the aid of the plants among which it grows. Its two topmost leaves at first stand erect over the terminal bud, so that they are easily pushed through the spaces in the surrounding herbage as the stem lengthens. They then diverge, and even turn slightly downwards, thus forming two supporting arms, the holding power of which is further increased by the down-turned teeth of their margins. This process is repeated by the new pairs of leaves formed at the growing summit of the stem, with the result that the plant easily retains the erect position.

Prickles of the Wild Rose.

The Wild Roses and Brambles growing in the hedgerows support themselves among the other shrubby growths by the interlacing of their stems, but are also greatly aided by the abundance of prickles with which these stems are armed. The prickles, even if erect, would afford considerable assistance in this respect; but it may be observed that they are generally directed downwards, and often very distinctly curved in this direction, and so serve to suspend the weak stems at numerous points.

We often find the Bramble growing in abundance on heaths and downs, in situations where suitable props do not exist. In this case the younger shrubs simply trail along the ground, or form low arches as the weight of the stems and their appendages cause the apex to bend to the ground. Yet if we turn to the older shrubs of several years' growth we find that they have succeeded in reaching a height of some feet. The first stems of these shrubs formed low arches as we have just described, and then they gave rise to branches which were first erect, but were afterwards bent downwards in the same manner, forming arches rising higher than their predecessors. This continued, year after year, till at last a long series of stems, forming arch above arch, reached the present height, the older stems, at the bottom, now dead, serving to support the whole mass above.

Ivy, Showing the Rootlets or Suckers.

Some climbing stems produce little roots by means of which they can cling firmly to available supports. Such are very common among tropical plants, but our Ivy affords a splendid example. The roots so formed may appear in clusters at special points of the stem, or in long lines running longitudinally on it, and they are produced on trailers as well as on climbers. In fact, we can draw no fine distinction between the former and the latter in this respect, and even the Ivy will sometimes trail along the ground after the manner of the Periwinkle, which roots itself at several points as it proceeds.

The rootlets of the Ivy and other climbers of the same habit always avoid the light; and if they are not originally formed on the side of the stem facing the supporting surface, they soon turn towards the latter, and give rise to little clinging suckers that firmly adhere. If they come in contact with a bare rock, or with a surface from which no nutriment can be derived, they serve the one purpose of clinging only; but if they reach even a small amount of nutritive soil, they produce absorbent fibres that are capable of extracting food.

The ivy usually clings to the bark of trees or to old walls, the crevices of which often contain some small amount of transported soil, or more or less organic soil formed by the growth and decay of low forms of vegetable life; and thus the tree is enabled to obtain a little food from the objects that give it the necessary mechanical support.

The well-known Virginian Creeper (Ampelopsis) produces rootlets by means of which it can cling to very smooth surfaces. Its light-avoiding 'tendrils' always turn to the wall or other supporting body; and, on coming in contact with it, give off little branches which diverge like the toes of the tree-frog, and produce little adhesive discs which hold on firmly by the aid of a sticky secretion.

Perhaps the most interesting of all climbing plants are those which twine their stems around the props afforded by the neighbouring growths. As before stated, the stems of these plants are erect when very young; but after they have reached a certain height the top of the stem bends to one side, and then, as the growth proceeds, it turns slowly round and round, describing a circle in the horizontal plane, thus seeking some support round which it can twine.

The rate at which the top of the stem revolves varies in different plants, and also in the same plant according to the temperature and other conditions affecting the growth. In some species the upper portion describes a complete circle in less than two hours during warm weather, while in others a single revolution may occupy one or two days.

It will be seen, from the nature of these movements, that the revolving stem is far more likely to come in contact with erect, rather than with horizontal supports, and observations made on twining stems will show that they seldom fix themselves round supports which are placed horizontally or only on a slight incline. In fact, some of these stems seem quite unable to twist themselves spirally except round an axis that is either erect or forms a very large angle with the horizontal plane.

Should the twining stem succeed in reaching a favourable prop, it immediately commences to bend itself round and round, forming a more or less compact spiral; and it is probable that the slight pressure, caused by the contact, acts as a stimulus which incites the peculiar mode of growth.

The direction which the spiral takes is not always the same. In the Hop, Honeysuckle, and the Climbing Buckwheat or Black Bindweed, the direction is always the same as that of the hands of a clock; while in the Bindweeds the spiral is invariably contra-clockwise. Further, it is not possible to compel any species to turn in a direction opposite to that which it naturally follows. Its stem may be forcibly twined in the wrong direction any number of times, but the free end will always follow its natural course as soon as it is left undisturbed.

Stem of the Bindweed, Twining to the Left.

Should the stem of a young twining plant fail to reach a suitable support, it bends over, not being sufficiently rigid to support itself, and at last the apex reaches the ground. Then, starting afresh from this second position of rest, it begins to ascend, and its upper end again commences to revolve as before. The chances are that it will, from this second position, find something round which it can twine; but failing this its summit may again and again bend to the ground, thus renewing its attempts from various positions more or less distant from one another, and in each effort so made the revolving upper end of the stem gradually lengthens, and describes a larger and larger circle in search for a favourable prop.

A twining stem sometimes has the advantage of additional support afforded by the stiff nature of the base of the stem, which is often rendered still more rigid by a twist or torsion resembling that of the strands of a rope. Such advantage is often still further increased by the presence of longitudinal ridges of the stem, frequently bearing rows of hooked prickles or hairs that hold on to any object touched. Again, the base of the stem, even though it reaches nothing round which it can twine, sometimes takes the form of a spiral, thus forming a good foundation for the upper portion as it seeks out a convenient prop. Yet another contrivance to secure the same end may be observed in the Greater Bindweed and some other plants. The stems, failing to secure a favourable hold, twine round one another, thus producing a kind of rigid cable for the support of the upper extremities as they revolve in order to find stems round which to form their spirals.

Should all the methods and contrivances of the twining plant fail it in its attempts to secure an uppermost place among the surrounding herbage or shrubs, it is compelled to trail along the ground. But such a position is most disadvantageous and unnatural to it, and usually results in a stunted and sickly plant that may produce no flowers.

Most of the twining plants of our country are of short duration. Many, like the Climbing Buckwheat, are annuals; while others, as the Hop and the Bindweeds, though they have perennial roots, produce fresh stems each season. The Honeysuckle and the Bittersweet, however, have perennial, woody stems which increase in thickness year by year, though the latter does not twine very much, and seems to take an intermediate place between the typical twiners and the plants which support themselves by merely interlacing their stems with the neighbouring plants or shrubs.

Stem of the Hop, Twining to the Right.

Some twining stems are unable to form their spirals round thick supports, and after making some attempt to do so grow off at a tangent to seek some less bulky prop. It has been observed, for instance, that the Hop cannot grasp a pole that is more than four inches in diameter.

In many cases, too, the spirals of the twining stem increase in diameter after they are first formed, and can thus adapt themselves to the increasing size of a living stem round which they have grown. The spirals of the Honeysuckle, however, do not increase in this way; and consequently, when they surround the trunk or branch of a young tree, the latter is constricted, often to such an extent that it is strangled and becomes stunted in its growth.

Another class of climbing plants cling to their surroundings by means of tendrils, which are modifications of leaves or shoots that grow spirally like the stems we have been considering.

Whatever be the origin of a tendril, it generally grows straight until it has reached some favourable support, and in order to obtain such support it performs circular movements similar to those of the tips of twining stems. Like these stems, too, the tendril is always sensitive, and forms a close spiral round the object it touches.

Some tendrils will grow spirally without ever touching a support, but these often become stunted and wither, while those which reach and embrace a stem or other structure are apparently incited to a luxuriant growth by the stimulating effect of the pressure produced.

When the tip of a tendril is successful in gripping a stem firmly, the portion behind it often takes part in the spiral movement, thus becoming shorter, and pulling the support towards its own plant in such a manner as to bring it within the reach of additional tendrils.

Of course the tendrilled plants have a much better chance of securing a suitable support than the twiners, for the latter have to depend on the searching and clinging powers of but one structure, while the tendrils are usually very numerous on the same plant, and throw themselves out in all directions in search of the required aid. The production of tendrils as a means of support is also much more economical than the method of clinging by a twining stem, for the former are usually very slender, while the latter must necessarily be sufficiently thick to convey the nutritive requirements of the whole plant; and thus the process of clinging by tendrils is more in accordance with the usual economy of Nature.

We have observed that twining stems can, as a rule, twine round only those supports which are erect or nearly so. This is not the case with tendrils, which are better adapted for twisting round horizontal stems and leafstalks. Often, too, they pass from one branch or leaf to another, and so secure the plant to which they belong by fastenings both above and below. Further, while the clasping part of a tendril often becomes hard and rigid, the portion between this and the plant may remain green and flexible. This latter portion also frequently forms a new spiral in the opposite direction, thus rendering the connexion between the plant and its support so supple and elastic that no damage is likely to accrue from the motions caused by the wind.

The tendrils which form long spirals are generally modified stems or leaves, or they may be elongated leaflets of a compound leaf. Those which are modified stems may be distinguished by their growth from the axils of the leaves, denoting that they had their origin in axillary buds after the manner of branches generally; and also, sometimes, by the fact that they bear imperfect leaves in the form of little scales. The tendrils of the Common or White Bryony (p. [96]) are of this nature; while those of the Grape Vine are either modified floral stems or altered flower-stalks.

In some cases the entire leaf may be changed into a tendril, in which instance its true nature is revealed by the presence of a bud in its axil, as in many ordinary foliage leaves. More frequently, however, the 'leaf-tendril' is an altered leaflet of a compound leaf, such as we see in the Peas and Vetches; and it is interesting to note in such cases that the loss entailed by the conversion of leaflets into tendrils is often compensated for by the formation of leaf-like stipules which are capable of performing the function of leaves. In fact, we often find that the size of the stipules is proportional to the number of tendrils produced; and that when the leaflets are considerably reduced in number by their conversion into tendrils, not only are the stipules large and leafy, but the stem itself may be extended laterally into broad wing-like expansions which do the work of foliage leaves.

Interesting illustrations of this are to be found in the Yellow Vetch—a rather rare plant sometimes seen in sandy fields—in which all the leaves are converted entirely into tendrils, and their function performed by very large leafy stipules; also in the Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea of bushy places, in which the leaflets of the compound leaves are all converted into tendrils with the exception of two, the work of which is aided by the stipules and by the 'wings' of the stem and petioles. In the Rough-podded Vetch, too, the stems and petioles are winged to serve the same end; and other British members of this genus have either large stipules or winged stems, or both, to compensate for the loss of leaflets that have been modified into tendrils.

In other climbers the blade of the leaf is not reduced in size, even though the leaf serves the purpose of a tendril, the function of clinging being assigned exclusively to the petiole or leaf-stalk. This may be observed in the Wild Clematis and the Bryony, in both of which the petiole forms a ring round any branch or stem with which it comes in contact. These petioles are apparently equally sensitive on all sides, and are therefore ready to cling to any available support, whether above or below. In the Clematis the leaves are at first at right angles to the stem of the plant, but they afterwards turn downwards, and thus transform themselves into so many anchors which give additional aid in supporting the climber among the other hedgerow plants and shrubs.

[IV]
EARLY SPRING

The work of the botanist is light during the early spring, especially if his attention is directed only to plants and trees in their flowering stages; but, to one whose ambition is to study Nature in all her varied phases, this season of the bursting of the bud, when all things are awakening into new life, is full of interest, and demands no small amount of time.

The first flowers observed in the spring are mainly those hardy weeds which may be seen in bloom almost through the year, such as the Shepherd's Purse, Chickweed, Groundsel, White Dead Nettle, Red Dead Nettle, and Henbit Dead Nettle. These are soon followed by the Furze, Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, Snowdrop, Hazel, Common Whitlow-grass, and other flowers that are truly blossoms of the spring. All these will be described in turn, according to their various habitats; the object of the present short chapter being to note those signs of early spring which demand the attention of the lover of Nature while flowers are as yet few and inconspicuous.

A ramble over bleak downs and moors during the cold days of early spring will probably reveal but little of interest in the way of vegetable life, but in sheltered vales and woods, copses, and protected waysides, there is much to be observed. Here it is that we find the hardy weeds which have continued to bloom throughout the winter months; the earliest of the spring flowers; the fresh green foliage of herbs and shrubs that, in more exposed situations, have been completely denuded; the first tender seedlings appearing above the ground long before the frosts are over; and the expanding 'leaf-buds' showing their green while elsewhere all life seems dormant.

This is the season when the young botanist requires his notebook more than the collecting-book or vasculum; for his records of early flowers, and of the times of the appearance of the leaf in our trees and shrubs, will prove of great interest when compared with the corresponding events and times of other years. Not only do our spring seasons vary considerably from year to year in such a manner as to alter the general times of appearance of leaf and flower, but the vicissitudes of our climate even change the order in which these events occur.

The general study of the buds of trees should commence before they begin to burst. We commonly speak of the buds as winter buds, but it should be known that they were formed in the preceding summer or autumn, and have remained dormant throughout the winter. There is usually a terminal bud at the tip of each twig, and lateral buds at the sides. If we examine a lateral bud we find immediately beneath it a more or less distinct scar, denoting the position of a leaf that fell in the autumn, thus showing that the bud in question was formed in the axil or angle of the leaf. These observations should be verified by examining the trees in autumn, while the leaves still exist.

It is not sufficient that we are able to recognise trees when in leaf; they should be known equally or almost as well during the winter and early spring while the branches are bare, and this is usually easily accomplished by making ourselves acquainted with the general form of each tree as viewed from a distance, and, on closer inspection, with the nature of the bark and the character of the buds.

All our forest trees are of the exogenous type; that is, their stems increase in thickness by the addition of new wood formed outside the older wood and underneath the bark. Thus the bark, which is composed of a layer or mass of dead, sapless cells, is gradually pushed outward as the stem thickens. The result is that the bark is either more or less fractured, as in the Elm and the Oak, or it flakes off and falls to the ground, as is the case with the Plane and the Birch. A new layer of bark is always formed during each summer, and this, in turn, either cracks or peels away; but while, in the former instance, the accumulated bark presents a very rugged appearance, and becomes very thick, in the latter case it remains smooth, and is always thin.

Then again, how are we to account for the great variety in the general forms of our different trees—the irregular, crooked nature of the Oak; the slender, but denser branching of the airy Birch; and the tall, pyramidal form of the Lombardy Poplar? All this is easily understood if we carefully observe the positions of the buds as seen during the winter months; and watch the development of these buds during early spring.

Trees in Winter or Early Spring
1. Hazel, with catkins. 2. Ash. 3. Oak. 4. Lime, with remains of the last season's fruits.

If the buds are irregularly scattered on the twigs, the lateral buds being as strongly developed as the terminal ones, while, in the spring, as is often the case, certain only of the buds develop into new twigs, the others remaining dormant, then the branches assume that irregular, crooked appearance so characteristic of the Oak. If, on the other hand, all the terminal buds are well developed, and the lateral buds are weaker and more regularly distributed, but farther apart, then the tree grows more rapidly in height than in breadth, and assumes more nearly the character of the Pyramidal Poplar. It will thus be seen that the study of trees in their winter condition is not altogether lacking in interest.

Referring once more, but briefly, to the matter of dormant buds, we recommend the reader not only to observe that some buds do not expand with the others during the spring, but to make them the subject of experiment. Thus, when the Horsechestnut is well in leaf, dormant buds will usually be seen on the sides of the twigs, sheltered by the spreading leaves produced at the tips. Now remove the whole cluster of leaves formed by the terminal bud, together with the bud itself, and the hitherto dormant laterals, under the influence of increased light and warmth, and supplied with sap that is now directed into new channels, will speedily show signs of growth. Similarly, the fruit-gardener will remove the tips of the branches of his fruit trees, which often bear buds that are destined to produce leafy twigs only, and thus encourage the growth of the fruiting buds that are situated lower on the twigs.

Let us now briefly consider the structure of buds and the manner in which they are protected. Most buds are surrounded by brownish scales which are impervious to water, and thus prevent a loss by evaporation at a season when the activity of the roots in absorbing moisture from the soil is suspended. Such loss is still further insured in some cases by a covering of natural varnish. On removing this protective coat we find a dense cluster of closely-packed leaves, variously folded or crumpled in different species, and often, in the centre, a cluster of flowers.

What, then, is the true definition of a bud? It is a young branch, and may give rise to a mature branch bearing foliage leaves only, floral leaves only, or a combination of both. A transverse section of a bud, examined, if necessary, with the aid of the microscope, will show the nature of the branch it was destined to produce; and, in the case of buds which represent, in embryo, branches bearing flowers, or both leaves and flowers, it is often an easy matter to see the whorls of the future flowers, and even the pollen cells in the anthers and the ovules in the ovary.

Trees in Winter or Early Spring
5. Birch, with catkins. 6. Poplar. 7. Beech. 8. Alder, with catkins and the old fruit 'cones' of the previous season.

Interesting as it is to study the structure of buds in their dormant condition during winter and early spring, even more fascinating is the watching of the gradual expansion of the bud and the unfolding of the young leaves. And it is not always necessary to make frequent visits to the woods in order to carry out such observations, for a large number of buds will develop almost equally well, at any rate through their earlier stages, if the twigs bearing them be placed in vessels of water either in or out of doors; and in many cases all the stages from dormant bud to perfect leaves and fully-expanded flowers may be watched in this way.

We have spoken of the protection afforded to the dormant bud during the winter period, but it is interesting to note that protection is necessary for the young leaves even after they have forced themselves well out into the light and air. The reason for this is that the epidermis or outer skin of the young leaf is not properly developed. It is not yet water-tight, and, consequently, the sap of the tender leaves would rapidly evaporate, so that they would soon become dry and shrivelled.

The means by which the young leaves are protected will be readily seen if we watch the gradual development of the bud. In many cases these leaves remain folded long after they have left the shelter of the original bud-scales, the manner of folding being the same as that which obtained while within the bud. Sometimes they are folded like a fan, or like the leaves of a book; sometimes rolled one within the other, or irregularly crumpled in such a manner that nothing is exposed to the air except the edges of the leaves and the surfaces of the veins.

In addition to the protection from evaporation afforded by the folding of the young leaves, many are covered with a dense coat of "wool." Young leaves of the Horsechestnut are very thickly covered with such a coat, of which only the slightest traces are to be seen in the fully-grown leaf. The young leaves of the Beech are folded like a fan for some time after they have left the enclosure of the bud, and the folding is such that the only parts exposed are the margins, the midrib, and the strongly-marked parallel veins. But since all these parts are provided with hairs, the young leaf, as long as it is folded, is surrounded by a complete protective covering. As the epidermis develops, and the danger of loss by evaporation thus reduced, the leaf straightens itself out, and the hairs either fall or become shrivelled. The leaf of the Wayfaring Tree is protected, while young, by a complete covering of starlike hairs which form a fine felted coat over the whole surface; and when the epidermis is properly formed, the hairs are all shed.

Some young leaves are preserved by scaly stipules which surround them after they have emerged from the bud; and as soon as the epidermis is sufficiently impermeable the stipules, having done their work, fall to the ground. So great is the shower of these transient structures, in the case of the Oak, Elm, and Lime trees, that the ground is almost completely covered by them.

Twig of the Lime in Spring, Showing the Deciduous, Scaly Stipules.

Young leaves have yet another way of preventing the evaporation of their sap, and that is by turning themselves into the erect position so that the warmth of the spring sun has but little effect on them. The young leaves of various grasses turn their apices upwards; while those of the Horsechestnut, after having lost the protection afforded by the woolly covering and the original folding, turn themselves with their points downwards. Later, when the epidermis is well formed, and the leaves are so far developed that they are capable of utilising the energy of the sun in the performance of their functions, they take up the horizontal position.

Another interesting matter for spring observation is the relative times of the bursting of the flowering buds and the leafing buds on the same species of tree or shrub. In many cases the former are fully developed before the latter show any signs of active growth, or while the foliage is as yet only passing through its earliest stages. The Hazel catkins shed their abundance of pollen before the foliage buds show the slightest signs of green. The Blackthorn is white with snowy blossoms before a leaf appears. The upper twigs of the Elm appear fluffy in the distance through the formation of its flowers while the foliage buds are still dormant; and the Alder, Willow, Poplar and Aspen likewise produce full-blown catkins while their branches are otherwise bare. Of the trees above named, the Hazel, Elm, Alder, Poplar, and Aspen are dependent on the spring winds for the transfer of the pollen, but the pollination of the Willow and the Blackthorn is brought about by the agency of early insects which visit the flowers for the nectar they provide.

Seedling of the Beech, Showing the Cotyledons and the First Foliage Leaves.

The same spring sun which calls forth the new leaves and early flowers exerts its vivifying influence on the seeds that fell to the ground before the winter's frosts set in, and in sheltered places myriads of young seedlings of plants and trees may be found in their first stages of growth. The early history of a plant is as interesting a study as that of the mature specimen, and the young botanist will do well if he seeks out the germinating seeds and watches their development. This part of botanical study may, perhaps, be carried on more conveniently at home than in the field, for the seedlings may be grown in soil, wet sawdust, or in water alone, and the stages closely observed.

The seed is a plant in embryo. It consists of a young root, a bud, and one or two seed-leaves or cotyledons. Some seeds contain nothing but the parts just named, and when this is the case the cotyledons contain a reserve of food material sufficient to maintain the developing plant until the root is enabled to absorb sufficient nutriment from the soil, and the first foliage leaves are so far advanced that they can absorb carbonic acid gas from the air, and build up with the aid of this gas, together with the food obtained from the soil, the compounds required by the growing plant.

Other seeds contain, in addition to the embryo, a reserve of nutrient material quite distinct from it; and in such instances the cotyledons have the power of taking up this reserve, changing it to a condition suitable to the requirements of the plant, and then distributing it to the growing parts.

In some seedlings the cotyledons will remain for some time within, or partially within the seed, in order that they may continue the absorption of this reserve; and while this process is going on the seed may remain below the surface of the soil, or it may be lifted into the air by the upward growth of the cotyledons themselves.

In cases where the cotyledons contain the food reserve for the seedling they sometimes remain under the soil, but in many instances they are pushed into the air by the upward growth of that portion of the plant axis immediately below them. In either case they decay as soon as their work is accomplished. This often happens as soon as they have delivered up to the seedling their reserve of food, but frequently the cotyledons which ascend into the air expand, becoming really leaflike in general appearance, assuming a green colour through the development of chlorophyll (the green colouring matter of plants), and then perform all the functions of the ordinary foliage leaves of the plant. Such cotyledons often continue to exist long after the first foliage leaves have appeared from the bud, for, although the original food reserve has been exhausted, they are now in a position to manufacture, under the combined influence of the sun's warmth and light, compounds essential for their own growth as well as that of the other parts of the seedling. These cotyledons, however, are never of the same form as the true foliage leaves.

The student should obtain a variety of seeds or seedlings of our wild plants and forest trees in order to study these interesting early stages. Such employment will prove very valuable at a season when there is but little call for outdoor work.

[V]
WOODS AND THICKETS IN SPRING

One of our earliest spring flowers of the wood is the lovely Daffodil or Lent Lily (Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus) of the order Amaryllidaceæ. This plant develops from a bulb—an underground bud formed of thick, fleshy leaves; and the flowers appear during March and April. The perianth is composed of a tube and six spreading limbs of a delicate yellow colour; and a deep, bell-shaped, golden coronet, beautifully notched and curled at the rim.

The Daffodil.

During April and May we meet with the beautiful little Wood Anemone (Anemone nemorosa—order Ranunculaceæ), often in such abundance that the ground beneath the trees is completely covered by its graceful leaves and flowers. The leaves are radical, stalked, and deeply lobed, springing from an underground stem. On the flower stalk, some distance below the flower, is a whorl of stalked bracts of the same form as the radical leaves. The flower has six spreading sepals, resembling petals, usually white, but often tinged with a delicate pink, or, more rarely, with blue. The fruit consists of a number of downy achenes.

The Wood Anemone

Belonging to the same order (Ranunculaceæ) we have two species of Hellebore—the Green Hellebore (Helleborus viridis) and the Stinking Hellebore (H. fœtidus), both found in woods on chalk or limestone during April and May. The former, also known in parts as the Bear's-foot [Plate I], Fig. 1), has leaves palmately lobed, consisting of five or seven parts; and the flowers, which are more than an inch across, have spreading green sepals, and small tubular petals which contain nectar that is supposed to be poisonous on account of the small dead flies that are commonly found sticking to it. The Stinking Hellebore, or Setterwort, has evergreen, radical leaves, the lobes of which do not radiate from a common centre; and the flowers, of which there are many on each peduncle, have erect sepals.

The Goldilocks or Wood Ranunculus (Ranunculus auricomus) is a flower very much like the Upright Meadow Buttercup (p. [211]), though not nearly so tall, being only from six to ten inches high. It grows chiefly in thickets and copses, and flowers from April to July. Its root is fibrous; the stem erect, slender, and branched; the radical leaves long-stalked, round or kidney-shaped, divided into three, five, or seven lobes; and the stem leaves few, sessile, and palmately divided to the base into very narrow segments. The calyx is downy, consisting of spreading, yellow sepals; and the petals are often partially or entirely wanting. This plant is widely distributed, but is most frequent in the centre and south of England.

The Goldilocks

The Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), also one of the Ranunculaceæ, so well known as a garden flower, grows wild in the thickets and copses of several parts, blooming from May to July. Its branched stem grows to a height of one or two feet; and the leaves are stalked, with three broad, stalked, three-lobed segments. The pretty, drooping flowers are usually over an inch in diameter, of a white, blue, or purple colour, in a loose, leafy panicle. They have five coloured, deciduous sepals; five petals, each with a curved spur that projects below the base of the calyx; numerous stamens; and an ovary of five carpels which ripen into as many follicles.

The Dog Violet (Viola canina—Order Violaceæ) is probably too well known to need description, seeing that it is easily distinguished from the other species of the same genus by the absence of scent and by the presence of running stems. It is, however, very variable, both in its habits and habitats, so much so, indeed, that some botanists regard the varieties as distinct species under the titles of Wood Violet, Dark Wood Violet, Pale Wood Violet, Hill Violet, Bog Violet, &c. These different forms are distinguished by the shape of the leaves, which may be broadly-cordate, narrow-cordate, or lanceolate; and also by the nature of the stem and the form and colour of the spur of the corolla. In some the main stem is flowerless, but flowering stems proceed from the axils of its leaves; in others the main stem is long and branched, bearing flowers. The narrow-leaved and branched varieties occur principally on heaths, while the broad-leaved forms, in which the main stem is flowerless, are found chiefly in woods. The student will do well to compare as many forms as possible as an interesting study in variation.

The Wild Columbine.

The flowers have five sepals; and five unequal petals, usually of a bluish-purple colour, the lower one prolonged backward into a blunt spur. Five stamens closely surround the ovary, which is composed of three carpels, but is one-celled.

The mode of the dispersion of the seeds is particularly interesting in this instance. When the seeds are ripe the ovary splits into three valves which spread out till they are at right angles to their former position. Each valve is closely packed with smooth, oval seeds; and, as the carpels dry, their sides, originally convex, become gradually straightened so that they press on the seeds. The result is that the seeds are detached from the placenta, one by one, and suddenly shot out to a distance sometimes exceeding a yard. The whole process may be observed by placing some ripe fruits on a large sheet of paper spread in a warm, airy room.

Another peculiarity of the violet is to be seen in its production of two distinct kinds of flowers. The spring flowers, which we know so well, are conspicuous, and are visited and pollinated by insects, but they produce few or no seeds. In the autumn another kind of flower is formed, inconspicuous ones that often possess no petals, and which do not open. These are fertilised by their own pollen, and produce abundance of seed.

The Dog Violet.

Soon after the appearance of the Dog Violet—usually early in May—we meet with the flowers of the Wood Sorrel or Alleluia (Oxalis Acetosella), a plant which is often included with the Crane's-bills in the order Geraniaceæ, but sometimes placed in a separate small order (Oxalidaceæ) containing only three British species. It is a very pretty little plant, of an acid nature, springing from a creeping rhizome. The leaves are radical, ternate, hairy, and sensitive, folding vertically at night in such a manner that the lower surfaces, containing the stomata, are completely covered, and thus loss by evaporation prevented. The flowers are usually solitary and axillary, and the peduncle has two small bracts about half way up. There are five sepals, united below; five white or pinkish petals; and ten stamens, all united into one bundle, but five shorter than the others. The ovary is five-chambered, and the fruit is a capsule.

Like the Violet, this flower is particularly interesting both as to the nature of its flowers, and to the manner in which it scatters its seeds. It bears two kinds of flowers—the delicate spring flowers just described, which are barren; and the later inconspicuous blooms, without petals, and which do not open, but produce seeds. The latter kind of flower may be seen up to August and September.

The Wood Sorrel.

When the ovary is ripe it splits longitudinally along five seams, but the seeds remain attached to the placenta. Now, the seed coat is made up of layers, one of the inner of which becomes highly strained as the ripening proceeds, while the outer coat is not so strained. When the seed is quite ripe the cell-walls of the deeper layer swell, thus exerting a pressure on the outer layer, which is at last rent. The edges of the slit formed suddenly roll back, and the seed is violently jerked out through the opening of the capsule immediately in front of it.

In April, and from this month to about the end of July, the Wood Strawberry (Fragaria vesca—order Rosaceæ) is in flower. There is no mistaking this species when in fruit, but at other times the Barren Strawberry (Potentilla Fragariastrum), also called the Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, is often confused with it. The latter may be known by the absence of runners.

The chief distinguishing features of the Wood Strawberry are the running stem; ternate leaves, with sessile, hairy, serrate leaflets; hairy, erect peduncles; and white flowers, about half an inch in diameter, on pedicels which droop when in fruit.

In shady woods grows the Sweet Woodruff (Asperula odorata—order Rubiaceæ)—a small, erect and smooth plant, seldom exceeding eight inches in height. The leaves are six to nine in each whorl, lanceolate, with small prickles on the margins. The flowers are white, in terminal panicles, and the fruit is rough with hooked hairs. The herb emits, when dry, a pleasant odour resembling that of new hay.

The Sweet Woodruff.

There are two Periwinkles (order Apocynaceæ), both of which have been introduced into Britain as garden flowers, but have become established as wild flowers in several parts. One of these—the Lesser Periwinkle (Vinca minor)—is moderately common, especially in the West, where it is often seen in thickets and other shady places, flowering during April and May. It has a trailing stem, from one to two feet long, rooting at the nodes; and short, erect, leafy, flowering branches. The leaves are opposite, narrow-elliptical, entire, and quite smooth; and the blue or violet flowers, which are about an inch in diameter, are solitary on short, erect stalks. The calyx is free, and deeply divided into five narrow segments; the corolla has a narrow tube, and five broad, spreading parts; there are five stamens, enclosed in the tube of the corolla; and the carpels are distinct at the base, but connected at the top by the single style.

The other species—the Greater Periwinkle (Vinca major)—is a very similar plant, but its leaves are broader, with minute hairs on the margin; the calyx segments are also hairy at the edges; and the corolla is larger, with a broad tube.

The Tooth-wort (Lathræa squamaria—order Orobanchaceæ) is a peculiar, fleshy, pinkish plant, to be found among decaying vegetable matter or at the roots of the Hazel, Elm and a few other trees. It is partly parasitic, deriving its nourishment from the roots of the trees to which it is attached, or sometimes obtaining its food partly or entirely from decaying leaves and stems. Its upright stem, which reaches a height of from five to ten inches, is covered with tooth-like, hollow scales, and bears a one-sided raceme of purple-brown flowers. This peculiar plant is not only a parasite on trees, but is also a carnivorous species, provided with the means of capturing and digesting very small animals, and a more detailed account of its form and habits will be found in our short [chapter] devoted especially to carnivorous plants.

The Bugle (Ajuga reptans, of the order Labiatæ), is a very abundant flower in moist woods and pastures, blooming in May and June. It has a short root-stock, generally with creeping runners; and erect, smooth flowering stems from three to twelve inches high. At the base is a tuft of obovate, radical leaves, from one to two inches long, gradually narrowed into the stalk, with wavy margins; and on the stem are shorter leaves, with very short stalks, the upper ones often deeply tinged with blue or purple. The flowers are blue (occasionally pink or white), and are arranged in whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves, the whole forming a leafy spike. They have a five-cleft calyx; a corolla with a short, erect, notched, upper lip; and a longer lower lip with three spreading lobes, the middle one of which is broader and notched.

The Lesser Periwinkle.

The stamens, of which there are two pairs, project beyond the upper lip of the corolla; and the four nutlets of the fruit are rough and united.

The Yellow Dead Nettle, Weasel-snout, or Archangel (Galeobdolon lutea or Lamium Galeobdolon) of the same order is very much like the White Dead Nettle (p. [102]) in habit, but is rather more slender, and less branched. It is not a very common plant, but is abundant in certain localities, forming one of the conspicuous flowers of thickets, copses and shady hedgerows during May and June. Its leaves are opposite, stalked, ovate, acute, and coarsely toothed; and the handsome large yellow flowers are in dense whorls of from six to ten in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx has five short teeth; and the corolla has a short tube, not much longer than the calyx, and two lips, the upper of which is arched, while the lower is spotted with red, and has three lobes.

Our next example, the lovely Primrose (Primula vulgaris or P. acaulis—order Primulaceæ), which so beautifully bedecks our woods and banks in April and May, is so well known that a description for purposes of identification is quite unnecessary.

There are two distinct forms of the primrose flower, often called the pin-eyed and the thrum-eyed, the two forms growing on different plants. The former has its stamens at a contracted portion of the tube, about half way down, and a style so long that the stigma is visible at the top of the tube. The latter has its stamens at the contracted throat of the tube, while the style is so short that the stigma is half-way down.

The Bugle.

These two forms may be termed the long-styled and the short-styled primrose, respectively, and the difference is of great importance, inasmuch as it helps to bring about the cross-fertilisation of the flower.

The Broad-Leaved Garlic.

The principal agents concerned in the transfer of pollen from one flower to another are the wind and insects, but it is evident that the work is done, in the case of the primrose, by insects; for not only do we find that the anthers and the stigma are protected from the wind, being more or less hidden in the tube of the corolla, but the showy corolla, the delicate scent emitted by the flower, and the nectar produced at the base of the tube all combine to encourage nectar-loving insects whose proboscis is long enough to reach the sweets.

While such an insect is sucking the nectar from a short-styled primrose, the base of its proboscis is rubbing pollen from the anthers at the top of the tube, and the removal of the pollen is assisted by the contracted throat of the corolla in this kind of flower. Should that insect then visit a long-styled flower, the base of the proboscis, now dusted with pollen, will transfer some of the pollen cells to the stigma. In the same way pollen will be transferred from the anthers of the long-styled to the short-styled flower, since the stamens and stigma respectively occupy corresponding positions in the tubes of the corollas.

The Star of Bethlehem.

On [Plate I] (Fig. 3) we represent the Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium Calceolus)—a rare and beautiful orchis found in some of the limestone woods of North England. Its stem is downy and leafy, reaching a height of about one foot. The leaves, of which there are three or four, are oblong and ribbed; and the one or two large flowers are brownish with the exception of the lip, which is yellow and inflated.

Two species of Garlic (order Liliaceæ) are also to be found in woods early in the season. They are both strong-smelling plants with bulbous roots, radical leaves, and flowers arranged in an umbel with membranous spathes. One—the broad-leaved Garlic or Ramsons (Allium ursinum)—is very common, grows to a height of from six to twelve inches, and flowers from April to June. The stem is bluntly triangular and leafless; and the broad, radical leaves are much like those of the Lily of the Valley. The flowers are white, and form a flat umbel with two sharply-pointed bracts at its base.

The second species—the Sand Leek or Sand Garlic (A. Scorodoprasum)—grows to two or three feet, and is found almost exclusively in sandy woods of North England, where it flowers a little later than the Ramsons. The stem-leaves are linear, and form two-edged sheaths; and the flowers, which are reddish-purple, are in a loose umbel. ([Plate I], Fig. 4.)

The Hairy Sedge.

The Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum umbellatum) is a pretty flower that was originally introduced for cultivation, but has now become well established as a wild flower in many parts of Britain. It is found chiefly in copses and thickets, especially in the neighbourhood of towns and villages, and flowers in April and May. It has an oval bulb containing an abundance of viscid sap; long narrow, limp, radical leaves; and a flowering stem from six to twelve inches high. The flowers are white, from six to ten in number, arranged in a raceme the lower stalks of which are lengthened in such a manner as to bring all the flowers to a level, thus giving the general appearance of an umbel. There is a membranous bract at the base of each pedicel; and each flower has a perianth of six free, spreading, persistent segments, marked outside with a central, green line, and having a nectary at the base.

The same order includes the well-known Blue-bell or Wild Hyacinth (Hyacinthus nonscriptus or Scilla festalis), which is occasionally confused with the Harebell of the order Campanulaceæ. The leaves of this plant are linear and channelled, and the drooping flowers form a raceme of from six to twelve blooms. The perianth is bell-shaped, composed of six united parts, usually blue, but rarely pink or white. The anthers are yellow, and as with all the plants of this order, the ovary is superior. (See [Plate I], Fig. 5.)

In damp woods we often meet with the Hairy Sedge (Carex hirta), which grows from one to two feet high; and in similar situations, the Pendulous Wood Sedge (C. sylvatica)—a tufted species, with a weak, leafy stem, from two to three feet high, and flaccid leaves. The latter has a single terminal, male spikelet, of about an inch long; and slender, drooping female spikelets, of about the same length, on long stalks.

On [Plate I], we also represent the Wood Melic Grass (Melica uniflora), a slender, graceful species which may be seen in woods, often in bloom as early as the beginning of May.

[VI]
THE SPRING-FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS OF WOODS, THICKETS, AND HEDGEROWS

Having considered the principal low-growing flowers of the woods, we must now give some attention to the trees and shrubs of the same localities.

This portion of the field-naturalist's work will be found at least as fascinating as the observation of the herbaceous plants, for although the flowers of trees are often small and very inconspicuous, many are really beautiful blossoms, and all present features of more or less interest to the botanist. Moreover, the observations of these flowers will always be coupled with those of the appearance and expansion of the leaves, for while some trees produce their flowers shortly before their leaves, and others after, leaves and flowers often come about the same time, and the period of the year covered by the present chapter—from about March to April or early June—will include the bursting of the leaf-buds and the expansion of the leaves of all our deciduous trees and shrubs. Opportunities should be made at this season to observe not only the parts of the trees just named, but to note all other characters presented by the trees, such as the nature of the trunk and its bark, the mode of branching, the appearance of the young twigs, and the nature of the soil and situation in which each species is found.

Our first example is the Barberry (Berberis vulgaris)—the only British representative of its order (Berberaceæ)—a smooth, pale-green shrub, from four to seven feet high, often seen in woods, thickets, and hedgerows, flowering in May and June. Its branches generally droop at the tips, and have triple spines at the base of each leaf or cluster of leaves. The latter are obovate, sharply toothed or even prickly, and often reduced to a cluster of spines. The flowers are pale yellow, in hanging racemes. Each has several yellow sepals, the outer of which are very small; six petals, in two whorls, with nectaries at their bases; and six stamens. The stamens at first lie on the petals; but they are very sensitive, and when the filaments are touched by an insect as it seeks the nectar at their bases, the stamens immediately spring upward, throwing off their pollen, and often depositing some on the insect's back. It is thus possible that the cross-pollination of the flowers is greatly aided by the insect, especially as it will often happen that the same part of its back which has been touched by the elastic stamen will come in contact with the stigma of another flower.

The Barberry.

The Sycamore, also called the Great Maple and the False Plane (Acer pseudo-platanus—order Aceraceæ), although not really a British tree, has probably found a home here for nearly five centuries. It has been named the False Plane on account of its having been mistaken for, and called, the Plane, which tree it somewhat resembles in the form of the leaf, as well as in the character of the smooth, thin bark that peels off, giving the tree a patchy appearance. It should be noted, however, that the leaves of the Plane are arranged alternately, while those of the Sycamore are in opposite pairs; also that the fruits of the former are in pendulous balls while those of the latter are winged, and generally in two parts.

The Spindle Tree.

The Sycamore grows to a height of from forty to fifty feet and flowers in May or early June, some time after the appearance of the leaves. The leaves are simple and cut into five lobes, with a palmate venation and irregularly toothed margins. The flowers are small, yellowish green, and produced in graceful, pendulous racemes. Each one is about a quarter of an inch in diameter, with five narrow sepals, five narrower petals, eight stamens, and a two-lobed, flattened, hairy ovary which develops into a pair of 'keys' or samaras, with wings about an inch and a half long.

The Maple (Acer campestre) is a much smaller tree, with a very rugged, corky bark. In woods it often reaches a height of fifteen to twenty feet, though it produces flowers and fruit long before it is fully grown; and it is often seen, more or less trimmed and stunted, among hedgerow shrubs. Its leaves are opposite, two to four inches wide, on slender stalks, palmately veined, and divided to about the middle into five obtuse, entire or crenate lobes. The greenish flowers are much like those of the Sycamore, and appear at the same time, but grow in loose, erect, axillary racemes; and the wings of the fruit always spread horizontally in a straight line. On p. [337] is a photograph of a twig of this tree in fruit.

The Spindle Tree (Euonymus europæus), the only British member of the order Celastraceæ, is a moderately common wood and hedgerow shrub which is usually from four to ten feet high, when untrimmed, bearing yellowish-green flowers during May and June. Its branches are smooth, green and angular; and its leaves are opposite, shortly-stalked, oval, acute, finely toothed, with a shining surface. The flowers are usually from three to five together in loose axillary clusters. They have a small, flat calyx of four short sepals; four spreading petals, about a sixth of an inch long; four stamens, about half the length of the petals; and an ovary of from three to five cells embedded in the fleshy disc. The fruits are very pretty, and often form a conspicuous feature of the hedgerow during late summer. They are lobed capsules which open at the angles, exposing the bright orange mace that encloses the seeds.

Several of the prettiest of our trees and shrubs belong to the order Rosaceæ, and among these we may name the Dwarf Cherry, Bird Cherry, Gean, Sloe, Bullace, Hawthorn, Wild Pear, Crab Apple, Service Tree, White Beam Tree, and Mountain Ash. The first of these, known variously as the Wild Cherry, Dwarf Cherry, and Red Cherry (Prunus Cerasus), grows from four to eight feet high, and bears white flowers, in almost sessile umbels, during May and early June. Its bark is of a reddish colour, and numerous suckers arise from its root. The leaves are oval-oblong, smooth, firm, and nearly erect; and the fruit is round, juicy, and red. Although in the wild state the fruit is very acid, this is the tree from which our sweet, cultivated cherries have been derived. In order to distinguish this from other similar species, it should be noted that the tube of the calyx is not contracted at its mouth.

The Bird Cherry (P. Padus) is found principally in North England, where it is moderately common in parts. It is larger than the last, often reaching a height of fifteen feet. Its leaves are narrow, somewhat egg-shaped, smooth, with a doubly-serrate margin. The flowers, which appear in May or June, are white, and arranged in pendulous racemes; and the fruit is oval, almost black, and bitter.

The Wild Cherry.

Another wild cherry, generally known as the Gean (P. Avium), is still larger, sometimes reaching a height of thirty feet, and is not uncommon in woods and hedges. The bark is smooth; the leaves abruptly pointed, soft, drooping, and downy beneath; and the beautiful white flowers are in almost sessile umbels. The calyx-tube of this species is contracted at the mouth, and the fruit is either red or black, heart-shaped, and bitter. The leaves turn to a deep red colour in the autumn.

Among the earliest flowers of Spring are the white blossoms of the Sloe or Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), which appear in March and April, some time before the leaves. The shrub grows from four to eight feet high, has a blackish bark, and numerous branches, the smallest of which terminate in hard, rigid thorns. The leaves are ovate, finely-toothed, smooth, stalked, with small, free stipules. The flowers are small, shortly-stalked, with a free, deciduous calyx of five lobes; five spreading petals; from fifteen to twenty stamens; and an ovary which ripens to an almost black, juicy, acrid drupe, about half an inch in diameter, containing a hard stone, and covered with a bluish bloom. This shrub is very common in thickets and hedgerows.

The Bullace (Prunus insititia), sometimes regarded as a variety of P. spinosa, is a very similar bush, growing in similar situations, and flowering at the same time; but its bark is brown, and the branches less spiny. Its leaves, also, are downy beneath; and the flowers, which appear at the same time as the leaves, are in pairs, on downy stalks. The fruit is about double the size of that of the last species, either dark or yellow in colour, less acrid, and drooping.

The above two species are the origins of the damsons and plums of our fruit gardens.

The May or Hawthorn (Cratægus Oxyacantha) is so well known that there would be no necessity to describe it, were it not for the fact that, being so familiar, its distinguishing characters are liable to be overlooked. It is a much-branched shrub, with many of the branches modified into protective spines. The leaves are simple, smooth, deeply-lobed and obtuse, have deciduous stipules, and appear before the flowers. The flowers are generally white, sweetly-scented, and arranged in corymbs. There are five sepals and five petals, and the numerous stamens have pink anthers producing brown pollen. The carpels, one to three in number, are enclosed in the calyx-tube; and the fruit is a bright red pome with a bony core.

The Wild Pear (Pyrus communis) is occasionally met with in woods and hedgerows, where its white flowers may be seen in April or May. The leaves of this tree are simple, elliptical, and serrate; and the smaller branches often terminate in a spine. The flowers are about an inch in diameter, and arranged in corymbs. They have distinct styles—a feature which serves to distinguish the blossom from that of the Wild Apple; and the fruit, which tapers towards the base, is a five-chambered, woody pome, with a horny core. Two varieties of this species occur, one with the base of the fruit conical, and the other with the base rounded.

The Crab Apple (P. Malus) is very similar in general appearance, but has no spines; and the flowers, which are in sessile umbels, are white, with delicate shades of pink. The styles, also, are united below; and the fruit is globular, yellow or reddish, concave at the insertion of the stalk, very acid, and five-chambered. This tree is common in hedgerows as well as in woods, and flowers during May or early June.

The Crab Apple.

In the woods and hedges of South England we commonly meet with the Service Tree (P. torminalis)—a small tree with downy twigs, and smooth leaves with from six to ten triangular, serrate lobes. Its flowers are small, white, and arranged in compound cymes. They bloom in April and May; and in the autumn their place is occupied by small, green fruits, spotted with brown, with a two-chambered, brittle core.

The White Beam (P. aria) is a small tree, commonly found on the outskirts of woods on chalky or limestone soils, which might be confused with the last species. It has large, irregularly-lobed leaves, white and downy beneath, with serrate edges. The general form of the leaf is egg-shaped, while that of the Service Tree is cordate. The corymbs of white flowers bloom in April; and the fruit, though much like that of P. torminalis, is spotted with red. There are no less than four varieties of this tree, distinguished mainly by the forms of the leaves, the serration of their edges, and the number of lateral veins.

The Mountain Ash.

We have yet another representative of the Rose order in the Mountain Ash, Rowan, or Fowler's Service Tree (P. Aucuparia), which is common in mountainous woods, and supplies an edible fruit. It is a very graceful and beautiful tree, with a smooth greyish bark; and pinnate leaves with from thirteen to seventeen serrate leaflets, downy on the under side. The flowers are small, of a creamy white colour, in large corymbs. They bloom in May and June; and later in the year their place is occupied by the scarlet globular fruits, with a yellow pulp, enclosing from two to four chambers.

The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum), of the order Grossulariaceæ, or sometimes included in the Saxifragaceæ, is sometimes found wild in moist woods, flowering in April or May. It is well known as a garden shrub, and may be easily recognised by the characteristic odour emitted from its stems and leaves when bruised. In some northern woods the Red Currant (R. rubrum) is also found wild.

The Wayfaring Tree or Mealy Guelder Rose (Viburnum Lantana—order Caprifoliaceæ) is moderately common in the woods and hedges of dry districts, especially on calcareous soils. It grows from ten to twenty feet high, and flowers during May and June. Its young shoots are covered with star-like hairs, which give them a characteristic mealy or downy appearance. The leaves are simple, elliptical-cordate, serrate, without stipules, and are downy beneath. The flowers are small, white, perfect, and arranged in terminal cymes. In late summer the tree is rendered conspicuous by its flattened berries, which become scarlet as they ripen and afterwards turn black. A photograph of a twig in fruit is given on p. [338].

The Ash Tree (Fraxinus excelsior—order Oleaceæ) is easily recognised at a distance, either in summer or winter, by the graceful curves of the lower branches, which droop, and then bend upward at their extremities; also, on a closer inspection, by the light ashy colour of the smooth bark of the twigs, and the large, black, triangular, terminal buds. The leaves are pinnate, with from nine to seventeen oblong-lanceolate, sessile, serrate leaflets. The flowers appear before the leaves in April and May, in dense clusters. They have no perianth: some consist only of an ovary, some only of two dark purple stamens, while others are perfect flowers with both ovary and stamens. Some trees have male blossoms only, and therefore produce no fruit; others bear dense tufts of pendulous, winged fruits which are ripe in October (p. [336]), but often remain on the tree till the following spring. The wing of the fruit is slightly twisted, and thus, when the fruit is detached, it falls with a slow, spinning motion that allows it to be carried some distance by the wind, reaching the ground with its seed-end downwards. The seed does not germinate until the second spring. A variety of the Ash occurs with simple leaves.

Very early in the Spring—February to April—we may often see the Spurge Laurel (Daphne Laureola) in flower in woods and copses. This is an erect, smooth shrub, from two to four feet high, with a few erect branches bearing at their summits crowded clusters of thick, glossy, narrow, evergreen leaves. Its flowers, of a yellowish green colour, are in drooping, axillary clusters among the leaves. They have a tubular, inferior perianth, with four spreading lobes; eight stamens inserted in the top of the tube; and a free ovary of one cell, containing a single ovule. The perianth falls early; and the ovary afterwards becomes a berry-like fruit with a single stone.

The Spurge Laurel.

Another similar shrub, known as the Mezereon (Daphne Mezereum), is found in similar situations, and flowers at the same time, but it may be known by its deciduous leaves, and by its pale red flowers arranged in threes on the side of the stem. These two species are the only British representatives of the order Thymelaceæ.

Two species of Elm are common in our woods and hedgerows. The small-leaved or Common Elm (Ulmus campestris), and the Wych Elm (U. montana). Both are distinguished by their thick, furrowed, corky bark; and their rough oval-cordate leaves with unequal sides. They are often placed in the same order (Urticaceæ) as the well-known Stinging Nettles, but some authorities form a distinct order for these two species alone, under the name of Ulmaceæ.

The Common Elm is not indigenous, but was introduced into our country by the Romans. It is, however, one of our commonest trees, and is especially abundant in the South. The midrib of the leaf is covered below with irritating, glandular hairs, somewhat resembling those of nettles in structure and function; and the stipules are deciduous, falling early in the season. The flowers are perfect, appearing before the leaves in March and April, and are in small, dense clusters, principally on the topmost branches. Each flower has a little, bell-shaped, persistent perianth; a superior ovary with two styles; and four or five stamens with black anthers. The fruits are very thin oval samaras with the seeds above the centre, but they seldom ripen in our country. They are produced in such abundance that the ground is often almost completely covered with them when they fall. Botanists recognise several varieties of this species, but these differ so slightly from one another that they are barely distinguishable. The Common Elm throws off a large number of suckers from its roots, often producing a dense undergrowth round its bole.

The Elm in Flower.

The Wych Elm is a native of our country, and is also very common, but it occurs principally in the woods of the North. It is very similar in general appearance to the last species, which it also resembles in having several barely distinguishable varieties; but it generally attains a much greater girth, and does not throw off such an abundance of suckers from its roots. Its twigs are downy; and the leaves, which are larger than those of U. campestris, are irregularly doubly serrate, with hairs on the prominent ribs of the under side, and are arranged in two straight rows, one on each side of the twig. The flowers are very similar to those of the Common Elm; and the fruit is a broad oblong or almost round samara, with the seed in the centre. Both species are pollinated by the wind; and, as is the case with wind-pollinated flowers generally, the stamens protrude well out of the flower, and produce abundance of pollen.

The Oak in Flower.

Four of our forest trees belong to the order Cupuliferæ; these are the Oak, Beech, Hornbeam and Hazel. The first of them—the Oak (Quercus Robur)—is easily recognised in the winter by its deeply-furrowed, corky bark, its zigzag, spreading branches, and the clusters of oval buds at the tips of the twigs. In summer it may be known at once by the oval, sinuate leaves with blunt lobes. The flowers of the Oak appear with the leaves in April or May; they are imperfect, but both male and female blossoms appear on the same tree. The former are in slender, drooping, interrupted catkins; and each flower has ten stamens. The latter are in clusters of a few only, and each separate flower is enclosed in a cupule of overlapping scales. The ovary has three cells, and contains six ovules; but, as a rule, only one ovule of each flower is fertilised. Sometimes, however, two, three, or more of the ovules become fertilised, thus producing an acorn which will give rise to as many separate seedling trees. At times we meet with an Oak nearly every acorn of which contains two or more ovules. This tree is remarkable for the number of insects which feed on its leaves, and also for the number of different species of gall-flies which produce galls on its leaves and stems. Two well-marked varieties occur: one—pedunculata—with sessile leaves and long flower stalks; and the other—sessiliflora—with stalked leaves and short flower-stalks.

The Beech in Fruit.

The Beech (Fagus sylvatica) is readily recognised during winter and early spring by its smooth, thin, olive-grey bark, and its long tapering, pointed, brown buds. The expanding buds have already been mentioned (p. [44]) as of special interest as regards the fan-like folding of the young leaves, and the arrangement for preventing undue loss of moisture while the epidermis is as yet very thin and permeable. The leaves of this tree are ovate, smooth and glossy, with strongly-marked parallel veins branching from the midrib. When young they are very silky, but later the fine, silky hairs are seen only on the slightly-toothed margin, and even these disappear as the season advances. The flowers are imperfect, and appear in April or early May. The staminate catkins are of a dark purple-brown colour, rounded and pendulous, with from eight to forty slender stamens having exposed, yellow anthers. The pistillate flowers are grouped in little clusters of from two to four, each one having three stigmas, and being surrounded by a four-lobed prickly cupule which afterwards forms a closed case. The fruits are three-cornered nuts, enclosed in the hardened cupules which split longitudinally, when ripe, into four valves that are lined with soft, silky hairs.

The Hornbeam (Carpinus Betulus) is a much smaller tree, more or less abundant in the damp, clayey woods of the South. Its bark is smooth or slightly furrowed, of a light greyish colour, and its leaves are elliptical-ovate, with a doubly-serrate margin and acute point. The arrangement of the principal veins is the same as that of the Beech, and the young leaves are similarly plaited in the bud, but the expanded leaves are broader at the base than those of the Beech, are rougher, and are permanently hairy on the under surface. As with the Beech, the leaves assume very pleasing tints in the autumn, turning first yellow, and then through shades of orange to brown; and, in sheltered woods, many of them remain on the tree throughout the winter. The flowers appear in May and early June, and are imperfect, male and female flowers being in separate catkins, but on the same tree. The staminate catkins are pendulous and leafy, each flower having oval, acute bracts, and from three to twelve stamens with forked filaments and hairy anthers. The pistillate flowers are in erect catkins and are arranged in pairs. Their outer bracts are shed early, but the inner bracts or bracteoles, which are three-lobed, grow very large as the fruits ripen, at which time, also, the whole catkin becomes pendulous. Each flower has a two-chambered ovary, and two styles; but only one cell develops, and thus the fruits, each with only one seed, lie on the bases of the leafy bracteoles which aid in their dispersion by the wind.

Our last example of the Cupuliferæ is the well-known Hazel (Corylus Avellana), which is generally found in trimmed hedges and among the undergrowth of woods. Its bark on the trunk and larger branches is grey; but brown, hairy, and dotted with glands, on the young shoots. The leaves are roundish, slightly cordate and unsymmetrical, with a sharp apex and an irregularly-serrate edge; and, when young, are longitudinally plaited in the bud. The flowers appear before the leaves, and are mature in March or early April, but the early stages of the catkins may be observed on the tree throughout the winter, and even in the preceding autumn. The staminate catkins are pendulous, from one to two inches in length when in full bloom, and are commonly known to country children as 'lambs-tails.' They are of a bright yellow colour, and each flower has from four to eight stamens, with hairy anthers that produce abundance of pollen. The pistillate catkins are small, oval, and sessile, hardly to be distinguished from the foliage buds until they protrude their bright crimson stigmas. The minute flowers are enclosed in overlapping bracts which afterwards form the leafy cupules of the large woody nuts; and each one has a two-celled ovary and two styles.

Our forest trees include three representatives of the order Betulaceæ—the Common Birch, the Dwarf Birch, and the Alder. The first of these, the Common Birch, Silver Birch, or Lady of the Woods (Betula alba), is at once recognised by its smooth, silver-white bark, which peels off in horizontal strips; its copper-brown branches; and its very slender, drooping twigs. The leaves are small, rhomboid or triangular, with an irregularly doubly-serrate margin, a sharp apex, and veins very prominent on the under side. They are also provided with long stalks which, together with the slender character of the weeping twigs, allow them to be moved by the slightest breeze. The male and female flowers are in separate catkins, the former of which may be seen on the tree throughout the winter, but do not bloom until April or May. Both are at first erect, but the staminate catkins droop as they mature, and shed abundance of yellow pollen. The flowers have three-lobed, deciduous, scale-like bracts; the male ones consist of two stamens with forked filaments; and the females of a flattened, two-celled ovary. The female catkins droop as they ripen, each one producing a large number of minute, one-seeded and broadly-winged fruits which are easily dispersed by the wind. Two varieties of this tree occur, one with the leaves and twigs covered with downy hairs, and the other with leaves of an oval-cordate form.

The Dwarf Birch (B. nana) is a mere shrub, seldom exceeding two feet in height, and is to be found only in some of the mountainous districts of Scotland. It has rounded, crenate leaves, with short stalks; and the wings of the fruit are very narrow.

The Alder (Alnus glutinosa) is common in wet woods, and especially along the banks of streams in wooded valleys. Some of the mountain streams of the West of England, Wales, and Scotland, are bordered with almost continuous lines of Alder for miles together. This tree has a very dark grey bark, and the young branches are more or less triangular in form. The leaves are round, with a wedge-shaped base, and are green on both sides. They have very short stalks, are very blunt, and have a wavy, serrate margin. When very young they are hairy and sticky to the touch; hence the specific name of glutinosa. The catkins appear before the leaves, and are mature in March or April. The staminate catkins are pendulous, and much like those of the Birch; but the flowers have red scales and four stamens. The pistillate catkins are short and erect, and each flower has a fleshy scale within a reddish-brown, woody bract. The fruits are shed in the autumn, but the thickened woody bracts of the female catkin remain on the tree till, and even after, the flowers of the following spring are in bloom.

Coming now to the order Salicaceæ, we have to deal with the Poplars, of which we have several species, all more or less common, and largely planted in cultivated ground. Our first example is the White Poplar (Populus alba), a large tree frequently seen in abundance in most woods. It has a smooth, grey bark, spreading branches, downy shoots and buds, and it throws off many suckers from its roots. The leaves are roundish, approaching a heart-shape, except those of the young shoots, which are divided more or less deeply into five lobes; and they are covered below by a white cottony down. The flowers are imperfect, and the male and female catkins, produced on different trees, are mature in March or April. The male catkins are three or four inches long, and each flower has from six to ten stamens, with red anthers. The female catkins are much shorter, and its flowers have divided stigmas, with long, narrow, yellow segments arranged like a cross. The ovaries ripen into capsules which split open in July, setting free seeds which are provided with cottony filaments; and the seeds often fall in such abundance as to almost completely cover the ground beneath the tree.

The Grey Poplar (P. canescens) grows in similar situations, and flowers at the same time. Its leaves are roundish, with a waved and toothed margin, and are covered beneath with a slight coating of grey down. Those of the youngest shoots are more or less lobed. In this species the two stigmas are purple, wedge-shaped, and divided into from two to four lobes.

A third species—the Aspen (P. tremula) receives its specific name from the tremulous movements of its leaves, which swing with a rotary movement when disturbed even by the slightest breeze. This characteristic is common, to a greater or lesser degree, to all the species of this genus, and is due to the peculiar nature of the leafstalks, which are long, and flattened in a plane at right angles to that of the blade of the leaf. The Aspen has a grey bark, spreading branches, and downy shoots. The leaves are nearly round, with a sharp point and a serrate margin. When young they are downy above and beneath, but become smooth later. The catkins are very dense, and the flowers of the female tree have two divided stigmas.

The Black Poplar (P. nigra) and the Lombardy Poplar (P. fastigiata), though very common, are not natives of this country. The former is a large, spreading tree, and the latter is readily distinguished by its tall, pyramidal form, with all its branches directed upward. Although these two trees are so very unlike in general appearance, yet they resemble one another so closely in the form of the leaves and the character of the flowers that they are sometimes regarded as two varieties of the same species. In both the leaves are very variable in form, being either triangular, rhombic, or nearly circular, with rounded teeth. Both have smooth shoots, and sticky buds; and their catkins are not so dense as in the other members of the genus. The leaves also are smooth on both surfaces except when young, at which stage they are slightly downy beneath. The male catkins are two or three inches long, of a deep red colour; and, since they appear before the leaves, are very conspicuous. The female catkins are much shorter and erect, and the ripe capsular fruits burst in June, setting free seeds which are covered with a cottony down. P. nigra has a furrowed grey bark, rendered still more irregular by prominent swellings, and it rarely produces suckers. P. fastigiata, on the other hand, often produces numerous suckers, and its trunk generally has a rough, furrowed, and twisted appearance. It is interesting to note that the female of the latter does not occur in our country. The tree was introduced by means of suckers, and it appears certain that suckers of the male tree only were brought over for this purpose.

We conclude this chapter by a brief description of the two native conifers of our woods—the Scotch Fir or Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the Yew (Taxus baccata). The former is very well known, for while its real home is the elevated parts of the North, it has been planted more or less in most southern districts; and it is readily distinguished from other forest trees by its general form, as well as by the nature of its leaves, and by its 'cones.' It should be noted, however, that several similar species, which may be confused with the Scots Pine, have been introduced into our country, but descriptions of these can hardly be included here.

The Scots Pine with the Cones of Two Seasons.

The bark of the Scots Pine is rough, of a reddish-brown colour, and peels off in thick scales. Its trunk reaches a diameter of three or four feet, and it often grows to a height of over one hundred feet. The leaves are long, slender, rigid, grooved above, and always arranged in pairs. When young they are of a bright green colour, but turn to a dark green later, and remain on the tree for two years or more. The male and female flowers grow on the same tree, and are mature in May or June. The male catkins are only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but are collected into conspicuous spikes, and shed an abundance of pale yellow pollen. The female catkins are in the form of egg-shaped cones, tapering to a point. The carpels of the flowers do not enclose the seeds, but are thick scales beneath which the seeds lie. The cone is two or three inches in length, and takes about eighteen months to ripen, so that the cones of two successive years will generally be found on the tree at the same time. When ripe, the scales are woody and very hard, and as they separate, the winged, naked seeds are set free and dispersed by the wind. The tree has usually a very weather-beaten appearance, due to the fact that the lower branches die as the height increases, and are then more easily detached in stormy weather.

The Yew in Fruit

The Yew is a native of mountainous woods, but has been planted largely in other situations. It is an evergreen tree, with a dark brown, fibrous bark; and although it never grows to any great height—seldom exceeding fifty feet, it often has a girth of from twenty to thirty feet, and reaches an age of fifteen hundred or two thousand years. The leaves are very crowded, about one inch in length, and arranged in two rows along the stem. They are linear, pointed, of a dark glossy green above, and lighter below. The flowers are small, sessile, situated in the axils of the leaves, and appear in March or April. The male flower consists of from five to eight anthers, below which is a whorl of overlapping scales. The female is much smaller, and is composed of a fleshy disc with a small ovule at the top and scales below. After fertilisation the ovule enlarges into a green seed, and the disc, which almost completely surrounds it, develops into a roundish, sweet, fleshy cup, about half an inch in diameter, of a bright rose-red colour and of a beautiful waxy appearance. The leaves of the Yew are poisonous, but the fruits are quite harmless. A variety of this tree occurs of a pyramidal form, with scattered leaves and an oblong fruit. It should be noted that while the male and female flowers of the Yew generally grow on separate trees, the both are occasionally found on the same tree.

[VII]
WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SPRING

In the present chapter we shall consider a number of wild flowers that are to be found by the waysides, including banks and hedgerows, and in waste places, during the spring months.

Our first example is the Celandine (Chelidonium majus), of the Poppy family (order Papaveraceæ), generally spoken of as the Greater Celandine in order to distinguish it from the Lesser Celandine (p. [108]), which belongs to the Ranunculaceæ. This plant is moderately common in shady hedgerows and waste places, grows to a height of from one to two feet, and flowers from May to July or August. It has a yellow, pungent, poisonous sap. The leaves are pinnate, with an odd leaflet at the tip, of a glaucous green colour; and all the leaflets are bluntly lobed. The flowers are yellow, from three-quarters to an inch in diameter, and are arranged in long-stalked umbels. As in the poppies, there are two sepals which fall early, and four petals which are crumpled in the bud. There are numerous stamens, attached below the superior ovary; and the latter ripens into a pod-like capsule of one chamber, about an inch and a half in length, which splits, when ripe, into two valves.

The Shepherd's Purse

The Order Cruciferæ is well represented by the wayside and on waste ground during the spring months, and the reader will do well to note the general characters of the flowers of this order (p. [17]), unless already acquainted with them, before attempting to identify the species here described. Our first example—the Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris) is a well-known weed, often troublesome in our gardens, and may be seen in bloom from February to October. It is an erect herb, from six to eighteen inches high, which may be identified at once by reference to our illustration. The small white flowers are in lengthening racemes, and are often made less conspicuous by the conversion of the four petals into stamens. This weed is easily distinguished from all the other plants of the order by the form of the fruit, which is triangular and inversely heart-shaped. When ripe, it splits into two boat-shaped, keeled valves, which separate from a central membrane to which the seeds are attached.

The Common Scurvy Grass (Cochlearia officinalis) is to be found chiefly on the sea shore, but it often extends for miles inland, especially along the banks of the estuaries of rivers. It is a smooth, succulent plant, from four to eight inches high. The little white flowers have spreading petals, and are arranged in a short raceme; and the fruit is globular or oval, nearly a quarter of an inch long, pointed at the top, with several seeds in each cell. This plant commences to flower in May, and continues in bloom until August.

The Common Whitlow Grass (Draba verna) is a very small and inconspicuous plant, abundant on banks and hedgerows, bearing minute, white flowers in April and May. It has a cluster of narrow, toothed, hairy, radical leaves, from a quarter to half an inch long, that spread horizontally close to the ground; and a leafless stem, from one to four inches long, bearing a raceme of flowers on slender pedicels. The petals of the flowers are deeply notched; and the fruits are oblong, about a quarter of an inch long and half that width, containing many seeds.

The Scurvy Grass.

The Common Whitlow Grass.

Two species of Winter Cress (genus Barbarea) are common in waste land—the Common Winter Cress or Yellow Rocket (B. vulgaris), and the Early Winter Cress or American Cress (B. præcox). The former is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with numerous, small, yellow flowers in a loose raceme, blooming from May to August. The radical leaves are pinnately divided, with a large, rounded, terminal lobe, and side lobes becoming smaller towards the base; and the upper leaves are oval and irregularly toothed. All the leaves are smooth and glossy, and of a deep green colour. The fruits are short, and thicker than the pedicels. A double variety of this flower is commonly cultivated in flower gardens.

The Yellow Rocket.

The Early Winter Cress is a very similar plant, flowering at the same time, but is of a more slender habit, and has narrower leaves, the upper of which are pinnately divided. The flowers are also larger, and arranged in a closer raceme; and the fruit is longer, but not thicker than the pedicel. This species is cultivated as a salad, and frequently occurs as a garden escape.

Two species of Sisymbrium are also very common—the Garlic Mustard (S. alliaria), also known as Sauce Alone and Jack-by-the-Hedge; and the Thale Cress or Wall Cress (S. Thaliana). The first named is one of the commonest of our hedgerow flowers. It grows to a height of one or two feet, and bears, from April to June, a corymbose cluster of pure white flowers, each about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The stem and leaves, when crushed, emit a distinct odour of garlic. The former is slightly branched; and the leaves are large, stalked, broadly cordate, with many prominent veins, coarsely toothed, and of a delicate green colour. The fruits are erect, about two inches long, on short pedicels.

The Thale Cress grows on dry banks and walls, and displays its minute white flowers from April to the end of the summer. The stem is erect, slender and branched, from six to ten inches in height; and the leaves, which are nearly all radical, are simple, oblong-lanceolate, toothed and downy. The fruits of this species are erect, narrow, with four obscure angles, and about twice as long as their stalks.

The Rape or Cole-seed (Brassica napus) is a cruciferous weed commonly occurring in cultivated ground, and often cultivated for its seeds. It grows from one to two feet high, and bears corymbose clusters of yellow flowers during May and June. Its root is fusiform (spindle-shaped), and all its leaves are smooth and of a sea-green colour. The lower leaves are lyrately pinnate, with toothed edges; and the stem leaves are ovate-lanceolate, acute, embracing the stem. The pods spread as they ripen.

The Wild Turnip (Brassica Rapa) is a very similar plant, producing its yellow flowers from April to July. Its root is tuberous and fleshy. The lower leaves are hairy and rough, and not of the glaucous green characterising the last species, while the upper leaves are glaucous and smooth.

The Sweet Violet (Viola odorata)—the favourite flower of wayside banks—is common in many parts, and is generally very easily distinguished from other similar species of the order (Violaceæ) by its pleasing fragrance. It has a short root-stock, and, usually, long creeping runners. At the top of the stock is a cluster of long-stalked leaves, broadly heart-shaped in form, blunt, with crenate margins and a slightly downy surface. At the base of the leafstalks are very narrow, entire stipules; and from among these arise the slender flower-stalks, of about the same length as those bearing the leaves, with a pair of small bracts a little above the middle. The flowers are solitary, drooping, of a violet, lilac, or white colour, with obtuse sepals; a short, blunt, straight spur to the lower petal; and a hooked, pointed stigma. The conspicuous, scented flowers with which we are so well acquainted, bloom from March to April; but all through the summer the plant bears small petalless flowers that produce the seeds.

Of the order Caryophyllaceæ our first example is the Ciliated Pearlwort (Sagina ciliata), a small, creeping plant, flowering in May and June in dry places. The leaves are very small, narrow, ciliated, terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and the two of each pair are united at their bases. The flowers are very small and stalked; and the petals are either very minute or absent. The sepals, stamens, styles, and valves of the capsule, are each four; and the sepals lie close against the capsule.

The Procumbent Pearlwort (S. procumbens), also found in dry places, is a similar little plant, smooth and prostrate, with very small white flowers that appear in May and bloom till the end of the summer. The peduncles of this species curve backward just after flowering, but become erect afterwards; and the sepals, which are sometimes five in number, are not close against the fruit, as in the last, but spreading.

The Procumbent Pearlwort.

The genus Stellaria includes some plants with pretty, white, star-like flowers, some of which adorn our hedgerows in early spring. The most conspicuous of these is the Greater Stitchwort or Satin Flower (S. Holostea), the flowers of which are three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in loose, leafy cymes. The sepals have no veins, and are about half as long as the petals, which are so deeply cleft that the flower, at first sight, appears to possess ten instead of five.

The Lesser Stitchwort (S. graminea) is a very similar flower, common in dry places, blooming from May to August. The plant is smooth, and does not possess the glaucous hue of the last species. The stem is very straggling and slender, from one to three feet long; and the leaves are grass-like, sessile, and acute. The flowers are very similar to those of the Greater Stitchwort, but are smaller. The sepals have each three veins, and are as long as the petals.

The Greater Stitchwort.

The Little Chickweed (S. media), so troublesome in our gardens, belongs to the same genus. Its decumbent, branching stem has a longitudinal line of hairs placed alternately on opposite sides from joint to joint; and its ovate, smooth, succulent leaves are shortly pointed, the lower ones having hairy stalks. The little star-like, white flowers grow from the axils of the leaves, and have each five hairy sepals, as long as the deeply-cleft petals, with narrow, membranous margins.

These three species of Stellaria, and, in fact, all the species of the genus, are distinguished by their divided petals and the presence of three styles; but there is another group of flowers in the same order known as the Mouse-ear Chickweeds (Cerastium), also with divided petals, but having either four or five styles.

The Chickweed.

Three of the species of this group may be included among the spring flowers of waysides. One of these is the Broad-leaved or Clustered Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium glomeratum), which flowers from April to the end of the summer. It has an erect, sticky, hairy stem; and pale green ovate leaves. The little white flowers are tufted, on short stalks, with sepals and petals of equal length. A second—the Narrow-leaved Mouse-ear Chickweed (C. triviale)—has a similar but spreading stem; and the leaves are narrow, and of a deep green colour. In this one, too, the sepals and petals are equal; but the former are hairy, and the flower-stalks are longer. The other is the Field Mouse-ear Chickweed (C. arvense), which has numerous white flowers, in forked cymes, blooming from April to August. Its stem is hairy, prostrate, from six to ten inches long; the leaves very narrow; and the sepals only about half as long as the petals.

The Broad-Leaved Mouse-Ear Chickweed.

The pretty Wild Geraniums, of which there are several species, often form a very attractive feature of the wayside. They are readily recognised as a group by the swollen joints of their stems; the simple, stipuled, lobed leaves; the axillary flowers; and the fruit composed of five distinct carpels, with their five long styles adhering to a long central beak. The flowers have five distinct petals and sepals, and ten stamens, five of which become alternately larger. When the fruit is ripe the five carpels separate, and are raised by the curving of the smooth styles which remain for a time attached to the beak.

In early April, and from then to August or September, the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill (Geranium molle) may be seen in flower by the wayside. The plant is prostrate, soft and downy, with rounded leaves lobed and cut. The pretty pink or lilac flowers are from a third to half an inch in diameter, with abruptly-pointed sepals and notched petals. This species may be readily distinguished from similar plants of the same genus by the smooth, wrinkled capsules, and smooth seeds.

A second species—the Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill (G. dissectum)—is also very common in wastes and by waysides. It is a hairy, rather than a downy plant, with spreading stems from one to two feet long; and displays its bright red, shortly-stalked flowers from April to August. The flowers, which vary from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, have long-pointed sepals and notched petals.

The Dove's-Foot Crane's-Bill.

A third species, also very common, is the Herb Robert (G. Robertianum), characterised by a strong odour, and red, hairy, spreading, succulent stems one or two feet long. The leaves are compound, with three or five deeply-divided leaflets, and turn to a bright crimson colour in late summer. The flowers are half an inch or more in diameter, with ovate entire petals, of a pink colour and beautifully veined. The sepals have long points, and are rendered very viscid by glandular hairs. A white-flowered variety of this geranium is occasionally seen.

We have now to note four of the spring leguminous plants (order Leguminosæ)—plants belonging to the Pea family, distinguished by their butterfly-like flowers, and, usually, by compound, stipuled leaves. Our first example is the Black Medick or Non-such (Medicago lupulina) which is common in wastes, by the waysides and in pastures. This is a procumbent, spreading plant, with stems from six inches to two feet in length, and leaflets inversely egg-shaped, with finely-toothed edges. The flowers, which appear in April, and continue to bloom till near the end of the summer, are small, yellow, and arranged in dense oblong spikes. The calyx has five teeth, and the pods are kidney-shaped, each with only one seed.

The Jagged-Leaved Crane's-Bill

In shady grassy or bushy places we may see the Crimson Vetch or Grass Vetchling (Lathyrus Nissolia) which, although not common, is rather frequent in the midland and southern counties of England. It is a very slender plant, from one to two feet high, bearing crimson flowers in May and June, and may be identified at once by reference to our illustration.

The Herb Robert.

The pretty Bird's-foot (Ornithopus perpusillus) is commonly found on waste ground, more particularly on sandy soils. It has a spreading, prostrate stem, from six to eighteen inches long, and pinnate leaves with from about fifteen to twenty-five elliptical, downy leaflets. The flowers appear to be pink when viewed from a distance; but, when examined closely, are seen to have cream coloured petals that are veined with crimson. They are arranged in heads, of a few flowers each, on long stalks, with a leaf immediately below each head. The pods are curved, and made up of from seven to nine oval, one-seeded joints, with a terminal beak resembling the claw of a bird, so that each cluster of pods has much the appearance of a bird's foot. This plant flowers from April to July.

Our other example of leguminous flowers is the Bush Vetch (Vicia sepium)—a climbing plant with stem two or three feet long, very common in hedges, flowering from April to August. The leaves are pinnate, with from twelve to eighteen oval, blunt leaflets which increase in size towards the base. The flowers are pale purple, and are arranged in axillary racemes of from four to six, on very short peduncles. The style is tufted on one side, and the pods are smooth and erect.

We have now to note a flower of the Rose order (Rosaceæ), but since it is common for a beginner to be confused by the general resemblance of some of the flowers of this group to some of the Ranunculaceæ, it may be well to point out that in the latter the stamens are united to the receptacle of the flower, below the carpels, while in the rose order the stamens are attached around or on the ovary itself.

The Grass Vetchling.

The Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil or Barren Strawberry (Potentilla Fragariastrum) is very similar to the Wild Strawberry, with which it is often confused; but no difficulty will arise if it be noted that the species we are now considering produces no running stems. The Barren Strawberry is a silky little plant, with a thick, prostrate stem; and, as one of its popular names implies, a ternate leaf resembling that of the Wild Strawberry. The flowers are white, half an inch or less in diameter, on slender peduncles, with notched petals. This is one of our earliest spring flowers, blooming from February or early March to about the end of May; and is very common on banks, in hedgerows, and in weedy wastes.

The Tuberous Moschatel (Adoxa Moschatellina) is a very inconspicuous but an interesting little plant. It is sometimes placed in the same order (Araliaceæ) as the Ivy, while some botanists regard it as belonging to the Honeysuckle family (order Caprifoliaceæ). It has a scaly, creeping, thick, underground stem or rhizome, and a four-angled aerial stem; and the whole plant emits the scent of musk. The flowers are small, of a yellowish-green colour, and are clustered together into five-flowered, terminal heads. The petals are spreading, the stamens four or five in number, and the fruit is berry-like, with one-seeded chambers. The plant is only four or five inches in height, and though not common, may be found in shady places in many parts. It flowers during April and May.

The Strawberry-Leaved Cinquefoil.

The White or Red-berried Bryony (Bryonia dioica) is a very common hedgerow climber, the only British representative of its order (Cucurbitaceæ). It has a very thick rootstock; a slender stem, that often reaches a length of ten feet or more; large, bright green, palmate leaves with three, five or seven angular, coarsely-toothed lobes; and long simple or branched tendrils. The flowers are imperfect, the males and females growing on separate plants. The former are of a pale yellow colour, in stalked clusters, each one consisting of a spreading, five-lobed corolla, about half an inch in diameter, and five stamens, one of which is free, while the other four are united in pairs: the females are smaller, generally in pairs, each consisting of a globular ovary with three stigmas, and a superior, five-lobed corolla. The fruit is a scarlet or orange-coloured berry, about a third of an inch in diameter, containing several seeds. The whole plant is clothed with small, white hairs, and contains an acrid sap. Time of flowering—May to September.

The Moschatel.

The Common Beaked Parsley (Anthriscus vulgaris), of the order Umbelliferæ, is very common by waysides, flowering during May and June. The stem of this plant is smooth and shining, from two to three feet high, slightly swollen at the nodes. The leaves are tri-pinnate, with blunt segments, and slightly hairy on the under side. The white flowers are arranged in compound umbels with short stalks, and the umbels droop before the flowers open. There are no bracts at the base of the main pedicels, but five or six bracteoles, with fringed edges, lie at the foot of the secondary pedicels. The fruits are short, ovate, with short beaks and hooked bristles. As with the other members of this genus, the petals have an inflexed lip.

This genus includes the Chervil or Wild Beaked Parsley (A. sylvestris), which is very common in hedges and waysides, flowering from April to June. It grows from three to four feet high, and has tri-pinnate leaves with coarsely-serrated edges. The umbels are terminal, on long stalks. There are no bracts, but about five narrow, ovate bracteoles with fringed edges. The flowers are white; and the fruits are long and narrow, smooth, with short beaks.

The White Bryony, Climbing over a Bed of Nettles.

The Garden Beaked Parsley (A. cerefolium) is very similar to the last species, but has only three bracteoles in a whorl, and the umbels are lateral and shortly stalked. Also, the fruit, which is of the same form, has a longer beak. This species is not a native, but is often found as a garden escape. It grows to a height of about eighteen inches, and flowers from May to July.

Our last example of the Umbelliferæ is the Goutweed, Bishop-weed or Herb Gerard (Ægopodium Podagraria), a rather coarse, erect, smooth plant, from one to two feet high, commonly seen in wayside ditches and other damp places. It was formerly cultivated largely for medicinal purposes, consequently it is to be found chiefly near towns and villages, where it occurs as a garden escape. It has a creeping, aromatic stock; a hollow, grooved stem; large long-stalked, biternate radical leaves, with ovate or narrow, toothed segments, two or three inches long; and smaller stem-leaves with fewer segments. The flowers are greenish white, in umbels of many rays, with few or no primary or secondary bracts; and the fruits are oblong, about a sixth of an inch long, with the two diverging styles curved downward. The plant flowers from May to August.

The Wild Beaked Parsley.

On dry banks by the wayside we may commonly meet with the Crosswort or Mugwort (Galium Cruciatum) of the Bed-straw Family (Rubiaceæ). It is a prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and soft, downy, elliptical leaves arranged crosswise in whorls of four. Its fragrant little yellow flowers are in whorled, axillary cymes, each cluster having from six to eight blossoms. The lower flowers have stamens and no pistil, and the upper ones pistil only. The fruits are smooth. The time of flowering is from April to June.

The Garden Beaked Parsley.

Composite flowers (Order Compositæ) are mostly summer-bloomers, but three at least are very common by waysides in spring. One of these is the Mouse-ear Hawkweed (Hieracium Pilosella), a slender plant with leafy runners, rendered silky in appearance by long, soft hairs. The stem is almost leafless, but there are elliptical-lanceolate, entire, radical leaves covered, especially on the under side, by starlike hairs. The yellow heads are solitary, on stalks varying from two to ten inches long. This species flowers from May to August.

The second species is the Common Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), which may be seen in bloom throughout the year. Though so well known, we think it advisable to call attention to one or two of its characteristic features. The leaves are smooth, deeply cut, toothed, and half clasp the stem. The flower-heads have no ray florets; and the outer bracts are very short, with black tips.

From March to April almost all damp places are more or less thickly dotted with the bright yellow flowers of the Colt's-foot (Tussilago Farfara); and later, after all the flowers have ceased to bloom, the same places are covered with the large, heart-shaped, angular leaves, four or five inches wide, thickly clothed beneath with a loose, cottony down which is also sparingly scattered over the upper surface. The early flowering stems are rather thick and fleshy, about six inches high, and downy. They bear a number of small, narrow, erect, scale-like leaves, and, at the top, a single flower-head, surrounded by a whorl of narrow bracts, and a few smaller outer bracts. The inflorescence consists of several whorls of narrow, strap-shaped, outer florets, with no stamens; and a few central, tubular, perfect florets. The fruits are cylindrical, with a tuft of long, simple hairs.

The Goutweed.

The Speedwells (Veronica) belong to the order Scrophulariaceæ. They are all herbs, with simple leaves; slightly irregular flowers with an unequally four-cleft, spreading corolla, the lower lobe of which is smallest; and only two stamens. At least six species of this genus may be found by waysides, in flower during the spring months.

One of these—the Thyme-leaved Speedwell (Veronica serpyllifolia), is common in most waste places. It is a small plant, with a downy, prostrate stem from three to ten inches long. The leaves are broadly elliptical, slightly crenate, blunt, and somewhat leathery in nature. The flowers are about a quarter of an inch across, of a light blue or lilac colour, striped with dark blue veins; and appear from May to July. They are arranged in several spike-like, many-flowered racemes. The corolla tube is very short; the style long and persistent; and the fruits are inversely-cordate capsules.

The Crosswort.

The Common Speedwell (V. officinalis) is a small plant, with hairy, prostrate stems from two to ten inches in length. It is common in dry places. The leaves are opposite, elliptical, serrate, with short stalks. The pale blue flowers, which are only about a sixth of an inch in diameter, are in many-flowered, axillary, spike-like racemes. The capsules are of the same form as in the last species, but are deeply notched. This species flowers from May to July.

The Germander Speedwell (Veronica Chamædrys) is one of our most beautiful and most abundant spring flowers. It is very common on banks and by roadsides, flowering during May and June. Its stem is weak, decumbent, rooting at the base, often considerably more than a foot in length, and remarkable for the line of hairs that changes to alternate sides at each node. A raceme of flowers, much longer than the leaves, arises from several of the nodes. The flowers are bright blue, about half an inch in diameter, with a four-cleft calyx; a deeply four-cleft corolla, the lower lobe of which is narrowest; and two prominent stamens. The fruit is a very broad, flat capsule, notched at the top, narrowed towards the base, splitting into two valves when ripe.

The Colt's-Foot in Early Spring.

The Germander Speedwell.

A fourth species, the Wall Speedwell (V. arvensis), is abundant on walls and dry roadsides. It is a prostrate, downy plant, generally more or less thickly covered with dust, flowering from April to about the end of summer. The stem is from four inches to a foot in length, and two lines of hairs run along the branches. The leaves are oval-cordate, crenate, and slightly stalked. The flowers are very small and inconspicuous, and are frequently almost completely hidden by the crowded upper leaves. They have very short corolla-tubes, and are arranged in loose, terminal, spikelike racemes.

The Grey Field Speedwell (V. polita) is common in waste places and rough fields, flowering from April to September. Its flowers are bright blue, about a quarter of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks which are longer than the leaves. The sepals are broadly oval and pointed, and the petals are all of the same colour. The leaves of this plant are stalked, cordate, and irregularly toothed.

Our last example of the order is the Green Field Speedwell (V. agrestis), also common in fields and by the roadside. It has several prostrate stems, from four to eight inches long; and stalked, cordate leaves with irregularly serrate margins. The flowers are small, about a fifth of an inch across, solitary, axillary, on stalks shorter than the leaves. The sepals are narrow, oblong, and blunt; and the lower petal is white. This species flowers from April to the end of the summer.

The White Dead Nettle.

The Dead Nettles (genus Lamium, of the order Labiatæ) may be readily distinguished from the Stinging Nettles, with which they are often confused, by their square stems, and whorls of showy, lipped flowers. Further, these flowers may be recognised from among the others of their own order by the ten-ribbed, bell-shaped calyx; and by the one or two teeth on each side of the lower lip of the corolla.

Three of this group are very common wayside spring flowers. One is the White Dead Nettle (Lamium album), with large, white flowers forming whorls in the axils of the leaves. The leaves of this plant are all stalked, cordate, with a very sharp point, deeply serrate, and often marked with white blotches. The teeth of the calyx are narrow, as long as the tube, with long slender points; and the tube of the corolla is curved, longer than the calyx, gradually widening from below upwards. The two lower stamens are longer than the upper pair, and the anthers are black. The plant varies from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers from April to September.

The Red Dead Nettle (L. purpureum) grows to the same height, but has much smaller cordate or kidney-shaped leaves, with blunt apices and crenate edges. The upper ones are very crowded, and often tinged with red; and all the leaves are stalked. The flowers are small, of a red-purple colour (rarely white), in crowded whorls in the axils of the upper leaves. The tube of the corolla is straight, longer than the calyx; and the calyx teeth are spreading.

The Yellow Pimpernel.

The third species—the Cut-leaved Dead Nettle (L. incisum or L. hybridum)—is not so abundant as the other two, but moderately common on waste land. Its leaves, which are all stalked, are very deeply cut in a serrate manner; the lower ones being cordate, while the upper are more triangular. The flowers are of a rose-red colour, in crowded whorls near the top of the stem. The tube of the corolla is shorter than the calyx, and straight; and the teeth of the calyx are about as long as its tube. The plant grows from six to eighteen inches in height, and flowers throughout the whole of spring and summer.

Another common Labiate—the Ground Ivy (Nepeta Glechoma)—may be seen almost everywhere in the spring, in bloom from March to May. It has a procumbent, creeping stem, and deeply-crenate, kidney-shaped leaves. The flowers are of a blue-purple colour, arranged in whorls of three or four in the axils of the leaves. The calyx has five teeth and fifteen ribs; and the two front stamens are shorter.

The Dog's Mercury.

The Early Field Scorpion Grass (Myosotis collina) belongs to the order Boraginaceæ—a family of (usually) hairy herbs with alternate leaves and one-sided spikes or racemes of showy flowers. The flowers have a five-lobed calyx and corolla, five stamens, and a fruit of four nutlets. It is in the same genus as the familiar Forget-me-not, and, in fact, somewhat closely resembles that plant, which is often confused with certain species of Scorpion Grass. It is a slender, more or less prostrate herb, with blunt oblong leaves; and minute, bright blue flowers which are at first hidden among the leaves, but afterwards exposed by the lengthening of the stem. The flowers have very short pedicels; and are in long, slender, leafless, spikelike racemes, with a single flower some distance down, in the axil of the highest leaf. The popular name of Scorpion Grass has been given on account of the characteristic arrangement of the flowers when in the bud, these being then tightly coiled in a scorpoid fashion. In order that the present species might be distinguished from allied plants, we should note that the pedicels are shorter than the calyx; that the calyx is furnished with hooked bristles, and is open and swollen when the fruits are formed; also that the tube of the corolla is very short. The Early Field Scorpion Grass is very common on dry banks. Its stems vary from about four to ten inches long, and the flowers appear during April and May.

The Black Bryony in Fruit

The Wood Loosestrife or Yellow Pimpernel (Lysimachia nemorum) of shady waysides and woods is a member of the Primulaceæ or Primrose family. It is altogether a pretty little plant, much like the Scarlet Pimpernel in general appearance, but somewhat larger and more glossy. It has a prostrate, spreading stem, often tinged with red; and opposite, oval, acute leaves with short stalks. The flowers are yellow, usually a little more than half an inch in diameter, with a spreading corolla. They are axillary, placed singly on very slender peduncles, and have very narrow sepals. This species flowers from May to August.

The Perennial or Dog's Mercury (Mercurialis perennis), of the Euphorbiaceæ or Spurge family, is one of our earliest spring flowers, and may be seen in abundance on almost all shady waysides, in bloom from March to May, and growing from six to eighteen inches high. The minute green flowers, which have three sepals and no petals, are in racemes or spikes that grow from the axils of the upper leaves. They are unisexual; the staminate flowers in slender racemes, with several erect stamens; and the pistillate ones in short, few-flowered spikes, with a two-celled ovary, two styles, and a few imperfectly formed stamens.

The Black Bryony (Tamus communis)—order Dioscoriaceæ—is a pretty climbing plant, the slender stem of which twines for several feet among the hedgerow trees and shrubs. Its leaves are cordate and acute, and change either to a bright yellow or a beautiful bronze colour in the autumn. The flowers, which appear in May and June, are yellowish green, in small clusters; and the fruits are oblong berries, turning to a bright scarlet as the leaves assume their autumn tints.

The Wild Arum.

Our next flower is the peculiar and interesting Wild Arum (Arum maculatum), of the order Araceæ, also known as Lords and Ladies, Cuckoo Pint, and Wake Robin. It is a very common flower of shady waysides, blooming during April and May. The plant is succulent, with a short, fleshy rhizome; and large, smooth, sagittate leaves that are often spotted with purple. The floral stalk is thick and fleshy, and supports numerous unisexual flowers which are clustered round a central axis or spadix that is prolonged above into a club-shaped appendage. The whole of the spadix is surrounded by a large bract or spathe which is contracted a little distance above its base. The portion of the spathe below the constriction encloses the flowers, and remains permanently closed as long as they are in bloom; but the upper part opens on one side, just before the flowers begin to mature, exposing the club of the spathe. The club is thick and fleshy, and coloured either dull purple, bright red, pink, or yellow. The pistillate flowers are clustered round the bottom of the spadix, and consist of a number of sessile ovaries. Above them is a ring of imperfect flowers consisting of styles only, and above these again is the cluster of staminate flowers, with some aborted stamens at the top. After fertilisation has taken place the spathe and the spadix soon wither away, and the ovaries develop into a cluster of large berry-like fruits, each containing a few seeds. These fruits, mounted on the summit of the lengthened, fleshy peduncle, are very conspicuous objects in the autumn hedgerows.

The contrivance by which cross-fertilisation is secured in these flowers is particularly interesting:—Numbers of little insects (midges) are attracted by the brightly coloured club, and, possibly, also by the fœtid odour of the flowers. These creep down the spadix, passing through the narrow neck into the closed compartment below. The neck is more or less obstructed by the upper, abortive, staminate flowers, which consist merely of a few whorls of bristles. Since, however, many of these bristles point downwards, they offer but little obstruction to insects as they enter; but prevent their escape. Thus, on cutting open the lower part of the spathe, we may frequently find quite a number of midges that have been imprisoned, their bodies covered with pollen that has probably been carried from another Arum previously visited. The pistillate flowers are mature first, and thus the imprisoned insects, creeping about in their cell during this early stage of the flower, are sure to bring pollen cells in contact with some of the ripened stigmas.

After the work of fertilisation has been accomplished, the anthers ripen, setting free abundance of pollen which now covers the bodies of the insects in the place of that which has been rubbed on to the stigmas. Then the abortive stamens, which prevented the escape of the insects, wither; and, at the same time, the neck of the spathe relaxes. Thus the prisoners are again set free, and possibly a large proportion of them enter another flower and repeat the process of cross-pollination.

The commonest of the early-flowering Grasses of the wayside is the Annual Meadow Grass (Poa annua)—a small tufted species, varying from a few inches to nearly a foot in height. It commences to flower in March, and remains in bloom till the end of the summer. It is represented on [Plate III].

[VIII]
MEADOWS, FIELDS AND PASTURES—SPRING

It is, of course, impossible to draw a hard and fast line between the flowers of spring and those of summer, for not only does each individual species vary in the time of its first appearance, according to the nature of the season, but many of the spring and summer flowers overlap in such a manner that it is difficult to decide which season has the greater claim to each one. In the present chapter, however, we shall include those flowers of our fields and meadows which usually commence to bloom before the beginning of June, even though they may continue to produce blossoms well into the summer.

One of the most conspicuous features of the meadows in spring is certainly the abundance of those bright yellow flowers known collectively as the Buttercups. But the name of Buttercup, standing alone, has no definite, scientific meaning, the name being applied to quite a number of flowers of the Ranunculus genus of the order Ranunculaceæ.

The earliest of these is undoubtedly the Pilewort or Lesser Celandine (Ranunculus Ficaria), which appears early in April, and often in such abundance as to cover the ground with its leaves and flowers. This flower is not confined to fields and meadows, but often covers large patches of bank and hedgerow, where, together with the Greater Stitchwort, it produces a most brilliant show of white and yellow stars.

The plant has a small rootstock, with a number of little oblong tubers which are renewed every year, and sometimes a branched, creeping stem. Its leaves usually all grow direct from the rootstock, and are stalked, heart-shaped, glossy, with crenate or angled margins. The flower-stalks bear a few small leaves, and a single flower with three sepals, and about eight glossy, oblong, yellow petals. The cluster of carpels in the middle of the flower form a large, globular head.

A little later in the season our pastures are bountifully bedecked by two of the most familiar Buttercups—the Creeping Buttercup (R. repens) and the Bulbous Buttercup (R. bulbosus), both of which appear early in May.

The Field Pennycress.

The former grows from six inches to a foot in height, and may be easily distinguished by its creeping stems, which give off root fibres and produce new plants at every node. The flowering stems of this species are clothed with long hairs, and the leaves are divided into three stalked segments which are lobed and toothed, the middle segment projecting much beyond the other two. The flowers are in loose panicles, on long, furrowed stalks, with five yellowish-green, concave, spreading sepals that are shorter than the petals. The carpels are ovate in form, somewhat flattened, arranged in a globular head; and the fruits are smooth. This plant is abundant almost everywhere, and continues to flower till the end of the summer.

The Bulbous Buttercup is very similar to the last species, but may be known at once by its swollen, bulbous root. Its leaves are divided into three segments which are more or less toothed and lobed, and the sepals bend backwards on the peduncle as soon as the flower opens. Its carpels are smooth, and form a globular head; and the ripened achenes are also smooth. The plant is very abundant. It flowers from May to August.

The Wild Pansy.

Coming now to the Crucifers, we have first to note the Field Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense), which may be recognised at once by reference to our illustration. It is an erect, smooth, plant, from six to twenty inches in height, a common weed in cultivated ground, flowering from May to July. Its radical leaves are stalked, and wither early; and the small white flowers are soon followed by round siliquas, about half an inch in diameter, with a broad wing notched at the top.

The same order includes the Cuckoo Flower, Lady's Smock, or Meadow Bittercress (Cardamine pratensis), which is certainly one of our prettiest spring flowers, growing in abundance in most moist meadows, and flowering from April to June. It has a short rootstock, with small, fleshy scales, often so much swollen as to resemble tubers; and the stem is erect, either simple or branched, and a foot or more in height. The leaves are pinnately divided, the leaflets of the lower ones being ovate or round, and those of the upper ones very narrow. The flowers are rather large, white or lilac in colour, with stamens about half as long as the petals, and yellow anthers. The fruits are usually more than an inch in length.

The Ragged Robin.

One of the common weeds of cultivated fields is the pretty Wild Pansy or Heartsease (Viola tricolor), of the order Violaceæ. The plant may be easily recognised by its resemblance to the Garden Pansy, which is a variety of the same species. It is very variable, both in regard to its general build, and to the colour and size of the flowers. The plant is either smooth or slightly downy, and its branching stem varies from four to ten inches in length. The leaves are oblong or cordate, with crenate edges; and each one has a large, leafy stipule which is divided into oblong or very narrow lobes. The flowers are coloured with varied proportions of yellow, white, and purple; and the lower petal, which is the broadest, is usually purple at the base. This species flowers from May to the end of the summer.

In damp meadows, and especially near ditches and in marshy ground, we meet with the Ragged Robin (Lychnis Flos-cuculi of the order Caryophyllaceæ). This is an erect plant, from one to two feet high, with a viscid stem that is slightly downy and never much branched. The leaves are few and small, the upper ones sessile and the lower stalked. The pretty red or rose-coloured flowers are arranged in a very loose terminal panicle, and have no scent. The petals are each divided into four very narrow lobes, of which the two middle ones are longest; and the fruit is a broad oval capsule, which opens, when ripe, by five teeth. The flowers appear first in May, and continue to bloom till the end of June or the beginning of July.

Several spring-flowering leguminous plants (order Leguminosæ) are to be found in fields and meadows, and of these we will first notice the Spotted Medick (Medicago maculata), generally easily distinguished by the dark spot in the centre of the leaflets of its trifoliate leaves. It is a smooth plant, with procumbent, branching stems varying from six inches to two feet in length. There are fine, spreading hairs on the leafstalks, and the leaflets are obcordate and toothed. At the base of each leafstalk there is a pair of toothed stipules. The small, yellow flowers are in short, dense racemes, only a few in each cluster; and the pods are little compact spirals, almost globular in general form, with three or four ridges, and a central furrow broken by a number of fine, curved prickles. The plant is abundant in the southern counties of England and Ireland, where it grows on pasture-land, flowering from May to near the end of the summer.

The Netted Medick (M. denticulata), of the same genus, is a similar plant, flowering during the same period, and often seen in the southern and eastern counties of England, especially in fields near the coast. Its prostrate stems are of the same length as those of the Spotted Medick; and its leaves are also very similar, but the stipules are bordered with very fine teeth. The flowers are in small, yellow heads; and the pod forms a loose, flat spiral of two or three coils, deeply netted on the surface, and bordered with curved prickles.

We have next to note several species of Trefoils (genus Trifolium), all distinguished by trifoliate, compound leaves, so familiar to us in the clovers; and stipules which adhere to the leafstalks. Their flowers are in dense clusters, and each one has a five-toothed calyx, and an irregular corolla of narrow petals which usually remains, in a withered condition, around the ripening pod. There are ten stamens, the upper one free, while the remaining nine, united by their filaments, form a split tube round the ovary. The pod sometimes contains only one seed, and never more than four.

The Subterranean Trefoil (T. subterraneum), which is abundant on the dry pastures of South England, is characterised by a stem, from six to eighteen inches long, which is underground for the greater part. The visible portion of the plant is small, and more or less covered with long, spreading hairs. The leaves are on long stalks, with obovate leaflets, and broad stipules. The flowers vary in colour from white to pink or crimson, and are usually in hairy clusters of from two to four. As the fruit ripens, the peduncle lengthens and bends downward. At the same time the calyx turns back on the stalk, exposing short fibres, each with five spreading teeth which fold over the fruit. The flowers appear during May and June.

The Dutch Clover or White Clover (T. repens) is one of the most familiar of the Trefoils. It is very abundant in English pastures, and has been introduced into Ireland, where it is now often selected as the national emblem in the place of the Wood Sorrel (p. [52]), which is regarded by many as the original 'true Shamrock.' The whole plant is smooth or slightly hairy; and its creeping stem, from two to twenty inches in length, sends down root-fibres from its nodes. The leaves have long stalks, with stipules at the base; and the leaflets are broadly oval or obovate, finely toothed, and have usually a lighter, crescent-shaped mark near the middle. The flower-stalks are long, growing from the axils of the leaves; and each one bears a globular head of white or pinkish flowers. The plant flowers from April to the end of the summer.

A very similar species—T. hybridum—has been introduced into our country, and has now become established in many places where it was formerly cultivated. Its stipules are larger than those of the Dutch Clover; the pod contains only two seeds; and the flowers are usually pinkish.

The Common Purple Clover (T. pratense) is also largely cultivated for fodder, but it is indigenous, and grows abundantly in most parts as a wild plant. It is very similar to the Dutch Clover in general build, but its stem is more or less erect, the flowers are purple, and the whole plant is generally more hairy. The stipules are ovate, larger, veined, and have long points; and each flower-head has a pair of trifoliate leaves at its base. The individual flowers are about half an inch long; and the hairy calyx has the lower tooth longer than the others. The pod contains only one seed, and is surrounded by the brown, withered corolla, as well as by the calyx, which remains erect while the fruit ripens. This species also flowers from May to the end of the summer.

The Purple Clover.

Two of the Vetches (Vicia—of the order Leguminosæ) are also to be included among our spring-flowering field-plants. One of these is the Spring Vetch (V. lathyroides), which may be found in flower from April to June on dry pastures. It is a small plant, with a hairy stem that gives off spreading branches, from six to eight inches long, at the base. The leaves are pinnate, with two or three pairs of leaflets, rounded and notched at the apex, and no tendrils. The flowers are small, solitary, of a rich purple colour, situated in the axils of the leaves. The pods are smooth and usually less than an inch long.

The other species—the Common Vetch (V. sativa)—is a very similar plant, but its trailing stems grow to a length of from one to two feet. Its leaves have from four to seven pairs of leaflets, varying in form from linear to obovate or obcordate, and have branched tendrils. At the base of each leaf is a toothed stipule with, usually, a dark spot in the centre. The flowers are axillary and sessile, either solitary or in pairs, rather large, and of a pale purple colour. The pods are narrow, smooth, from one to two inches long, and contain about twelve smooth seeds. The plant is common in fields, and flowers during May and June. It is represented in Fig. 5 of [Plate IV].

The Daisy.

The very pretty Meadow Saxifrage (Saxifraga granulata), of the order Saxifragaceæ, is very abundant in the meadows of some parts of England and Scotland, and may sometimes be seen on grassy roadsides. It varies from six to about ten inches high, and flowers during May and June. The stem is erect, simple or slightly branched, and covered with spreading hairs; and the lower leaves are kidney-shaped, either crenate or lobed, having long stalks, while the upper ones are smaller, and either entire or sharply lobed. The rather large white flowers are in terminal cymes of from three to six. The calyx adheres to the ovary, and has blunt segments; the five petals are about twice as long as the sepals; and both petals and stamens are inserted into the bases of the segments of the calyx. The stamens are ten in number, and the ovary is two-celled, with two styles.

The principal spring-flowering umbelliferous plant of pastures is the common Earthnut or Pignut (Bunium flexuosum or Conopodium denudatum). This plant has a smooth, slender, stem, with a few forked branches, and is usually leafless at the base on account of the early decay of the lower leaves. Its popular names are due to the large, tuberous rootstock, which has somewhat the appearance of a chestnut, and is often eaten by country folk, and dug out of the ground by pigs. The lower leaves have three stalked segments, each divided pinnately into narrow lobes which are themselves divided; and the upper leaves, which are smaller, are cut into very narrow lobes, the middle one much longer than the others. The small, white flowers are arranged in umbels of from six to ten rays, with a few very narrow bracts or none at all. The umbels are usually terminal, and droop before the flowers are open. The fruit is oval or oblong, slightly flattened, with slightly-spreading styles, and ribs scarcely visible. The plant grows from one to three feet high, and flowers from May to July.

Dealing next with a few composite flowers (order Compositæ), we first call attention to the leading characters of the Common Daisy (Bellis perennis), which is abundant in fields and meadows almost everywhere, and flowers practically all the year round. It has a tufted, perennial rootstock, from which grows a cluster of obovate leaves, usually smooth, and slightly toothed. The leafless peduncles also start direct from the stock, each one bearing a solitary flower-head with an outer whorl of nearly smooth bracts; a ray of strap-shaped, white or pinkish florets; and a disc of numerous little yellow, tubular florets.

The Dandelion (Taraxacum Dens-leonis or T. officinale) is equally familiar as a meadow and wayside plant, commencing to flower in March, and continuing in bloom till October. It has a thick tap-root, with a very bitter taste; and direct from the crown of this grow the spreading leaves and the hollow stalks of the solitary flower-heads. The former vary very considerably in shape, but are usually long and narrow, broader at the apex, and cut into triangular lobes which generally point backwards. Sometimes, however, the leaves are almost entire; and they also vary in colour, from a bright to a very dull green. The peduncles vary from two to eight inches in length; and the florets of the head, which are all yellow, are surrounded by an inner whorl of narrow, erect bracts, and outer bracts which either overlap or are turned back on the stalk. The little fruits have projecting points towards the top, and are provided with a slender beak, three or four times as long as the achene itself, at the summit of which is a tuft of silky hairs.

The Butterbur.

Our last example of the composite flowers is the Butterbur, variously named Tussilago vulgaris, Petasites vulgaris, and Tussilago Petasites. It resembles the Common Colt's-foot (Tussilago Farfara) in several respects; and, as will be seen from the above names, is sometimes included in the same genus. Its leaves are very large, and very similar to those of the Colt's-foot, being cordate and toothed, and appearing after the flowers. The flowering stems each bear a dense cluster of dull pink or purple heads, forming a raceme from four inches to a foot in height. The pistillate and staminate flowers grow almost exclusively on separate plants. In the former case the heads are larger and densely clustered, each one consisting of filiform, pistillate florets only, or almost entirely of these with a few tubular, staminate florets in the centre. On other plants the flower-heads are smaller and not so densely clustered; and each head consists entirely of tubular, male flowers, or has a few filiform, female florets round the outside. The plant is common in many parts of Britain. It grows in damp meadows, especially along the banks of streams and ditches, flowering from March to May.

The Yellow Rattle.

The Yellow Rattle (Rhinanthus Crista-galli), of the order Scrophulariaceæ, is abundant in damp pastures, flowering from May to July. It is a parasitic species, deriving a portion of its food, in the form of ready-made organic compounds, from the roots of surrounding grasses, and its parasitic habits are referred to in [Chapter XXIII]. Its stem is erect, from six to eighteen inches high; and the leaves are sessile, opposite, lanceolate, and coarsely toothed. The calyx is almost globular, slightly flattened, with four small teeth. The yellow corolla has a tube longer than the calyx, and terminates in two lips, one or both of which have often a purple spot. The stamens are in two pairs; and the fruit is an almost globular capsule, containing a few large, flat seeds.

In similar situations we may find the Field Louse-wort (Pedicularis sylvatica) of the same order, also a parasitic species, extracting nourishment from the roots of grasses. It has spreading branches from three to ten inches long, more or less recumbent. Its leaves are alternately arranged, and pinnately cut into small, toothed segments. The flowers are sessile in the axils of the upper leaves, and vary in colour from rose to white. The calyx is broadly oblong, with five unequal lobes. The tube of the corolla is considerably longer than the calyx; and its upper lip has a very small tooth on each side, just under the tip. The plant flowers from April to July.

The Henbit Dead Nettle.

The only common spring labiate flower (order Labiatæ) of fields is the Henbit Dead Nettle (Lamium amplexicaule), which is frequently met with on sandy soils, flowering from April to the end of the summer. It is a low plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, with a branching stem that is too weak to stand erect. The upper leaves are sessile, round, much wrinkled, and deeply crenate; while the lower ones, of the same form, are on long petioles. The flowers are arranged in a few compact whorls, in the axils of the upper leaves. The calyx is much shorter than the tube of the corolla; and its five, pointed teeth, which are as long as the tube, bend together as the fruit ripens. The lipped corolla is of a rose or purple-red colour, about half an inch long, with a comparatively long, straight tube.

In damp meadows we frequently see the changing Scorpion-Grass (Myosotis versicolor), also known as the Yellow and Blue Scorpion Grass, deriving its name from the fact that the corolla is yellow at first, and afterwards changes to a dull blue. It is a hairy plant, with an erect stem, from four to ten inches high, slightly branched. The leaves are oval or ovate, narrow, and sessile; the lower ones forming a spreading tuft at the base, while the others, few in number, are erect on the stem. The flowers are very small, almost sessile, and arranged in a one-sided, curved raceme. The calyx is deeply cleft into five parts which close quite over the ripening fruit; and the small corolla has a comparatively long tube and five spreading lobes. The plant flowers from April to June. It belongs to the order Boraginaceæ.

The Cowslip (Primula veris—order Primulaceæ) is common in pastures in many parts of Britain. It usually grows from six to ten inches high, and flowers during May and June. The whole plant is clothed with soft, downy hairs; and its leaves are all radical, obovate, narrowed towards the base, and much wrinkled like those of the Primrose. The flowers are arranged in a drooping umbel, on a long stalk. The calyx is tubular, with five broad, blunt teeth; and the corolla has a long, narrow tube, with five spreading lobes that form a shallow cup.

The Cowslip.

Two species of Sorrel are very common in meadows and pastures during the spring. They are plants very much resembling the docks; in fact, they belong to the same genus (Rumex) of the order Polygonaceæ. Both have erect, leafy stems, with sheathing stipules; and numerous, small, green flowers which soon turn red. The latter are imperfect, with a deeply-cleft perianth of six lobes. The male flowers have six stamens; and the females have three styles. The fruits are little triangular nuts, more or less enclosed in the segments of the perianth.

One of these—the Common Sorrel (Rumex Acetosa)—is very abundant in damp meadows and pastures all over Britain. It varies from one to two feet in height, with a stem that is usually unbranched, and flowers from May to July. The leaves have a very acid juice, and are often used as a salad. The radical ones are oblong, arrow-shaped at the base, with pointed lobes, and have rather long stalks; the stem-leaves are smaller, few in number, with shorter stalks. Sometimes both male and female flowers grow on the same plant, but often the plant produces the one kind only. They are arranged in long, leafless panicles; and the outer lobes of the perianth of the female flowers are turned back on the peduncle, while the inner are enlarged and swollen, and close over the fruit.

The other species—the Sheep's Sorrel (R. Acetosella)—is a much smaller plant, seldom reaching a foot in height, and often only three or four inches. It grows abundantly in dry pastures and on heaths, flowering from May to July. It is much more slender than the Common Sorrel; and its leaves, which are also acid, are all very narrow, and generally either arrow-shaped or spear-shaped at the base. The flowers are in very slender, terminal panicles, the males and the females always on separate plants; and the latter differ from those of the last species in that all the segments of the perianth close over the fruit.

Fox-Tail Grass.

Coming now to the monocotyledonous plants, we have first to note three flowers of the order Orchidaceæ, the general features of which are described in [Chapter XVIII]; and the reader is advised to refer to this short account of the leading characteristics of the group before attempting to identify the present species.

The first is the Twayblade (Listera ovata), frequently seen in moist pastures, as well as in woods, flowering from May to July. The stem of this plant is usually from one to two feet high, with a few sheathing scales at the base; and the species can be recognised at once by its two broad oval leaves, almost exactly opposite one another, from two to four inches long, and about six inches from the ground. The flowers are of a yellowish-green colour, in a long slender raceme; and each one has a long lip, divided into two very narrow lobes.

The other two belong to the genus Orchis. They are the Green-winged Meadow Orchis (O. Morio), and the Early Purple Orchis (O. mascula), and may be distinguished by the following summary of their characteristics:

The Green-winged Orchis.—Root with two undivided tubers, and stem from six to twelve inches high. Leaves few, narrow, at the base of the stem only; but a few, loose, sheathing scales above them. Flowers usually about eight in number, forming a loose spike. Bracts thin, pink, about the same length as the ovary. Sepals purplish, arching over the smaller petals. Lip longer than the sepals, and divided into three short lobes. Spur a little shorter than the ovary, and very blunt. The plant is abundant in the South of England and in South Ireland, but less common in the North. The flowers appear during May and June.

The Early Purple Orchis.—Root with two undivided tubers. Stem from six to eighteen inches high, including the loose spike of flowers. Leaves broad, and often spotted. Flowers numerous, usually purple, but sometimes pink or even white. Bracts coloured, nearly as long as the ovary. Upper sepals and petals arched over the ovary; lateral sepals acute, and turned upwards and backwards. Lip about the same length as the sepals, divided into three short lobes, the middle one notched, and the lateral ones turned backward. Spur as long as the ovary, obtuse. The plant is generally distributed, growing in moist meadows and in woods, flowering from April to June.

Finally, we have to note two early-flowering grasses of pastures. One of these is the Fox-tail Grass (Alopecurus pratensis), which grows from one to two feet high, and may be identified with the aid of our illustration. The other is the Slender Fox-tail (A. agrestis), a very similar plant, but its spike of flowers is narrower, especially towards the top, and the sheaths of its leaves are not so loose as in the former.

[IX]
BOGS, MARSHES AND WET PLACES IN SPRING

The cold soils of bogs, marshes, and other wet places do not produce a very great variety of flowers during the spring months; but some there are which appear in great profusion; and others, though less conspicuous, are sufficiently abundant and interesting to be included in our list.

Our first is the beautiful Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris) of the Buttercup family (Ranunculaceæ), which is exceedingly abundant in marshes and by the sides of muddy ditches in most parts of Britain, flowering from March to June. It is represented on [Plate V], and may be distinguished at once from the other members of its family by its glossy leaves, and its large flowers, varying from one to near two inches in diameter.

A little later in the season we may meet with the pale blue or lilac flowers of the Marsh Violet (Viola palustris—order Violaceæ), which generally make their first appearance in April, and continue until June or July. The plant is much like the well-known Sweet Violet in general appearance, but is smaller, with a creeping stock; and the whole is smooth with the exception of a few scattered hairs on the flower-stalks. Its leaves are either round, heart-shaped, or kidney-shaped, with slightly-waved edges, and often of a purplish hue beneath. The flowers are smaller than those of the Sweet Violet, scentless, with pale petals; and the spur of the corolla is very short and blunt. The plant is rather local in the southern counties of England, but is decidedly abundant in the bogs and marshes of North Britain.

Few of the spring bog-flowers are more interesting than the pretty little Sundews (Drosera), so remarkable on account of their carnivorous nature. A description of the three British species will be found in [Chapter XXIV], which contains also an account of their peculiar habits.

Coming next to the order Caryophyllaceæ we have to note two of the Stitchworts or Starworts (Stellaria)—slender plants distinguished by their opposite, pointed leaves; jointed stems; and little, white, star-like flowers. They have five sepals; five petals, deeply divided into two lobes; ten stamens; three styles; and a capsular fruit that splits longitudinally, with many seeds.

One of these is the Glaucous or Marsh Stitchwort (Stellaria glauca or S. palustris), which is widely distributed though not very common. The whole plant is slender, with a four-angled stem from six to eighteen inches high; and narrow, sessile, undivided leaves that taper to a point. Its flowers are solitary on axillary peduncles, from half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, with petals much longer than the three-veined sepals. They first appear in April, and continue to bloom until August.

The Marsh Potentil.

The other is the Bog Stitchwort (S. uliginosa)—a smooth, slender plant, with a spreading, four-angled stem, and narrow-ovate leaves that terminate in a stiff point. In marshy or boggy ground its stems are straggling, and often near a foot in length; but on drier soils they are much shorter, and the plant more tufted. The flowers are much smaller—only about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in loose, terminal cymes. Their petals are shorter than the sepals, and are very deeply divided into two narrow spreading lobes. This species flowers during May and June.

The Rose family (Rosaceæ) includes the Purple Marsh Cinquefoil or Marsh Potentil (Comarum palustre or Potentilla palustris)—a stout plant, varying from six to eighteen inches high, the whole generally more or less tinged with purple. The flowers are of a dull purple-brown colour, in loose clusters, and bloom from May to July. The sepals, which are longer than the petals, have narrow outer segments, and longer, broad, inner segments with long, sharp points. This species is widely distributed, but is very local in the southern counties of England.

The Golden Saxifrage.

In shady marshes we may often meet with one or other of the two pretty little Golden Saxifrages (order Saxifragaceæ), and sometimes the both growing together. One of them—the Common Golden Saxifrage (Chrysosplenium oppositifolium), is very abundant, often covering large patches of marsh with its golden leaves and flowers. It is a tender, succulent plant; with a decumbent stem, either simple, or branched near the top, and rooting at the base. The leaves are opposite, almost round, about half an inch in diameter, with wavy margins, and a few scattered hairs on the upper side. The lower ones are shortly stalked, and the upper generally of a golden colour. The flowers are very small, in little, crowded, terminal clusters, surrounded by the upper leaves. They have a calyx of four spreading sepals; no petals; eight stamens joined to the base of the sepals; and an inferior ovary divided above into two conical lobes.

The other species is the Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage (C. alternifolium)—a very similar plant, but generally of a lighter colour, and its leaves are always alternately arranged. Both species have yellow flowers which bloom from April to July; and both grow to a height of from two to five inches. The latter is much less common than the former, but is very widely distributed.

The Marsh Pennywort or White Rot (Hydrocotyle vulgaris) is a peculiar umbelliferous plant, common in marshes and bogs, with a slender stem that creeps in the mud, rooting at every joint; and tufts of long-stalked leaves which rise above the surface of the water. The latter are round, with waved margins, about an inch in diameter, glossy, and stalked in the centre. The minute white flowers are collected into little five-flowered umbels, on stalks much shorter than those of the leaves, each individual flower having a very short pedicel, and five spreading petals. This plant flowers from May to August.

The Marsh Valerian.

In the marshes of South Britain we may often meet with the pretty Marsh Valerian (Valeriana dioica) of the Valerianaceæ. It grows from six to eight inches high, and its flowers, which bloom during May and June, are of a pale rose colour, in a terminal corymb. They are mostly unisexual, the male and female flowers growing on different plants. All have a tubular corolla, pouched at the base, with five spreading lobes; but the female blooms are more densely crowded than the males, and are of a deeper colour. The former have an inferior ovary, with a slender style and a lobed stigma; and the latter have three stamens on the corolla.

The Gentianaceæ is represented in bogs by the common Buckbean or Marsh Trefoil (Menyanthes trifoliata), the only member of its family with trifoliate leaves. This plant has a creeping stock; and its flowers, which are pink in the bud and pinkish white when expanded, are in handsome racemes on stalks from six inches to a foot in length. The calyx has five short lobes; and the bell-shaped, fleshly corolla is deeply cut into five lobes which are beautifully fringed above with delicate filaments. The time of flowering is May to July.

The Marsh Trefoil.

The Marsh Lousewort.

In the marshes, ditches, and wet meadows of most parts we may see the Red Rattle or Marsh Lousewort (Pedicularis palustris) which belongs to the order Scrophulariaceæ. It has an erect stem, from six to eighteen inches high, with reddish branches; and pinnate leaves with many oval segments more or less deeply cut. Its rather large crimson flowers are on very short stalks in the axils of the upper leaves, forming together a leafy raceme. The calyx is a broad, hairy tube, with two irregularly-toothed lips; and the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with two lips, the upper of which has four minute teeth. After flowering the calyx becomes much swollen; and the superior ovary ripens into a capsule with a few rather large seeds. This plant flowers from May to September.

Most wet places are characterised by the presence of one or more species of Willows—those water-loving trees and shrubs which constitute the genus Salix of the order Salicaceæ. Some of them almost invariably establish themselves along the banks of rivers and streams, and may often be seen in long tortuous lines which mark the positions and courses of streams that no longer exist; while others thrive best in the standing water and sodden soils of marshes and bogs. One species in particular, the Osier, is largely cultivated for its long, slender twigs, so useful in the manufacture of baskets and other wicker-work; but two or three others are valued for the same purpose, and are either specially cultivated, or pollarded with the object of securing suitable twigs for this work.

The Yellow Flag.

Nearly all the species have very narrow leaves, with prominent stipules at the base; and their flowers grow in erect or horizontal catkins with undivided scales. The flowers are always unisexual, the male and female blossoms being produced on separate trees. The former have from two to five stamens; and the latter a one-celled ovary that ripens to a capsule containing many seeds, each with a tuft of silky hairs. A few of these trees are common in marshes and bogs, but they are so similar in their general features that the identification of species is somewhat difficult for a beginner.

Some of our marshes and boggy pools are beautifully decorated from May to July by the large, bright flowers of the Yellow Iris or Flag (Iris Pseudacorus), which belongs to the order Iridaceæ. This plant has a thick rhizome which creeps horizontally below the ground, and a round stem from one to three feet high. Two or three flowers grow on the stem, each with a sheathing bract at the base of its stalk. The perianth consists of six segments, the outer three broadly ovate at the top, and spreading; and the inner three narrower, shorter, and erect. There are three stamens; and an inferior ovary with three large petal-like stigmas, longer than the inner segments of the perianth, divided into two at the tip. The fruit is a large capsule, two or three inches long, containing many brownish-yellow seeds.

[X]
WOODS AND THICKETS IN SUMMER

A large number of the flowers that grow in woods bloom early in the spring, before the buds of the trees have expanded, or, at least, before the foliage is sufficiently dense to cover the ground with its shadow. Some, however, are not so dependent on the direct rays of the sun, but thrive even better in the shaded, moist atmosphere of wooded ground. Others there are which seem grateful for the warm rays of the summer sun, but grow to their greatest luxuriance in the moist and partially-shaded ground of underwood and thicket, trusting to the rigidity of their own erect stems, or to the climbing habit which they have acquired, to bring their leaves and blossoms in full view of the sun during some part of the day.

Plants such as these are selected for description in this chapter; and although we may speak of their flowers as the summer blossoms of woods, thickets and copses, we must be prepared to meet with several of them outside these habitats, particularly in damp places that are more or less protected from the heat of the sun.

Our first in this series is the Lime Tree (Tilia europæa) of the order Tiliaceæ, which grows wild in many of our woods, but has been planted to such an extent that it may be found in almost every cultivated district except in the extreme North. Its leaves are stalked, alternate, heart-shaped or broadly ovate, very pointed, serrate, smooth above, and slightly downy below. The flowers, which appear during June and July, are of a pale yellowish green colour, and are arranged in cymes, on axillary, drooping peduncles that are attached for nearly half their length to a long, leafy bract. There are five sepals, which fall early; five petals; and many stamens that are united at their bases into clusters. The blossoms have a very sweet scent, and produce such an abundance of nectar that they are very attractive to bees and other insects. The fruit is a woody nut, globular or more or less angled, five-celled, with two seeds in each cell.

Plate II.

FLOWERS OF THE WOODS.

• 1. Great Valerian.
• 2. Foxglove.
• 3. Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard.
• 4. Nettle-leaved Bell-flower.
• 5. Broad-leaved Helleborine.
• 6. Hairy Brome-grass.

A small-leaved variety, sometimes regarded as a distinct species (Tilia parvifolia), has a thin, angular fruit; and another, known as Tilia grandifolia, has very large, broad leaves, downy on both sides, and a downy fruit with from three to five prominent ribs.

The Large-Flowered St. John's Wort.

Several species of St. John's-wort (order Hypericaceæ) grow in thickets and other wooded spots. They vary considerably in size, as well as in general appearance, but all agree in the following features: Their leaves are opposite, entire, without stipules, and either sessile or very shortly stalked. The flowers are regular, with five sepals; five petals, often oblique at the tip; numerous stamens, united or clustered into three or five sets; and a superior ovary that ripens to a capsule with many seeds. No less than four species of the genus (Hypericum) come within the province of the present chapter. They are:—

1. The Tutsan (H. Androsæmum).—An erect, shrubby plant, from one to three feet high, flowering from June to August, common in the thickets of most of the western and southern counties of Britain. It has several erect, slightly-flattened stems; and large, blunt, ovate leaves, two or three inches long, with very small, transparent dots that are easily seen when the leaves are held up to the light. The flowers are yellow, about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and form a compact, terminal corymb. The sepals are broad, about a third of an inch long; the petals a little longer, and oblique; and the stamens are in five sets, connected at the base.

The Common St. John's Wort.

2. The Large-flowered St. John's-Wort or Rose of Sharon (H. calycinum).—A shrubby plant, from ten to eighteen inches high, with a creeping, woody stock, flowering from July to September. It is not indigenous, but has been largely introduced into parks and gardens, and now grows wild in many parts. This species may be distinguished from all other members of the genus by its large, yellow flowers, from one and a half to three inches in diameter.

3. The Common St. John's-Wort (H. perforatum).—A very common plant in woods and thickets, growing from one to two feet high, and flowering from July to September. It has short, underground stems, or barren shoots that lie on the ground and root at the nodes, in addition to the erect, flowering stems, which are either round or two-edged, and branched towards the top. The leaves are half an inch long, with opaque veins, many transparent dots, and sometimes a few black dots on the under side. The yellow flowers form a terminal corymb. Their sepals are narrow, about half the length of the petals. The stamens are in three sets, united at the base; and both petals and anthers are marked with black dots.

4. The Hairy St. John's-Wort (H. hirsutum).—A stiff, erect plant, from one to three feet high, common in the woods and thickets of most parts of Britain, flowering in July and August. The stem is round, and clothed with soft hairs. The leaves are ovate, oblong or elliptical, tapering at the base into a short stalk, about an inch long, with many transparent dots, and downy along the veins on the under side. The sepals are narrow, acute, about half the length of the yellow petals, and fringed with stalked glands. The stamens are in three sets.

The Dyer's Green-Weed.

The Wood Crane's-bill (Geranium sylvaticum—order Geraniaceæ), one of the most handsome of our Wild Geraniums, is not found in the South, but is moderately common in parts of North Britain, including North Ireland. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and branched towards the top. In general form the leaves are heart-shaped or shield-shaped, but they are very deeply divided into five or seven radiating, cut, and toothed lobes. The lower ones are on long stalks; but the upper are shortly stalked or sessile, and less divided. The flowers are of a bluish-purple or rose colour, about an inch in diameter, arranged in a loose panicle with two flowers on each pedicel. The five sepals are about half the length of the petals, and terminate in a very fine point; and the petals are obovate and slightly notched. The plant flowers during June and July.

The Sweet Milk Vetch.

Passing now to the order Leguminosæ we note first the Dyer's Green-weed (Genista tinctoria)—a shrubby plant, common in the thickets and bushy places of South Britain, flowering from July to September. The stem is woody and stiff, but green; its base rests on the ground, but it sends up erect flowering branches from one to two feet high. The yellow flowers are arranged in terminal racemes, each flower having a lanceolate bract at the base of its short stalk, and very small bracts at the base of the calyx. The calyx has five teeth, the three lower ones much narrower than the other two, all terminating in a sharp point; the corolla is much longer than the calyx, with an oblong standard or upper petal; the stamens are all united by their filaments, forming a complete sheath round the ovary; and the pods are smooth, about an inch long, and compressed.

In the thickets of most parts of Britain, but more especially those of the eastern counties, we may often meet with the Sweet Milk Vetch (Astragalus glycyphyllos) of the same order. It is a prostrate plant, with pale yellow or cream-coloured flowers that bloom from June to August. The flowers are about half an inch long, in short, dense, shortly-stalked racemes. The calyx has five teeth; the upper stamen is free from the other nine, which form a divided sheath round the ovary; and the pod is smooth, round, curved, over an inch long, and divided by a double membrane into two cells, each of which contains about seven seeds.

The Wild Raspberry

In the same order are two species of Everlasting Pea (Lathyrus), both of which grow in thickets and other bushy places. One is the Tuberous Everlasting Pea or Tuberous Bitter Vetch (L. macrorrhizus), an erect plant, from six inches to a foot in height, flowering from May to July. Its rootstock has small tubers, and the stem is winged. The leaves are pinnate, with from two to four pairs of narrow leaflets and half arrow-shaped stipules; they have no tendrils, but the leafstalk terminates in a fine point. The flowers are of a red-purple colour, changing to greenish blue as they fade; and are in loose racemes of from two to four.

The other is the Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea (L. sylvestris), a straggling plant, from two to six feet long, flowering from June to August. It is not so common as the last, but may be found in similar situations. Its stem has very narrow wings; and the leaves have very narrow leaflets, flattened stalks, branched tendrils, and half arrow-shaped stipules. The flowers are rather large, of a pale purple colour, with a greenish keel, and a green spot on the large upper petal. They are arranged in loose racemes.

The Rose Bay Willow Herb.

The Wild Raspberry (Rubus Idæus—order Rosaceæ) is to be found in the woods and thickets of most parts of Britain. It may be easily distinguished from other species of its genus by the following description:—Rootstock creeping, with many suckers. Stems round, erect, with a soft down and numerous weak prickles. Leaves pinnate, with three or five ovate, pointed, toothed leaflets, pale green above, and white and hoary beneath. Stipules small, very narrow and pointed, usually attached part way up to the leafstalk. Flowers white, in long, terminal, drooping panicles. Calyx five-lobed; petals five, short and narrow; stamens numerous; and fruit consisting of a globular cluster of red or yellow, hoary, one-seeded, succulent carpels which usually separate from the conical receptacle when ripe. The bush grows from three to five feet high, and flowers from June to August.

Two species of Willow Herb (order Onagraceæ) grow in copses and thickets, and are easily recognised by their rose-coloured flowers with very long, inferior ovaries. One is the beautiful French Willow or Rose Bay Willow Herb (Epilobium angustifolium), an erect plant, varying from two to six feet in height, widely distributed, though not very common, flowering during July and August. Its leaves are alternate, narrow-elliptical, entire or with very small teeth, and very shortly stalked. The flowers are about an inch in diameter, numerous, forming a very long, loose, terminal, tapering raceme, with a narrow bract at the base of each pedicel. The calyx is tubular, four-cleft, attached to the top of the long ovary; the corolla consists of four entire, nearly equal, spreading petals; the stamens, eight in number, all bend downwards; and the stigma is deeply divided into four lobes, on a long style which also bends downward. The fruit is a four-celled capsule, two or three inches long, which splits when ripe, its valves curling downwards and exposing numerous minute seeds, each of which has a silky tuft of fine hairs that enables it to be dispersed by the wind. The plant is most frequently seen in damp copses, and among the undergrowth of damp woods.

The Dogwood.

The second species is the Pale Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (E. roseum), an erect plant, seldom more than two feet high, found principally in the damp copses of the southern counties, flowering in July and August. Its stem is four-angled, two opposite angles being much more prominent than the other two; and its leaves are opposite, with longer stalks, lanceolate or elliptical, pointed, toothed, smooth, usually about two inches long. The flowers are not nearly so numerous as those of the last species, are only a little over a third of an inch in diameter, and in a short, leafy panicle, drooping while in the bud. The calyx is deeply divided into four sepals about a sixth of an inch long; the corolla consists of four notched petals, a little longer than the sepals; the stamens, ovary, fruit, and seeds correspond in number and character with those of the last species; but the stigma is either entire or divided into four very short lobes.

In the same order we have the Enchanter's Nightshade (Circæa lutetiana), distinguished at once from the Willow Herbs by having only two sepals, two petals, and two stamens. It is an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, flowering from June to August. Its stem is slender; and the leaves are opposite, long-stalked, ovate and coarsely toothed. The flowers are very small, white, in terminal, leafless racemes, with deeply-notched petals, and pink stamens. The fruit is a little two-lobed capsule with stiff, hooked hairs.

The Wood Sanicle.

The Cornel or Dogwood (Cornus sanguinea), of the order Cornaceæ, is a common shrub in woods and thickets, and is often employed in the making of hedgerows. It grows from five to eight feet high, and flowers during June and July. Its leaves are covered, when young, with fine, silky hairs that lie close on the surface, but these almost entirely disappear later; and towards the end of the summer the leaves assume a deep crimson or purple colour. The flowers are very abundant, of a yellowish white colour, and are arranged in dense cymes, about two inches across, without bracts. The four-toothed calyx and the peduncle are both clothed with a mealy down; and the four petals, about a quarter of an inch long, are narrow and pointed. The fruit is a purple-black, globular, berry-like drupe, containing a stone with one or two seeds.

In very dense woods, where the light is so much reduced that but few flowers will grow, we may generally find the Wood Sanicle (Sanicula europæa), a smooth umbelliferous plant with a short, hard rootstock, and a simple stem from one to two feet high. The leaves, which are all radical, are on long stalks, and are palmately divided into three or five shining lobes that are themselves cut and sharply toothed. The flowers are sessile, in little rounded heads; the whole inflorescence forming an irregular umbel or a loose panicle. They are very minute, of a pinkish white colour; and the outer ones of each head usually have no pistil. They bloom during June and July, and are followed later by little prickly fruits about a sixth of an inch long.

The Alexanders.

In damp woods we commonly meet with the tall, stout, branching Angelica (Angelica sylvestris) of the same order (Umbelliferæ), with a thick, furrowed stem, two to four feet high, downy above, and usually more or less shaded with purple. Its lower leaves are very large, with stalked, ovate leaflets, from one to two inches long, often three-lobed, and always sharply toothed. The upper leaves are much smaller, with fewer leaflets, and often consist only of a broad sheath with a few small leaflets at its summit. The flowers are white, generally tinged with pink, and form a large terminal umbel of from sixteen to forty rays, with two or three narrow primary bracts, and several fine secondary ones. They bloom during July and August, and are succeeded by flattened fruits with three ribs on the back of each of the two carpels. The carpels are also broadly winged; and, as the wings do not adhere, each fruit is surrounded by a double wing.

The Elder.

The order Caprifoliaceæ includes the Common Elder (Sambucus nigra), the white or cream-coloured flowers of which are so conspicuous in our woods and hedgerows in June. This tree grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet, and its young branches are remarkable for the large quantity of pith they contain. The general form of the leaves and the arrangement of the flowers are seen in our illustration. Each flower has a calyx with five small teeth; a corolla with a short tube and five spreading limbs; five stamens attached to the base of the corolla; and an inferior ovary. The fruit is a black, berry-like drupe containing (usually) eight little, seedlike stones.

The Guelder Rose.

The Guelder Rose or Water Elder (Viburnum Opulus), of the same order, is a flowering shrub, usually six or eight feet high, moderately common in moist woods and copses, especially in the South, bearing showy cymes of white blossoms in June and July. The cymes are flat-topped, consisting of numerous flowers, the outer of which are much larger, often nearly an inch in diameter, but without stamens or styles, while the others are perfect, with five stamens and three sessile styles. The fruit is a blackish-red, almost globular, slightly-flattened berry, containing a single seed. The cultivated variety of this shrub, known as the Snowball Tree, has large, globular cymes of flowers, all of which are large and barren.

The Great Valerian or All-heal (Valeriana officinalis—order Valerianaceæ) is moderately common in moist woods, and is rather widely distributed. It is an erect plant, from two to four feet high, flowering from June to August. There seems to be two distinct varieties of this plant, one with from four to six pairs of leaflets, and the other with from six to ten pairs, in addition to the terminal leaflet in each case. The flowers are small, flesh-coloured or nearly white, in terminal and axillary corymbs. The little inferior ovary is surmounted by a calyx which is compactly rolled in at first, but which expands into a spreading, feathery pappus as the fruit ripens. The corolla is tubular, with five short, equal, spreading lobes. It is not spurred as in the case of the Red Valerian (p. [302]), but the base of the tube is pouched on one side. This plant is shown on [Plate II], Fig. 1.

We have now to note some composite flowers (order Compositæ) of wooded and shaded ground. Of these we will first take the Blunt-leaved or Succory-leaved Hawk's-beard (Crepis succisæfolia or C. hieracoides), which is moderately common in the woods of North England and Scotland, but does not occur in the South. It is an erect plant, varying from one to three feet in height, smooth or slightly hairy, flowering during July and August. The fruits (achenes) are marked by many fine, longitudinal ridges, and are surmounted by a dense pappus of soft, white hairs which are a little longer than the fruits themselves. This flower is represented in [Plate II], Fig. 3.

In the woods and thickets of nearly all parts of Britain we may see the Saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria), a stiff, erect, smooth plant, from one to three feet high, flowering in August and September. The flower-heads are purple or crimson, forming a loose, terminal corymb; and the florets, all of which are tubular, are imperfect, the males and females being generally on different plants. The involucre is oblong in form, more than half an inch long, consisting of many pointed, closely-placed bracts, of which the inner are usually tipped with red; and that of the male heads is somewhat broader than the involucre of the females. The pappus consists of a tuft of simple hairs, most of which are longer than the achene.

The Golden Rod (Solidago Virga-aurea) is another abundant flower, found in dry woods and thickets in all parts. It is a tufted plant, with stiff, erect, angular, slightly-branched stems, varying from six inches to two feet in height; and narrow-elliptical leaves, entire or slightly toothed, the lower ones stalked. The flowers are very numerous, of a bright golden yellow-colour, forming a dense, terminal panicle. The heads are not large, and each consists of about twenty tubular disc-florets; half the number of strap-shaped ray-florets; and an involucre of many overlapping bracts. The pappus consists of many simple hairs. This species flowers from July to September.

Two species of Leopard's Bane (Doronicum) are occasionally to be seen in damp woods and thickets, especially near villages. They are not indigenous, only occurring as escapes from gardens, but they have now become well established as wild flowers in many parts of Britain. Both are tall, erect plants, from two to three feet high, with large yellow heads surrounded by two or three rows of narrow, acute bracts. Except in colour the heads much resemble the Ox-eye Daisy. In both species the achenes of the ray have no pappus, but those of the disc have a pappus of stiff hairs in several rows. They flower from May to July.

The Saw-Wort.

The Great Leopard's Bane (D. Pardalianches) has a creeping rootstock and a hollow stem. Its radical leaves are broadly heart-shaped, slightly toothed, on long stalks; and the stem leaves are narrower, entire or toothed, the upper ones small, sessile, embracing the stem; and the lower ones stalked, with a broad expansion at the base of the stalk which clasps the stem. The heads are usually three or four in number, on long leafless peduncles.

The other species, the Plantain-leaved Leopard's Bane (D. plantagineum), has, as its name denotes, leaves similar to those of the Plantain. It usually has solitary flower-heads, and is represented on [Plate I].

Passing now to the favourite Bell-flowers (Order Campanulaceæ), we have to notice four species that are to be found in woods and other shady spots during the summer months. The features common to the four species are:—Leaves alternate. Calyx adhering to the ovary, with a border of five lobes or teeth. Corolla bell-shaped, with five lobes. Stamens five, attached to the corolla by the broad bases of the filaments. Ovary inferior, ripening to a capsule that opens by longitudinal clefts. The species referred to are:

1. The Giant Bell-flower (Campanula latifolia). A stout plant, from three to five feet high; with an unbranched, leafy stem; and a leafy raceme of large, deep blue or white flowers that bloom in July and August. Its leaves are large, ovate to lanceolate, acute, doubly serrate, the lower ones stalked and the upper sessile. Each axillary peduncle bears only one flower, the calyx of which has long, narrow segments, and the corolla is hairy within. The capsule is short, opening by slits near the base. This flower is found principally in the North.

2. The Creeping Bell-flower (C. Rapunculoides).—A downy plant, with a creeping rootstock; an erect, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; and a one-sided raceme of drooping, deep blue flowers that appear in July and August. The leaves are rough and doubly toothed, the lower ones stalked and heart-shaped, and the upper narrow and sessile. The segments of the calyx are long and narrow, and the capsule is globular, opening by small slits near the base. This species is widely distributed, but not very common.

3. The Nettle-leaved Bell-flower (C. Trachelium).—A very rough plant, with an angled stem, from one to three feet high, bearing a leafy raceme of large blue flowers from July to October. Its leaves are much like those of the Stinging Nettle, being very rough, bristly, and coarsely toothed. The segments of the calyx are rather broad, and very rough with stiff hairs. This species is very abundant in some localities, and is widely distributed. (See [Plate II], Fig. 4.)

4. The Ivy-leaved Bell-flower (C. hederacea).—A pretty little creeping plant that grows in moist woods, flowering during July and August. It is very widely distributed, and is a common flower in many parts of Great Britain, more especially in the southern counties. Its prostrate stem is very slender; and the leaves are small, stalked, very broad, and palmately divided into angular lobes. The flowers are of a pale blue colour, solitary on long, threadlike peduncles; and the capsule is globular, opening by three valves at the top.

From May to August is the best season to study the Holly (Ilex aquifolium—order Aquifoliaceæ). We are all acquainted with this tree in its winter condition, with its bright red or yellow 'berries,' but during the months above named the less familiar flowers are in bloom. The tree is common in the woods of all parts of Britain, and is easily distinguished at all times by its smooth, grey bark, as well as by its thick, glossy, spiny, evergreen leaves, which are placed alternately on the branches, attached by very short stalks. As a rule the leaves have waved margins, and are armed with several very strong spines; but commonly the spines of the upper leaves are much fewer, and are sometimes reduced to a single one at the apex. The little white flowers form dense clusters in the axils of the leaves. Generally they contain both stamens and pistil, but often they are imperfect, the pistillate flowers predominating on some trees and the staminate ones on others. Their parts are arranged in fours, the calyx having four small teeth, and the corolla four spreading lobes, while four stamens are attached to the latter, and the ovary has the same number of cells, and the style terminates in an equal number of small stigmas. The fruits are not really berries, but little, poisonous drupes containing four one-seeded stones.

The Ivy-Leaved Bell Flower.

The Privet (Ligustrum vulgare), which forms, together with the Ash, the whole of the order Oleaceæ, as far as British species are concerned, is very common in the southern counties, where it is often an escape from gardens, the bush being so largely employed in the formation of hedges; but it is truly wild, and very plentiful on the chalky soils of the south and east of England. Except during very severe winters the old leaves remain until the early spring leaves are well formed, so that the bush is always green. The flowers are white, with a very characteristic odour, and are arranged in dense, terminal, conical panicles. The calyx forms a little cup with four teeth, but soon falls; and the corolla is funnel-shaped, with four spreading lobes at the top of its tube. The stamens are short, attached to the corolla; and the superior ovary ripens to a black, globular berry containing two or four seeds. The bushes are in bloom during June and July.

Two Twigs of Holly
One from a lower, and one from the topmost branch of the same tree, the former in fruit.

Three species of Cow Wheat (Melampyrum) are to be found in copses and woods during the summer. They belong to the order Scrophulariaceæ; and, like other allied plants of this group, are partial parasites (See page [349]), deriving a portion of their food from the roots of grasses by means of suckers. They have the following features in common:—Leaves opposite. Calyx tubular, with four narrow teeth. Corolla much longer than the calyx, consisting of a very long tube and two lips, the upper lip undivided, with its sides turned back, and the lower with three spreading lobes. A kind of 'palate' also closes the mouth of the tube. The fruit is an ovate capsule, containing from one to four seeds. The three species referred to are:—

1. The Common Cow Wheat (M. pratense).—A smooth, erect plant, from six to eighteen inches high, with spreading, opposite branches; and sessile, narrow leaves, often coarsely toothed at the base. The flowers are pale yellow, over half an inch long, arranged in pairs in the axils of the upper leaves, and all turned towards one side of the stem. The corolla is three or four times the length of the calyx. This plant is very common in moist copses and thickets, and flowers from June to August.

The Privet.

2. The Crested Cow Wheat (M. cristatum).—A widely-distributed plant, found principally in the copses and thickets of the eastern and southern counties. Its stem is from six to twenty inches in height; and the leaves are very narrow, and generally entire except in the case of a few of the upper ones, which are slightly toothed at the base. The flowers are yellow, more or less variegated with purple, about half an inch long, and they closely overlap one another in a dense, four-sided spike over an inch in length. Under each flower is a broad, heart-shaped, strongly-toothed, rose-coloured bract. The plant blooms during July.

3. The Wood or Yellow Cow Wheat (M. sylvaticum), sometimes known as the Small-flowered Cow Wheat. This is a much rarer plant, and seems to be found only in the hilly woods of Scotland and North England. It is very much like the Common Cow Wheat, but its flowers are of a deep yellow colour, less than half an inch long, with entire bracts, and equal, open lips. The corolla is only twice the length of the calyx, and the lanceolate leaves are very seldom toothed.

Millet Grass.

Bearded Wheat.

The same order (Scrophulariaceæ) contains the handsome and favourite Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), which grows abundantly in most dry woods and shady wastes, flowering from June to August. Its stout, unbranched stem varies from two to six feet in height, a large proportion being the axis of a long one-sided raceme of beautiful, drooping, purple or, occasionally, white flowers. The fruit is an ovate, pointed capsule that splits into two valves and contains many seeds. It is remarkable that this plant does not grow freely on chalk and limestone soils, yet it will often make a sudden appearance in great profusion as we pass over the edge of a calcareous district. The flower is shown on [Plate II], Fig. 2.

Of the order Labiatæ we shall note one species only, and that is the pretty Wood Betony (Stachys Betonica), a very common plant in the woods and thickets of the south of Britain. It is a hairy species, with a slender, simple or slightly-branched stem from one to two feet high; and deeply-crenate, oblong leaves. The lower leaves have long stalks, and are heart-shaped at the base; but those of the stem are narrower, sessile or shortly stalked, tapering at the base. The flowers, which bloom from June to August, vary much in colour, ranging from a deep purple or crimson to a rose-pink or (rarely) white; and they form a dense oblong, terminal spike, consisting of whorls of six or more, with a bract at the base of each calyx, and a pair of sessile leaves just below the lowest whorl. The calyx is ribbed, with five very sharp teeth; and the corolla, which is much longer than the sepals, has an erect, oval, upper lip, and a spreading, three-lobed, lower lip. The stamens are in two pairs, immediately under the upper lip; and the fruit consists of four little rounded nuts.

Slender False Brome.

In the dry woods of South Britain we occasionally meet with the Wood Scorpion-grass or Wood Forget-me-not (Myosotis sylvatica), of the order Boraginaceæ. This plant is very much like the favourite Water Forget-me-not, and has equally large flowers, but it is much more hairy. Its stem is erect, without runners; and the blue flowers form a one-sided raceme without bracts. As the flowers expand the stalk lengthens considerably, with the result that the fruits are very distant. Among other features by which we may distinguish between the Wood Forget-me-not and the commoner Water Forget-me-not we may mention that the corolla of the former is flatter; and the calyx, cleft to its base into narrow segments, is very rounded below, and covered with stiff, hooked bristles. The plant flowers from June to August.

We conclude this chapter with the names of four species of Grasses that are partial to wooded districts, and which flower during the summer months. They are the Millet Grass (Milium effusum), the Bearded Wheat (Triticum caninum), the Slender False Brome (Brachypodium sylvaticum), and the Hairy Brome Grass (Bromus asper). The first three of these are represented on pages [148] and [149], and the fourth is shown on [Plate II].

Plate III.

FLOWERS OF THE WAYSIDE.

• 1. Round-leaved Crane's-bill.
• 2. Black Horehound.
• 3. Evergreen Alkanet.
• 4. Bristly Ox-tongue.
• 5. Red Bartsia.
• 6. Annual Meadow Grass.
• 7. Hemlock Stork's-bill.

[XI]
WASTES AND WAYSIDES IN SUMMER

It will probably have been noticed that several of the spring flowers of our waysides and waste places continue to bloom into the summer. Descriptions of these will, of course, not be repeated here, but, for the convenience of those who are endeavouring to identify flowers which have been gathered during the summer months, we append a list of the species referred to:

Plants of the Wayside and Waste Ground that bloom during both Spring and Summer

• Greater Celandine.
• Shepherd's Purse.
• Yellow Rocket.
• Early Winter Cress.
• Thale Cress.
• Wild Turnip.
• Procumbent Pearlwort.
• Lesser Stitchwort.
• Mouse-ear Chickweed.
• Dove's-foot Crane's-bill.
• Jagged-leaved Crane's-bill.
• Herb Robert.
• Black Medick.
• Bird's-foot.
• Bush Vetch.
• Chervil.
• Mouse-ear Hawkweed.
• Groundsel.
• Common Speedwell.
• Wall Speedwell.
• Field Speedwell.
• Gray Field Speedwell.
• White Dead Nettle.
• Red Dead Nettle.
• Cut-leaved Dead Nettle.
• Yellow Pimpernel.
• Annual Meadow Grass.

The flowers described in the present chapter are those which do not, as a rule, bloom before the month of June.

Our first example is the Wild Clematis, Traveller's Joy, or Old Man's Beard (Clematis Vitalba), of the order Ranunculaceæ—a climbing shrub, very common in the hedgerows of the south and centre of England, producing a profusion of white, scented flowers during July and August, and rendered even more conspicuous in the autumn and winter by the dense clusters of feathered fruits. Its stem is woody and often very thick at the base; and the annual branches climb over the neighbouring plants, clinging by means of the twisted leafstalks. The leaves are opposite, pinnate, with three or five stalked, ovate or cordate leaflets; and the flowers are in loose, axillary or terminal panicles. The latter have four greenish-white sepals; no petals; numerous stamens; and many one-seeded carpels, each of which, when ripe, is tipped by the persistent style that has become very long and feathered.

The Wild Clematis.

The Hedge Mustard.

The Common Hedge Mustard (Sisymbrium officinale—order Cruciferæ) is a very common roadside plant, with stems and leaves so closely set with hairs that they effectually hold the dust. It bears small, yellow flowers, which appear during June and July; and it may be easily distinguished from allied plants by its long and narrow, downy, tapering pods, which lie close against the stem. Its stem grows from one to two feet high, and is freely branched.

The Felix Weed (S. Sophia) of the same genus is moderately common, grows to about the same height, and bears small, greenish-yellow flowers from June to August. The stem of this plant is only slightly hairy, slender, erect, and branched; and the leaves are divided in a pinnate manner, with long, narrow segments similarly cut. In this genus the sepals are longer than the petals; and the narrow, tapering fruits are constricted between the numerous seeds.

The Dyer's Weed, also known as the Dyer's Rocket and the Yellow Weed (Reseda luteola), is a plant of a habit similar to that of the Wild Mignonette, and belongs to the same order (Resedaceæ), but may be distinguished from the latter by its four sepals and four petals. It owes its popular names to the fact that it was formerly employed for the purpose of dyeing woollen fabrics. This is a common wayside plant, especially in calcareous districts, and often reaches a height of three feet, flowering during July and August.

Passing to the order Caryophyllaceæ, we note the Deptford Pink (Dianthus Armeria)—a downy plant, a foot or more in height, with an erect, slightly-branched stem; and very narrow, opposite leaves, from one to three inches long, joined together at the base, and mostly acute at the tip. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are rose-coloured with white spots, and are grouped in terminal clusters, with a very narrow, pointed bract below each calyx, usually as long as the calyx itself. This plant is to be found principally on dry banks and on waste ground, but it is not common.

The Felix Weed.

The Red Campion (Lychnis diurna) is common on the banks of wayside ditches, as well as in copses and other moist and shady places. It has a hairy stem, from one to two feet high; hairy, ovate leaves in pairs; and red (rarely white), unisexual flowers which close at night. The male and female flowers are on separate plants. The former have ten stamens; and the latter a superior ovary which ripens to a globular capsule with five teeth that spread horizontally or even curve downwards. In both the calyx is tubular, with five triangular teeth; and the petals have spreading, deeply-notched limbs. The plant flowers during June and July.

The Dyer's Weed.

Three species of Mallow (order Malvaceæ) are more or less common by waysides and on waste ground. They are all interesting plants, with large, regular, attractive flowers; and stipuled leaves which are palmately lobed and veined. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, the latter being very curiously twisted in the bud. The stamens, five in number, are freely branched, and are also raised on a tubular structure as the flower matures, so that they appear like a large number of stamens with united filaments. The ovary consists of many carpels, with as many styles; and the fruit splits into a number of one-seeded parts arranged radially.

The Common Mallow (Malva sylvestris) is a strong, erect, downy plant, from two to three feet high, with branched stem. The flowers are axillary, large and showy, of a pale purple or a lilac colour, marked with crimson veins; and the fruit is smooth.

The Deptford Pink.

The Dwarf Mallow (M. rotundifolia) is about as common, and grows in similar situations, but it is a smaller plant, with prostrate stems from six inches to a foot long. The leaves are cordate or almost round, divided into five or seven shallow, crenate lobes. The flowers are smaller than those of M. sylvestris, being generally less than an inch in diameter, of a pale lilac colour; and the fruit is hairy. Both species flower from June to September.

It is interesting to note that these two flowers, which frequently grow together on the same waste ground, and consequently have to compete with one another in the general struggle for existence, are pollinated in totally different ways, the one (M. sylvestris) by the aid of insects, and the other (M. rotundifolia) probably almost always self-pollinated. In both these flowers the stamens are mounted on the top of a tube as above described; and in both the stamens are crowded round the numerous styles while the flower is yet young, so that insects which visit the flower for nectar can hardly fail to dust themselves with pollen. In M. sylvestris, however, the stamens are mature before the stigmas, and the former droop, thus bringing the anthers below the level of the stigmas, so that the flower could hardly fertilise itself even if anthers and stigmas matured simultaneously. But later the styles bend downwards, thus bringing the stigmas to the position of the withered stamens in order to catch the pollen brought by insects from other flowers. Further, the pollen cells of this species are covered with minute hooks by means of which they attach themselves to the hairy legs of bees.

The Red Campion.

The anthers and stigmas of M. rotundifolia are both matured together; and the styles lengthen, and bend downwards, causing the stigmas to twine themselves among the numerous stamens in such a manner that the flower can hardly fail to fertilise itself. Further, if we watch the flowers of these two species on a sunny day, we find that insects visit the flowers of M. sylvestris freely, while they are seldom attracted to the smaller and less conspicuous blooms of M. rotundifolia.

The third species referred to is the Musk Mallow (M. moschata), so called from the musky odour given off from all parts of the plant, especially when rubbed or crushed. It is often seen in hedgerows, but is not so common as the other two just described, and seems to be rather partial to gravelly soils. The plant is hairy, of a pale green colour, with an erect stem from two to three feet high. The flowers are large and beautiful, of a rich rose colour, and crowded towards the top of the stem. The fruit is hairy. A white variety is occasionally seen, and this is not uncommonly grown as a garden flower. The time of flowering is July and August.

The Common Mallow.

Some three species of Geranium (order Geraniaceæ) have already been described among the spring wayside flowers, and these were listed at the commencement of the present chapter as continuing to bloom during the summer; but now we have to note other interesting flowers of this and an allied genus as essentially summer bloomers.

The first of these is the Round-leaved Crane's-bill (Geranium rotundifolium), which rather closely resembles the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but is not nearly so plentiful. It is a downy plant, growing from six to twelve inches high, and flowering in June and July. The flowers are usually nearly half an inch across, of a pink colour; and the petals are not notched. This species is represented on [Plate III], Fig. 1.

In dry pastures and on stony wastes we may see the Bloody Crane's-bill (Geranium sanguineum), which, though not common, is very widely distributed in Britain. It has a thick, woody stock; numerous more or less decumbent stems, from one to two feet long, clothed with spreading hairs; and round leaves, divided quite to the base into five or seven deeply-cut segments. The flowers are solitary, dark crimson (occasionally pink) in colour, with hairy sepals terminating in fine points; slightly notched petals about twice as long as the sepals; and ten stamens, five of which are larger, and glandular at the base. This species flowers during July and August.

The Musk Mallow.

The Small-flowered Crane's-bill (G. pusillum) also resembles the Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, but its flowers are usually smaller—about a third of an inch in diameter—and of a pale lilac colour. The stems are prostrate and downy, from six to eighteen inches long; and the leaves roundish and deeply lobed. The sepals terminate in a sharp point, and the petals are notched. This is a very common species, which flowers throughout the summer.

British wild flowers of the Geranium family are divided into two groups, known popularly as the Crane's-bills and the Stork's-bills, the former constituting the genus Geranium, of which several flowers have been described; and the latter forming the genus Erodium. These two groups are sometimes confused by young botanists, but may be easily distinguished by the aid of the following notes:—The flowers of the Crane's-bills are symmetrical, while the petals of the Stork's-bills are rather unequal in size and sometimes deficient. In the former there are ten stamens, five of which are alternately larger, as previously mentioned; while the latter have five perfect stamens, glandular at their bases, and five alternating, abortive ones. Further, in the genus Geranium the persistent styles are straight, while in the Stork's-bills they are twisted spirally.

The Bloody Crane's-Bill

The manner in which the seeds of Stork's-bills are dispersed is particularly interesting:—When the fruit is ripe the carpels separate, and the twisted styles are gradually released from one another, from below upwards, till the fruit is finally set free and blown away by the wind. The carpels thus detached are each furnished with a long style, the lower portion of which is coiled like a corkscrew, while the upper part is straighter but bent to one side. Now, these styles are hygroscopic—that is, they are influenced by changes in the condition of the atmosphere as regards moisture. This may easily be shown by placing the fruit in an upright position on a piece of white card, and fixing it so with a little spot of glue or gum, so that the bent upper end of the style is free and serves as a little pointer. If now the open mouth be placed close over the carpel, and moist air be breathed upon it, the corkscrew will partially uncoil, causing the pointer to turn; and as the carpel dries again the pointer will resume its former position.

Again, if the carpel be placed horizontally on a sheet of rough paper (not fixed), and then alternately treated with moist and drier air, the successive uncoiling and coiling of the spiral, together with the aid of the bent tip and the hairs which give the carpel a hold, will cause it to travel along. Thus, in its natural condition, and influenced by the varying state of the atmosphere as regards moisture, the carpels of the Stork's-bill will not only travel some distance from the parent plant, but the seed end will even be thrust between the particles of soil, and the seed thus naturally buried.

There are three British Stork's-bills, of which only one may be described as common. This is the Hemlock Stork's-bill (Erodium cicutarium), a very variable plant as regards the form of the leaves and the size and number of flowers, often plentiful in waste places, especially near the sea. Its stems are prostrate and hairy, growing from six to eighteen inches in length; and the flowers, which may be seen throughout the summer, are rose-coloured, or, sometimes, white. The petals are not divided or notched, and they soon fall.

Passing now to the order Leguminosæ, we deal first with the exceedingly pretty and common Bird's-foot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), that derives its popular name from the arrangement of the cylindrical seed-pods, which spread in such a manner as to resemble the toes of a bird. Its stems are partially prostrate; and its compound leaves are not composed of three leaflets, as the term trefoil suggests, but of five, two of which occupy such a position that they might be mistaken for stipules. The flowers, which bloom in July and August, are of a bright yellow or orange colour, often tinged with red. They are arranged in umbels of from three to ten, with long peduncles and short pedicels.

The Fruit of the Stork's-Bill.

The genus Vicia, of the same order, includes the plants commonly known as Tares. These are climbing plants which cling by means of tendrils at the tips of their pinnate leaves, and have their flowers in axillary clusters. Their styles are threadlike, with a ring or a tuft of downy hairs near the extremity; and the pods are flattened.

Two species may be included among our summer wayside flowers, one of which—the Hairy Tare (Vicia hirsuta)—is very common in fields and hedges, flowering from June to August. The stems of this plant are slender, hairy, and are so much branched that they form tangled masses, often mixed up in a confused manner with neighbouring plants. The leaves have from six to eight pairs of leaflets; and the minute, pale blue flowers, in clusters of from one to six, are on long peduncles. The pods have only two seeds, and are hairy and sessile.

The Hemlock Stork's-Bill.

The other Tare referred to is the Slender Tare (V. tetrasperma), found principally in the South of England. It owes its specific name to the fact that its pods usually contain four seeds. It is more slender and much less branched than the Hairy Tare, and its leaves have generally only from three to five pairs of leaflets. The flowers are pale blue, appearing from June to August, and are generally solitary or in pairs, on peduncles which are about as long as the leaves. The pods are smooth.

The Bird's-Foot Trefoil.

The same genus includes the Tufted Vetch (Vicia Cracca)—a very common plant on hedgerows and bushy waysides, where it climbs over the neighbouring plants and shrubs, covering them with its dense racemes of bluish-purple flowers from June to August. Its climbing stem is very weak, but it often grows to a length of six feet or more, supporting itself by means of the branched tendrils at the tips of its leaves. The leaves are pinnate, with about ten pairs of narrow, pointed, silky leaflets, usually from half an inch to three-quarters in length; and at the base of each leaf-stalk is a pair of narrow, half arrow-shaped stipules. The racemes are one-sided, on rather long stalks, with from ten to thirty flowers, each nearly half an inch long. The pods are smooth, flattened, about an inch long, containing from six to eight seeds.

The Herb Bennet or Geum.

Of the order Rosaceæ we have several summer wayside flowers, our first example being the Common Avens, also called the Wood Avens and the Herb Bennet (Geum urbanum), which is common on banks and hedgerows. This is an erect, hairy plant, from one to two feet high, with yellow flowers, from a half to three-quarters of an inch across, on erect stalks. The numerous carpels ripen into a head of one-seeded achenes, on each of which the persistent style forms a curved, hooked awn that readily clings to the hair or wool of animals, thus providing an effectual means by which the seeds are distributed. A variety of the Common Avens occurs with drooping flowers.

The Dog Rose.

The Silver Weed.

The Dog Rose (Rosa canina) is one of the prettiest and most abundant flowers of our hedgerows, and may be seen in bloom throughout June and July. The bush has a thick, woody stock; and weak, straggling stems, often reaching a height of six or eight feet, armed with equal, curved prickles. The flowers are pink or white, with a calyx consisting of a globular tube, contracted at the top, and five spreading segments; a corolla of five petals; numerous stamens; and an ovary of several one-seeded carpels with free styles. The carpels are very hairy, and are enclosed within the tube of the calyx, which becomes red and succulent as the fruit ripens; but the calyx segments usually fall before the ripening is complete.

The Agrimony.

The Silver Weed (Potentilla anserina), of the same order, is one of the commonest of our roadside flowers, rendered more conspicuous by its pretty, silvery leaves than by its solitary, yellow flowers. It has a creeping stem, from six to twelve inches long, which bears pinnate leaves. The leaflets are deeply serrated, and densely covered beneath (and sometimes also above) with soft, silky hairs.

Two of the Cinquefoils are very common by roadsides. These are the Hoary Cinquefoil (Potentilla argentea), and the Creeping Cinquefoil (Potentilla reptans). The first of these is a partially prostrate plant, with stem from six to eighteen inches long; and digitate leaves with five, wedge-shaped leaflets. The leaflets are rendered white beneath by woolly hairs that lie close against the surface, and their edges are curled backwards. The flowers, which bloom in June and July, are yellow, small, and clustered.

The Creeping Cinquefoil has a slender stem that creeps on the ground and forms new roots at the nodes. Its leaves are digitate and long-stalked, with five obovate, serrate, hairy leaflets. The flowers are yellow, solitary, nearly an inch in diameter, with five sepals and five petals.

On banks we frequently meet with the Agrimony (Agrimonia Eupatoria), a slender plant, from one to two feet high, covered with soft hairs, and bearing long, tapering, spikelike racemes of small, scattered, yellow flowers during June and July. This plant may be readily identified by means of our illustration.

One of the Willow Herbs—the Broad Smooth-leaved Willow Herb (Epilobium montanum)—is common on roadside banks, flowering during June and July. Its stems are slender, downy, and generally unbranched; and the leaves are opposite, stalked (the lower ones almost stalkless), ovate, acute, with serrate edges, and smooth except along the margins and the principal veins, which are more or less downy. The plant grows to a height of one or two feet, and bears small, pale-purple flowers which droop when in the bud. It belongs to the order Onagraceæ; and, like the others of its genus, has four sepals, four petals, eight stamens, and a long inferior ovary which splits into four valves, setting free a large number of little, tufted seeds.

The order Crassulaceæ contains a number of low, succulent plants, with small, regular, star-like flowers. Some of them are well known as Stonecrops and House-leeks. Those of the Stonecrop group usually have cymes of flowers with perianth leaves in whorls of five, and stamens in two whorls.

One member of this group—the Orpine or Livelong (Sedum Telephium)—is not uncommonly found on shady wayside banks, especially near villages and on the outskirts of towns, where it is probably an escape from gardens. Its leaves are large, flat, oval or oblong, with serrate edges. The flowers have five sepals and five petals, are of a purple or crimson colour, and are clustered in close cymes.

We have now to consider several species of the order Umbelliferæ—a group of flowers which contains so many species, with often such close resemblances in general appearance, that it is always more or less puzzling to the beginner, especially as it is frequently necessary to note minute details of structure in order to determine a species.

The leading characteristic of the order is that denoted by its name; for the flowers, which are generally very small and white, are arranged in umbels. In a few instances these umbels are simple; but in most they are compound—that is, the stalks which radiate from the same point on the main peduncle, and thus form the primary umbel, give rise to the lesser stalks of the secondary umbels, which are similarly arranged and bear the flowers. There are often bracts at the base of the primary umbel, in which case they are termed the primary bracts; and there are frequently secondary bracts or involucels at the bases of the secondary umbels.

The Orpine or Livelong.

The flowers have a superior calyx; with five teeth; but this is often so inconspicuous that it appears like a mere rim round the top of the ovary. There are also five petals, which generally have their points turned inwards; and five stamens. The inferior ovary consists of two united carpels, surmounted by a fleshy disc that supports the petals and the stamens, and bears two styles.

Special attention must be given to the structure of the fruits of umbellifers, for a close examination of these is often necessary for purposes of identification. The two carpels are close together, with their adjacent surfaces flattened, and are fixed to a central axis called the carpophore. As the fruit ripens, the carpophore often divides, from above downwards, becoming Y-shaped; and the carpels, thus separated, are for a time suspended on its two arms. Each carpel is marked by vertical ridges, generally nine in number, five of them (primary ridges) being more prominent than the four intermediate or secondary ridges. The ridge on each side of the carpel, nearest to the fissure that divides the fruit into two parts, is often extended so as to form wings by means of which wind-distribution is greatly facilitated; and between the various ridges are the furrows of the fruit. In addition to these features, there are often narrow, light-coloured streaks running parallel with the ridges, in the walls of the fruit. There are usually six of these in each carpel, sometimes more than one in the same furrow, and they mark the positions of narrow oil-sacs or vittæ. Each carpel contains only one seed.

The Fool's Parsley.

As to the general characters of the plants, it may also be noted that the stems of the Umbelliferæ are jointed, and frequently hollow; also that the leaves are pinnately divided, and often decompound (compound, with compound leaflets).

The Wild Parsnip.

Our first example of this family is the common Hemlock (Conium maculatum) of hedges and waste ground—a very graceful plant, with a much-branched stem that grows from two to six or more feet in height. It is distinguished by a fœtid odour and poisonous properties. Its stem is slender in proportion to the height, furrowed, smooth, and spotted with purple or red. The flowers are white, with hardly a trace of a calyx, and arranged in compound umbels, with three small bracts on one side of the secondary umbels. The fruit is short, swollen, and slightly flattened laterally; and the carpels, without vittæ, have each five thick, waved ridges. The Hemlock flowers during June and July.

The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed.

Several of the common umbelliferous plants are called the Fool's Parsley by those who are unable to distinguish between species, but this name is correctly applied only to Æthusa cynapium, a smooth, leafy plant, with an unpleasant odour and poisonous properties. The plant grows from a foot to eighteen inches high, flowers during July and August, and is common in cultivated ground as well as in wastes and by waysides. It may be recognised at once by the help of our illustration; but we call special attention to the three, long, drooping bracts on the outer side of each secondary umbel.

On roadside banks, particularly in chalky districts, we may often meet with the Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). This is an erect, downy plant, with a tap root; and angular, hollow stem from two to three feet high. Its leaves are pinnate, glossy above and downy beneath, with five or seven ovate, sessile, cut and serrate leaflets, and sheathing petioles. The umbels are terminal, without primary or secondary bracts; and the flowers are small, of a bright yellow colour, producing flattened, winged fruits. The flowers bloom during July and August.

The Cow Parsnip or Hogweed (Heracleum Sphondylium) is somewhat similar in general appearance, but is much stouter, and grows to a height of four or five feet. Its stem is hairy and channelled; and the leaves have a few broad, lobed, serrate leaflets with a rough, hairy surface. The flowers, which bloom during July and August, are of a reddish white colour, and have unequal petals.

The Upright Hedge Parsley (Torilis Anthriscus or Caucalis Anthriscus) is a slender plant, with an erect, solid, rough stem, from two to three feet high. Its leaves are hairy, bipinnate, with lobed and toothed, ovate or oblong leaflets. The white or pale pink flowers are arranged in long-stalked, terminal umbels of from about six to twelve rays, with several primary and secondary bracts. The fruits are armed with bristles which, though not hooked, are slightly bent inwards. This is a very common hedgerow plant, flowering from July to September.

The Honeysuckle.

Our last example of the Umbelliferæ is the Rough Chervil (Chærophyllum temulum), which is very common in hedgerows, among the undergrowth of woods, and in other shady places. It has a slender stem, from one to three feet high, swollen at the joints, spotted with purple, and rendered rough by short hairs. The leaves, which are also rough and spotted, are bipinnate, with ovate leaflets that are cut into segments terminating abruptly in a sharp point; and they assume a rich purple tint that makes the plant a conspicuous object in the autumn. The flowers are white, in terminal compound umbels which droop in the bud. The bracts are few in number or altogether absent, but there are several secondary bracts which are fringed and bent downwards.

Passing now to the order Caprifoliaceæ, we have to deal with the well-known and favourite Honeysuckle or Woodbine (Lonicera periclymenum), so highly prized on account of its lovely fragrant flowers. It is a climbing plant, often reaching a height of ten or twelve feet, supporting itself by twining its woody stem round surrounding shrubs and trees in hedges and the open spaces of woods. The beautiful flowers, which are yellow within, and more or less tinged with red outside, are arranged in terminal, stalked heads; and the united petals form widely-gaping lips. The plant blooms from June to September, and displays its crimson berries in the autumn.

Two other species of Honeysuckle occur in our hedges, but neither of these is common. One is the Upright Honeysuckle, which has an erect stem; downy, stalked leaves; and pale yellow, scentless flowers that grow in pairs in the axils of the leaves. The other is the Perfoliate Honeysuckle, so called because its upper leaves are united at their bases, with the stem running through them. In this one the flower-heads have no stalks.

The Great Hedge Bedstraw.

In the Bedstraw family (order Rubiaceæ) we have two very common, hedgerow plants—the Great Hedge Bedstraw (Galium Mollugo) and the Goose-grass or Cleavers (G. Aparine). The first is a very straggling plant, with a square stem, thickened at the joints, that often reaches a length of four or five feet. Its leaves are elliptical, with apex terminating suddenly in a bristle-like point, and margins roughened by prickles that are either at right angles or pointing more or less forward. They are arranged in whorls, usually of eight, but sometimes six. The little white flowers, which bloom during July and August, are arranged in panicles with spreading branches, the lower of which are either horizontal or bent downward. The fruit is smooth.

The Goose Grass is so named because it is eaten by geese; and it is also known as the Cleavers because its fruits, which are covered with hooked bristles, cling tenaciously to our clothing and to the covering of animals. Its straggling stem often reaches a length of four or five feet, and forms tangled masses with the stems and leaves of other hedgerow plants. The leaves are narrow and keeled; and the small, white flowers are arranged in small axillary clusters of two or three. The whole plant is rough with hooked bristles.

The Teasel.

We conclude this chapter with a description of the common Teasel (Dipsacus sylvestris) of the order Dipsaceæ. This is really a very graceful plant, rarely less than three or four feet high, and sometimes reaching six feet or more. Its stem is very stout and prickly; and its large bright green leaves are simple, sessile, and arranged in opposite pairs. They are prickly beneath, and the two leaves of each pair are united at their bases in such a manner that they form hollows in which the rain-water collects. The reservoirs so formed often contain drowned insects which have flown or fallen into the water, or which have been washed down the stem by the rain. Their dead bodies decompose, giving rise to nitrogenous and other products of decay which generally discolour the water. These products are valuable as plant food, and it has been said that they are absorbed by the leaves. The flowers of the Teasel are collected in large heads, covered with straight, stiff bristles, and have an involucre of bracts which curve upwards. The flowers are of a pale purple colour. They commence to open near the middle of the head, forming a horizontal circle; and then they expand both upwards and downwards from this level. The flowers are not conspicuous individually, nor does each individual flower produce much pollen; but the large heads of bloom attract numerous insects which climb about among the flowers in search of nectar, covering their bodies with pollen, and thus aiding the process of fertilisation.

Teasel-heads.
1, 2, and 3 are successive flowering stages. 4, The elongated head in fruit.

[XII]
WAYSIDES AND WASTES IN SUMMER (Continued)

Composite Flowers

There are so many flowers of the order Compositæ in bloom by the wayside and on waste ground during the summer months that we devote a chapter entirely to them.

This group is the largest of the natural orders, and is computed to contain about a tenth of all the known flowering plants. The chief distinguishing characteristic of the order is the arrangement of the flowers into crowded heads, each consisting of a number of little flowers or florets that are sessile on a common receptacle, as in the case of the Daisy, the Dandelion, and the Thistles.

The florets of each head or capitulum are generally arranged into two well-defined sets—the florets of the disc, occupying the centre; and the florets of the ray, spreading more or less in a radial manner from the edge of the disc. These two sets are often of different colours, as in the Daisy, where the disc florets are of a deep yellow, while the ray florets are white or pink.

In some of the Composites all the florets of each head are perfect, while in others some are perfect and some imperfect. Then, as regards the latter, they may be staminate or male florets, with no pistil; pistillate or female flowers, with no stamens; or neuter florets, possessing neither stamens nor pistil. In some few cases all the florets of one head are staminate, while the pistillate florets alone form other heads; and in these instances the two kinds of heads may be found on one plant, or only one kind may exist on the same plant. In all cases the capitulum is surrounded by one or more whorls of bracts which are often closely overlapping.

The florets seldom possess a distinguishable calyx, but there is sometimes an indication of the presence of five sepals; in many, however, the calyx is represented by a whorl of hairs on the summit of the ovary. Such a whorl is known as the pappus, and it frequently enlarges as the fruit ripens, forming a kind of parachute that allows the fruit to be carried great distances by the wind. The hairs of the pappus are often sessile on the fruit, but sometimes mounted on the summit of a slender stalk, as in the Dandelion. Further, the hairs which constitute the pappus may be simple or feathered.

Capitulum or Flower-head of the Marigold, showing the involucre or whorl of overlapping bracts.

The corolla frequently consists of five petals, united into a tube with as many teeth; but it is often ligulate or strap-shaped, in which case the presence of five petals is often denoted by five minute teeth at the tip.

Where stamens exist they are five in number, attached to the petals, and the anthers are generally united in such a manner that they form a tube within the tube of the corolla.

Florets of a Composite Flower.
In fig. 1 the corolla is strap-shaped; in fig. 2 it is tubular.

Fertilisation is brought about much in the same way in many of the composite flowers:—The anthers open inwards, discharging their pollen within the tube formed by themselves, and just above the stigma which, as yet, is immature. The style then lengthens, pushing its way up through the anther-tube, and brushing up the pollen by means of the tufts of hairs on its surface. At this stage a dense cluster of pollen cells, completely covering the top of the style, may be seen projecting above the tube of the corolla, and the pollen is sooner or later scattered, the distribution being aided greatly by the various insects which visit the flowers. The upper part of the style now divides into two parts, and the branches diverge, exposing the stigmatic surfaces which form the inner sides of the fork. It will thus be seen that the florets are not self-pollinated, since the stigma is generally mature after the pollen has all been removed from the same flower.

Our first example of this order is the Yellow Goat's-beard (Tragopogon pratensis), also known as Jack-go-to-bed-at-noon. This is a common wayside plant, of a glaucous green colour, with a milky sap. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, and the whole plant is smooth. The flower-heads are solitary, large, yellow, and surrounded by a single row of narrow bracts that are united below; and the peduncle is thickened at the top. The bracts are generally as long as the florets, and the latter usually close about the middle of the day. The fruit is long and narrow, with longitudinal ridges; and the pappus consists of rows of feathery hairs which interlock and form a very shallow cup. The flowers bloom during June and July.

The Yellow Goat's-Beard.

The Bristly Ox-tongue (Helminthia echioides or Picris echioides), also a common plant, is more or less covered with rigid, hooked bristles, each of which arises from a swollen, white base; and it has a milky sap. The stem is stout, branched, very bristly, and grows from two to three feet high. The leaves are simple and toothed, the upper ones cordate and embracing the stem, and the lower ones auricled or eared. The heads are terminal, consisting of yellow, ligulate florets, surrounded by five large cordate bracts. The fruit is brown, curved, with transverse ridges and a stalked pappus of feathery hairs. This species flowers from June to September. It is shown on [Plate III].

In the same genus we have the Hawkweed Picris (P. hieracoides) which bears yellow flowers from June to September. Its stem, more slender than that of the last species, is from two to three feet high, branched towards the top, and rough with hooked bristles; and the leaves are lanceolate and toothed. There are numerous heads of flowers, about an inch in diameter, usually arranged in a corymb, but sometimes in an umbel, and there are bracts on the peduncles.

The Hawkweek Picris.

The Strong-scented or Acrid Lettuce (Lactuca virosa) is moderately common on dry wastes. It is an acrid, glaucous, leafy and prickly plant, with a milky juice. Its erect stem grows to a height of three or four feet. Its leaves are spreading, obovate in form, with toothed margins, and bristly hairs on the under side of the midrib. The lower leaves are frequently marked with dark spots, and the upper ones have pointed auricles which clasp the stem. The heads of flowers are small, pale yellow, and arranged in a loose, spreading panicle. The bracts overlap, the outer ones being shorter, and the receptacle is flat. Each head contains only a few florets. The fruit is flattened, black, with a beak as long as itself and a pappus of many simple hairs. The flowers appear during July and August.

Another Lettuce, known as the Prickly Lettuce (L. Scariola), is somewhat rare. It is really less prickly than the last species, but is equally tall, and flowers during the same months. Its leaves are erect, lanceolate, sagittate, with a wavy margin; and the upper ones clasp the stem. The fruit of this species is of a greyish colour, and has a beak of the same length.

Two species of Sow-thistle (genus Sonchus) are included among our wayside Composites. They are erect, succulent plants, from two to three feet in height, with a milky juice, and either toothed or pinnatifid leaves. Their flower-heads are yellow, arranged in a corymb, and bloom during the whole of the summer. Each head is surrounded by several rows of overlapping bracts, and the receptacle is flat and pitted. The fruits are considerably flattened, without beaks; and the pappus consists of several rows of fine, silky, unbranched hairs.

The Prickly Lettuce.

One species is known as the Sharp-fringed Sow-thistle or the Common Milk-thistle (S. oleraceus). Its leaves are sometimes deeply divided, but always more or less toothed; and the teeth often terminate in sharp prickles. The upper ones clasp the stem, and have spreading, arrow-shaped ears. The stem is branched and hollow; and the fruit is ribbed and transversely wrinkled.

The second is the Common Sow-thistle (S. asper)—a very similar plant, but may be distinguished by its leaves, which are more spinously toothed, with rounded ears. In this one the fruits are also ribbed, but they are not wrinkled transversely.

The Smooth Hawk's-beard (Crepis virens) has a furrowed, branched stem, from a few inches to three feet in height. Its spreading radical leaves are deeply toothed, and narrower towards the base; and the stem leaves are narrow and sagittate. The numerous small heads of yellow flowers are panicled, and the outer florets are often tinged with red. The heads are surrounded by two rows of bracts, the outer of which are shorter and narrower, and the whole involucre assumes a conical form after flowering. The fruit is shorter than the pappus; tapering, but not beaked; and the pappus consists of several rows of unbranched, silky hairs. This plant flowers during July and August. It is very common on waste land, and may be frequently seen growing on old walls, and even on the roofs of country cottages and out-houses.

The Sharp-Fringed Sow-Thistle.

The genus Hieracium (Hawkweeds) is a puzzle not only to the beginner, but also to experienced botanists, who have not yet agreed as to its division into species. According to some authorities these latter amount to seven, but they, or rather some of them, are so variable, and present so many intermediate characters, that some botanists divide the British members into no less than thirty-three species.

All the plants of the group agree in the following particulars:—They have a milky sap. The leaves are nearly all radical. The flower-heads are either yellow or orange, surrounded by several rows of overlapping bracts. The receptacle is pitted. The fruit is not beaked, and its pappus consists of a single row of rigid, brittle, brownish hairs, which are simple and of unequal lengths.

One species at least is a common wayside flower, and this is the Shrubby Hawkweed (H. boreale). It grows from two to four feet high, and bears a corymb of many yellow heads, from July to September. Its stem is hairy below, downy with fine branched hairs above, and bears rigid, erect branches which are leafy, and often of a reddish colour. This species has no radical leaves. The stem leaves are ovate or lanceolate and toothed, the upper ones broad and slightly clasping the stem. The peduncle is scaly or woolly, and the involucre bracts are of a blackish green colour.

The Smooth Hawk's-Beard.

The Nipplewort (Lapsana communis) is another very common Composite of waysides and wastes. Its stem is erect, from one to two feet high, branched, armed with scanty stiff hairs below, and smooth above. The leaves are thin and usually hairy, the lower ones ovate, pinnatifid or coarsely-toothed, with a few smaller lobes along the stalks, and the upper ones small, and entire or only slightly toothed. The flower-heads are small, yellow, in a loose panicle with long slender stalks. The involucre consists of about eight glaucous scales, about a quarter of an inch in length, and a whorl of small outer ones. The fruits are flattened, with many longitudinal nervures, and have no pappus. The flowers may be seen from July to September.

The Chicory or Succory (Cichorium Intybus) is a local plant, but often very abundant where it exists. It has a long tap root; and a strong, erect, bristly and sticky stem. The lower leaves are spreading and hairy, deeply divided, with a large terminal lobe, and smaller lateral lobes which are pointed and coarsely toothed. The upper leaves are lanceolate, clasping the stem, with pointed auricles. The flower-heads are of a bright blue colour, large and conspicuous, mostly in sessile clusters of two or three along the rigid, spreading branches, but a few are terminal. The involucre consists of about eight inner bracts, and a whorl of outer ones that are much shorter. The florets are large; and the fruits are smooth, or nearly so, and closely enveloped in the lower part of the involucre. The time of flowering is from July to October.

The Nipplewort.

Our next species is the Burdock (Arctium Lappa), familiar as a wayside plant not only on account of its abundance and its large size, but also on account of its globular flower-heads which cling so tenaciously to our clothing by means of the hooked points of the inner involucre bracts. It is a very stout, branching plant, varying from two to six feet in height, with very large, stalked, cordate lower leaves that often exceed a foot in length. The upper leaves are smaller, and broadly ovate; and both these and the lower ones are smooth or nearly so on the upper surface, but often covered with a short white down beneath. All the leaves are also finely toothed, but bear no prickles. The flower-heads are in terminal panicles, and are surrounded by many bracts which are either quite smooth or covered with a white, woolly down. The florets are purple, and all equal in size. The fruits are large, and bear a short pappus of stiff hairs.

We now come to the interesting group of Thistles, all distinguished by their very hard stems; their cut or toothed leaves, which are generally very prickly; and their round or oval heads of flowers, surrounded by many whorls of overlapping, and usually prickly, bracts. There are no ray florets, but all are tubular and approximately equal in length.

Our first example is the Welted Thistle (Carduus crispus or Carduus acanthoides), which is a common plant in the South of England, but much less abundant in the North. In general appearance it closely resembles the Musk Thistle (p. [266]), but is usually taller. The stem is covered with prickles which run downwards in lines from the bases of the leaves. The flowers are purple, in small, globular, clustered heads, which droop slightly; and the numerous bracts of the involucre are narrow, more or less erect, and terminate in a spreading or hooked prickle. The pappus consists of rough, unbranched hairs. The above is the description of the commonest form of this thistle, but it is a very variable species. The plants vary from one to three feet in height, and flower from June to August.

The Burdock.

Throughout the summer we may meet with the Spear Thistle (C. lanceolatus), a very abundant species which grows on almost all waste places. The plant is a stout one, varying from about one to five feet in height, with a winged, prickly stem. The leaves are cut into short, narrow lobes, with a long and pointed terminal one. They are covered above with stiff hairs, and below with a white down; and all the lobes terminate in stiff spines. The involucre is oval in form, covered with cottony down; and its bracts are lanceolate, terminating with a stiff, spreading spine. The flower-heads are few in number, with purple florets, and measure about an inch and a quarter in diameter.

The Spear Thistle.

Another common species is the Creeping Thistle (C. arvensis), which has a perennial, creeping rootstock that gives off erect annual stems from two to four feet in height. The stem is not winged, but the prickly leaves clasp it, and sometimes extend a little way down at their bases. The leaves are narrow, smooth, with edges turned inwards, very prickly, and cut into numerous narrow lobes. The flower-heads are small, arranged in loose terminal clusters, and are surrounded by numerous, closely-placed bracts with small, sharp points. The flowers are always imperfect, and the male and female blooms always occur on separate plants. The heads of the male plants are globular in form, with spreading purple florets; while those of the female plant are longer and almost cylindrical in form, with longer bracts and shorter florets. The pappus consists of numerous feathery hairs which grow very long as the fruit ripens. This species flowers during July and August.

The Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is common in the hedgerows of most localities, and is easily recognised by the powerful odour and bitter taste of its leaves and flowers. It has a creeping root; an erect, strong stem, which is either quite smooth or (generally) slightly downy; and large, pinnate leaves, with narrow, deeply-toothed or pinnatifid segments. There are a large number of flower-heads, nearly half an inch in diameter, of a bright yellow colour, and arranged in large flat-topped corymbs. This plant is common in most parts of Britain, grows to a height of about three feet, and flowers during August and September.

The Creeping Thistle.

The Mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) is a very common roadside plant in most districts, valued by many villagers as a remedy for rheumatism. It has a short, woody rootstock; and erect, branching stems varying from two to four feet in height. The leaves are deeply cut into narrow, acute segments which are either coarsely serrate or lobed. They are green and smooth above, but very white with a woolly down below. The flower-heads are very numerous, erect, and arranged in a somewhat crowded, long, terminal panicle. Each head is surrounded by a woolly involucre, and consists of from fifteen to over twenty florets, either all perfect or including a few without stamens. They are oval in form, and of a reddish or yellowish-brown colour. The plant blooms throughout the summer.

The Tansy.

In the same genus is the Absinth or Wormwood (A. Absinthium), which is not so tall or so slender as the last species, from which it may readily be distinguished by its powerful aroma and bitter taste. The whole of the plant is whitish with a close, fine down; and the erect stems, from one to two feet high, are stiff and hard. The leaves are very similar to those of the Mugwort, but are much broader, are silky on both sides, and the narrow lobes of the leaves are blunt at the tips. The flower-heads are also similarly arranged, but they are almost globular in form, very silky, and more or less drooping. The florets are numerous, and of a dull yellow colour, the central ones being mostly fertile, while the outer, without stamens, are small, and often barren. The plant flowers during August and September, is not so common as the last species, but is abundant in districts near the sea.

One of the most conspicuous flowers of the summer is the Common Ragwort (Senecio Jacobæa). It belongs to the same genus as the Groundsel, but differs in having very showy, terminal corymbs of large, bright yellow flowers with spreading rays. Its erect stem does not branch, as a rule, except near the top, and reaches a height of from one to three or four feet. The outer bracts of the involucre are small and few in number, and both these and the inner ones are generally tipped with black. Occasionally we may meet with plants of this species in which the flower-heads have no ray, but in general the ray is well-formed, and consists of about twelve narrow or oblong florets.

The Wormwood.

The Common Feverfew (Matricaria Parthenium or Chrysanthemum Parthenium) is a very abundant wayside flower, of which a double variety is commonly grown in gardens. The plant reaches a foot or more in height, and flowers freely from July to September. The stems are erect and branched; and the leaves are stalked and pinnately divided into ovate or oblong, lobed, toothed segments. The numerous flower-heads are arranged in a corymb, and are about half an inch in diameter, with white ray and yellow disc. The plant may be distinguished from similar species of the same genus by the little toothed border on the summit of the ripe fruits, and by the strong and somewhat pleasant odour of all its parts.

The Ragwort.